Accepted Manuscript

Assessment of Drinking Water Quality and Rural Household Water Treatment in

Balaka District, Malawi

Raphael C. Mkwate, Russel C.G. Chidya, Elijah M.M. Wanda

PII: S1474-7065(16)30108-5
DOI: 10.1016/j.pce.2016.10.006
Reference: JPCE 2522

To appear in: Physics and Chemistry of the Earth

Received Date: 1 June 2016

Revised Date: 10 September 2016
Accepted Date: 3 October 2016

Please cite this article as: Mkwate, R.C., Chidya, R.C.G., Wanda, E.M.M., Assessment of Drinking
Water Quality and Rural Household Water Treatment in Balaka District, Malawi, Physics and Chemistry
of the Earth (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2016.10.006.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Assessment of Drinking Water Quality and Rural Household Water Treatment in

Balaka District, Malawi.

Raphael C. Mkwate a; Russel C.G. Chidya a*, Elijah M.M. Wanda b

a
Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Department of Water Resources Management and
Development, Mzuzu University, P/Bag 201, Luwinga. Mzuzu 2, Malawi.

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b
Department of Chemistry, Mzuzu University, P/Bag 201, Luwinga. Mzuzu 2, Malawi.
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: russelchidya@gmail.com

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ABSTRACT

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Access to drinking water from unsafe sources is widespread amongst communities in
rural areas such as Balaka District in Malawi. This situation puts many individuals and
communities at risk of waterborne diseases despite some households adopting household

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water treatment to improve the quality of the water. However, there still remains data
gaps regarding the quality of drinking water from such sources and the household water
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treatment methods used to improve public health. This study was, therefore, conducted to
help bridge the knowledge gap by evaluating drinking water quality and adoption rate of
household water treatment and storage (HWTS) practices in Nkaya, Balaka District.
Water samples were collected from eleven systematically selected sites and analyzed for
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physico-chemical and microbiological parameters: pH, TDS, electrical conductivity (EC),

turbidity, F-, Cl-, NO3-, Na, K, Fe, Faecal Coliform (FC) and Faecal Streptococcus (FS)
bacteria using standard methods. The mean results were compared to the World Health
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Organization (WHO) and Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS) (MS 733:2005) to

ascertain the water quality for drinking purposes. A total of 204 randomly selected
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households were interviewed to determine their access to drinking water, water quality
perception and HWTS among others. The majority of households (72%, n=83) in
Njerenje accessed water from shallow wells and rivers whilst in Phimbi boreholes were
commonly used. The majority of household (>95%, n=204) were observed to be
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practicing HWST techniques by boiling or chlorination and water storage in closed

containers. The levels of pH (7.10-7.64), F- (0.89-1.46 mg/L), Cl- (5.45-89.84 mg/L),
NO3- (0-0.16 mg/L), Na (20-490 mg/L), K (2.40-14 mg/L) and Fe (0.10-0.40 mg/L) for
most sites were within the standard limits. The EC (358-2220 µS/cm), turbidity (0.54-
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14.60 NTU), FC (0-56 cfu/100 mL) and FS (0-120 cfu/100 mL) - mainly in shallow
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wells, were found to be above the WHO and MBS water quality specifications. The
majority of the water samples (73%, n=11) were classified as of “Intermediate risk” (FC
11-100 cfu/100 mL), hence not suitable for human consumption without prior treatment.
This calls for large scale adoption of HWTS and continued monitoring of the water
sources used in the study areas.

Key words: Balaka; Household Water Treatment; Malawi; Nkaya; Water quality

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

Water is essential for the sustenance of human health. Globally, there has been some
positive trends on improving access to clean and safe drinking water and improved
sanitation under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for the past 15 years
(World Health Organization/United Nations Children’s fund Joint Monitoring Project

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(WHO/UNICEF JMP) Report, 2015; United Nations (UN), 2014; World Health
Organization (WHO), 2011). Currently, efforts to increase access to clean and safe
drinking water, improved sanitation and other development agenda are being championed

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under the newly launched UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015-2030) (UN,
2016). It is reported that about 2.6 billion people globally have gained access to an
improved drinking water source since 1990, with about 96% of the global urban

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population using improved drinking water sources, compared to 84% of the rural
population (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), 2016).
However, access to an improved drinking water source still remained a challenge as of

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2015 since, about 663 million people still lacked improved drinking water source
(WHO/UNICEF JMP Report, 2015).
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Many people worldwide continue to rely on unimproved drinking water sources such as
streams or rivers, and unprotected shallow wells (Onda et al., 2012; WHO/UNICEF JMP,
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2015). Unsafe drinking water, along with inadequate hygiene and sanitation, is a major
contributor to over a million deaths each year - the majority being children under the age
of 5 (WHO 2012). It is reported that at least 80% of all illnesses in developing countries
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is related directly or indirectly to unsafe drinking water, inadequate hygiene, and open
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defecation (Pritchard et al., 2007). Nearly half of the people using unimproved drinking
water sources live in sub-Saharan Africa, while one fifth live in Southern Asia However,
sub-Saharan Africa is reported to have made little progress with 43% of its population
having access to improved drinking water while some developing countries in other
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regions were reported to be off track as far as meeting the drinking water MDGs is
concerned (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015).
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Malawi is one of the countries in the Sub-Saharan region that has made fair progress in
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provision of safe and potable water by about 67% (WHO/UNICEF JMP Report, 2015).
Despite this remarkable achievement the country still faces challenges related to quality
and water supply in some urban and peri-urban areas. The majority of Malawians in rural
areas depend on groundwater for domestic purposes (Government of Malawi (GoM),
2007; GoM, 2013). This is the case since most peri-urban and rural areas are not
connected to piped water supplied by utility providers (Water Boards) due to limitation in
capacity. A number of water quality assessment studies have been conducted in some
districts of Malawi where several shallow wells were reported to be highly contaminated
with faecal bacteria and other pollutants (Mapoma and Xie, 2014; Pritchard et al., 2007;

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Kaonga, 2013; Chidya et al., 2016a, b). Unfortunately, in Malawi and many other
developing countries, water from such contaminated sources is consumed directly
without treatment (GoM, 2011; WHO and UNICEF RADWQ, 2012). Recently, a lot of
boreholes which offer fairly clean and safe water have been sunk with initiatives by
government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies (Kalua
and Chipeta, 2005; GoM, 2011). However, these small community water supplies in rural

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Malawi are not regularly monitored (Kushe, 2009; Grimason et al., 2013) and are
inadequate to meet its population forcing poor people to use unprotected and unsafe
water sources (Pritchard et al., 2007; GoM, 2011). Reports indicate that use of unsafe

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water sources lead to outbreaks of infectious waterborne and other water-related diseases.
For example, a study by Kaluwa and Chipeta (2005) reported that nearly 50% of all
illnesses are related to waterborne diseases in Malawi. Due to continued use of unsafe

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water sources, the household water treatment and storage (HWTS) seems to be a
promising option to the rural poor people.

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A number of studies in some developing countries like Malawi, have shown that HWTS
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is one of the most effective and cost-effective intervention of preventing waterborne
diseases (UNICEF, 2008; GoM, 2013). There are a number of simple, low-cost and
effective methods that households can undertake to improve drinking water quality prior
to consumption. These methods include chlorination, filtration, boiling and solar
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disinfection. These HWTS methods reduce the risk of diarrhea by as much as 47%
(Fewtrell et al, 2005). Currently, there is evidence to suggest that safe water for domestic
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use in the home can reduce diarrheal disease by 6-50%, independent of improved
sanitation or hygiene (Nath et al., 2006; Clasen et al, 2006). Despite the compelling
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benefits for personal health, only 32% of Malawian households are considered to treat
their drinking water appropriately (GoM, 2013). Information on water quality and
household water treatment and safe storage practices in rural and peri-urban areas are not
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well documented for Balaka District. However, such information is significant to aid
policy formulation in water supply, sanitation and improved human health. This study
was conducted to evaluate the physico-chemical water quality and microbial
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contamination of drinking water sources in Traditional Authority (TA) Nkaya in Balaka

district, Malawi. The study also intended to assess use and adoption rate of household
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water treatment and storage practices for sustainable and improved public health in the
area. The results of the study were evaluated in line with national (Malawi Bureau of
Standards - MBS) and international (WHO) guidelines for drinking water and HWTS.

2.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Description of the study area – Balaka District

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The study was conducted in Traditional Authority (TA) Nkaya, Balaka District situated
in Southern Malawi (Fig. 1). The district is located between latitude 14o 58’ S and
longitude 35o 30’ E and covers an area of 2,193 km2 - representing 2.4% of the total land
area of Malawi. The district has a total of seven TAs namely Amidu, Chanthunya,
Kachenga, Kalembo, Nkaya, Nsamala and Sawali (Fig.1). Nkaya, located to the south of
the district, constitute 18 Group Village Headmen (GVM) and has a total area of

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approximately 786.63 km2 (Balaka District Assembly, 2010). The total population of the
district was estimated at 316,748 as of population and housing census of 2008 (NSO,
2008). However, a recent preliminary report on population and household survey

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indicates that the district has a total population of 378,897 with TA Nkaya recording
41,115 people (BHSO, 2016; DSIP, 2016). The population density for the district is
estimated at 179 people per km2, with a population growth rate of 2.3% per annum

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(DSIP, 2016).

Water resources in the district exist in two major categories namely surface and ground

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water (Balaka District Assembly, 2010). Balaka has a fairly good network of rivers such
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as Shire, Rivirivi, Chimwalire, Naliswe, Mulungizi, Nkasi, Muthe, Kalambo and
Liwawadzi (NSO, 2008; SEOR, 2011). Groundwater sources in the district comprise a
low yielding weathered basement aquifer of the plateau area. Previous studies and reports
revealed that increased population growth and poor land husbandry practices have greatly
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contributed to degradation of catchment areas, marginal lands and accelerated soil

erosion, resulting in sedimentation of surface water sources. These phenomena are
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evident with flooding problems and high water turbidity levels (Balaka District
Assembly, 2010; DSIP, 2016).
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Balaka District has a gravity-fed water supply scheme from Mpira Dam, constructed in
1988 by the Government of Malawi with financial support from the African Development
Bank (ADB). Mpira/Balaka Rural Piped Water Scheme was constructed between 1987
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and 1992 and supplies water to Balaka and some parts of Ntcheu, Mangochi and Neno
districts. In Balaka District the scheme supplies water in the following TAs and Sub-
Traditional Authorities (STAs) Kalembo, Msamala, Kachenga, Sawali, Nkaya, Amidu
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and Chamthunya. The scheme was planned to serve about 300,000 people in the
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surrounding areas but currently supplies water to a population of over 600,000 (SEOR,
2011). The groundwater sources are predominantly used to complement the deficit of
safe water provided by the scheme for domestic use in rural and peri-urban areas of
Balaka. According to BDWO (2015) TA Nkaya registered lower water coverage and
functionality rate of water points between 2012 and 2015 compared to other TAs in the
district. Consequently, residents in the rural and peri-urban areas of Nkaya have also been
relying on boreholes and other alternative drinking water sources such as shallow wells.
However, data on household water treatment and storage practices (HWTS), the water
quality and safety of these water sources for the area is not well documented in literature.

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2.2. Research design and data collection

This study was specifically conducted in two Group Village Headmen (GVH) Njerenje
and Phimbi of TA Nkaya in Balaka District (Fig. 2). The two GVHs were purposively
selected because they are not connected to the piped water system, hence the need for
evaluation of the alternative water sources used by local residents. The study employed

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both qualitative and quantitative research methods to collect relevant data.

The major qualitative research methods used were participant observation, in-depth

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interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). The purposive snowball sampling
techniques were employed to identify informants and to collect data on water supply
regime and its related activities in the study area. Household surveys and ‘moderate

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participant observation’ were employed to help the researchers obtain in-depth
knowledge of the problems in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) experienced in the
study area. Secondary data on water supply and other related information was also

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collected through desktop studies and review of relevant documents. Data on accessibility
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to safe drinking water sources and the HWTS used in the area were evaluated by the
household surveys using semi-structured questionnaires. Under quantitative research
methods, water quality analyses (physico-chemical and microbiological) were conducted
to collect data on the public health and safety of the water sources sampled.
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Fig. 1. Map of Balaka district showing location of the study area (TA Nkaya) (Insert Map
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of Malawi)
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Fig. 2. Map of TA Nkaya showing location of water sampling points and other features.

A sample size of 204 households were randomly selected from a total of 3115 households
in the study area. This translated to 83 respondents out of 444 households from Njerenje
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GVH, and 121 respondents out of 957 households from Phimbi GVH. The participants
were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to obtain data on various aspects
including water consumption behavior, perception on the water quality, accessibility to
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safe drinking water sources, and HWTS. The sample sizes used for this study were
estimated from work of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) with an expected rate of occurrence
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of ≥90% at the 95% confidence level and a precision level of 3%.

To ensure code of ethics and professional conduct of the study (Dawson, 2002), ethical
principles and clearance were observed by seeking consent from relevant authorities in
the study area with valid supporting documents from Mzuzu University. Furthermore,
participants were verbally asked for their voluntary participation and withdraw at any
time without harming their relationship with the researchers or in any other way receive a
penalty or loss of benefits. Participants’ confidentiality, ages and other sensitive

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information were respected at all times. Questionnaires were in English and a translation
was made to local language (Chichewa) for easy understanding.

2.3 Water quality analysis

A total of 11 water sources namely boreholes (BH) and shallow wells (SW) were

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systematically selected in the study area. The sites were coded as BH1, BH2, BH3, BH4,
BH5, BH6, BH7, BH8, SW1, SW2, and SW3) (Fig. 2, Table 1). Standard methods were
followed to collect water samples in triplicate from the selected sites (n=11) in the two

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GVH (Fig. 1) (APHA, 2011; MS 733:2005). A Geographical positioning system (GPS)
hand receiver (GARMIN GPSMAP 60Cx) was used to locate and record exact location
of the sites. Furthermore, an observation form was employed to record information on

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water source characteristics and risks of contamination. Water samples were collected
using new and pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles which were rinsed thrice on site with the
sampled water from the sources. Water sample collection, preservation and transportation

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were performed in accordance with standard procedures to avoid change in properties of
the sampled water (APHA, 2011; CAWST, 2009; Pillai, 2009; MS 733:2005). Great care
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was taken during sampling, preservation and on-site analyses to prevent cross-
contamination and degradation of the samples. The samples for microbiological and
physico-chemical analyses were immediately put in a cooler box filled with ice ready for
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transportation to the laboratory. Water samples for metal analysis were preserved with
concentrated nitric acid (HNO3). The samples were taken to Balaka District Water Office
and Lilongwe Central Water Laboratory for the water quality analyses.
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2.3.1 Physico-chemical analyses

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The water samples were analyzed for the following physico-chemical parameters:
turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), nitrate (NO3-), chloride (Cl-) and iron (Fe). The levels of turbidity, pH,
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TDS and EC were determined on-site. The turbidity was determined using portable
2100P turbidimeter (HACH). The levels of pH, TDS and EC were determined using
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portable multimeter (Hanna Instruments, Model HI 9812). An electrode probe of the

multimeter was calibrated using standard buffer solutions of pH 4.00 and 7.00 before
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measuring pH. The same meter was switched to appropriate modes and calibrated
accordingly before used to measure TDS and EC. The TDS and EC were measured to
evaluate the general levels of mineralization in water while turbidity was measured to
determine the settleable organic and other suspended materials.

The levels of the other physico-chemical parameters (Na, K, NO3-, Cl- and Fe) were
determined in the laboratory. The levels of Na and K were determined by flame
photometry using Sherwood 410 Flame Photometer employing air/propane gas mixture

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as fuel. Standardization of the photometer was done by aspirating the standard solutions
of Na and K at wavelengths, λ = 589 nm, and 766.5 nm respectively. The standard
Colorimetric 1.10 Phenanthroline method was used to determine iron concentrations in
the water (Horwitz, 1980; Pillai, 2009). The acidified sample and standards were
aspirated into the spectrophotometer and their emission was read at 508 nm against a
blank. Levels of NO3- in the water samples was determined using a HACH DR/3000 UV

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Spectrophotometer at wavelength, λ = 410 nm against a blank. The procedure for this
method involved use of Potassium nitrate (KNO3), 0.5% sodium salicylate (C7H5NaO3)
(v/v), concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and 25% Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (v/v) as

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described in Pillai (2009). Chloride (Cl-) ions were determined by titration method with
standard silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution using potassium chromate as indicator.

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The Na, K and Fe (major constituents in silicate and pyrite dominated waters) were
measured considering the geology of the district. The nitrates, chlorides, FC and FS
(considered indicators of agricultural input, sewer input and faecal contamination) were

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evaluated to determine possible sources of contamination. Due to financial and time
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constraints equally important water quality parameters, water demand, non-functionality
of the borehole infrastructures and other related sanitary inspections were not evaluated
in the current study.
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2.3.2 Microbiological analysis: faecal coliforms and faecal streptococcus

Faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococcus (FS) bacteria were measured using
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Membrane Filtration Technique (MFT) by following standard procedures (APHA, 2011;

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CAWST, 2009; WHO, 2011). A measured volume of the sampled water (10 mL) was
filtered aseptically into properly disinfected filtration assembly containing a sterile
membrane filter (0.45 µm). After the standard recovery period of 1 hour, membranes
were then incubated on Membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth at 37 °C and 44 °C for faecal
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coliforms and total coliforms respectively for 24 hours. The standard plate count method
was employed to enumerate the visible bacterial colonies. The colonies were expressed in
terms of “colony forming units” (CFU) per 100 ml and calculated using Equation 1:
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………………………….1

where N= number of colony counts and DF = dilution factor. The water quality results
for both the physico-chemical and microbiological analyses were compared to the
national and international standards for borehole and shallow well water quality
specifications (WHO, 2011; APHA, 2011; Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS) (MS
733:2005). Risk-to-health classification of the water sources were evaluated based on FC

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counts with reference to previous studies (CAWST, 2009; Mwabi et al., 2012; WHO,
2011).

2.4. Statistical analysis

The data was analysed using SPSS (version 16.0) and Microsoft Office Excel 2007 to

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compute means, and standard deviations between variables and for descriptive analysis.
The mean groups of variables were compared using t-test, and Pearson correlation (two-
tailed at 95% confidence level) to detect correlation matrix for test parameters. Cross

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tabulation tables and graphs (bar charts) were used to present the patterns between
variables of the results.

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3.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. The drinking water sources and perception on water quality

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The most common source of potable water for the majority of households in the study
area was boreholes (76%) followed by protected shallow wells (20.6%) and piped or tap
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water (3.4%) in the area. Generally, the study findings revealed that the sources hardly
meet the existing water demand in the two areas due to high non-functionality rate and
uneven distribution compelling some people to resort to unsafe water sources like
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streams, rivers, and unprotected shallow wells. For example, several households surveyed
in Njerenje (72%, n=83) accessed water from unprotected shallow wells (Fig. 3 a-c)
located in Mlunguzi river catchment area whilst in Phimbi area majority of the
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respondents (>95%, n=121) used borehole water (Fig. 3d) for domestic purposes. It was
also noted that few households in Njerenje (28%, n= 83) fetch potable water from a
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borehole at Njerenje School and other boreholes nearby GVHs namely, Mgomwa,
Phimbi and Zidyana.
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Fig. 3: Picture showing some hand-dung wells (unprotected) (a-c) and borehole (d) used
in the study area.
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On perception of the water quality and other water source attributes, respondents showed
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informed views with all of them in Njerenje expressing concerns about water reliability
as the shallow wells dry up during summer period (August to early November). Majority
of the respondents (>78.3%, n= 83) indicated dissatisfaction with smell and clarity of
water from shallow wells, while about 51% and 65% of them were satisfied with its taste
(saltiness) and soap consumption of the water respectively. However, the majority of the
respondents (90%, n=83) in the area were strongly dissatisfied with the safety of drinking
water from unprotected shallow wells (Fig. 3) and considered them as a health risk for
waterborne diseases. On one hand, there was a prevalent sense of satisfaction and pride in

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the quality of borehole water among all Phimbi households (n=121) specifically on
reliability, odor, colour, and safety from contamination. On the other hand, the majority
of households (97%) in Phimbi were dissatisfied with taste and hardness (82.6%, n= 121)
for water obtained from the boreholes – especially BH1 and BH2. The residents from this
area complained of water saltiness and perceived the water was not good for washing or
bathing as it consumed more soap and produced white patches on clothes and bodies of

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users. These results are similar to previous studies conducted in Dedza and upper
Limphasa catchment area in Nkhata-Bay where groundwater sources (boreholes) were
reported to contain high salts that affected use of soap (Kushe, 2009; Kanyerere et. al,

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2012).

3.2. Physico-chemical parameters

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A summary of results on spatial variations in pH, turbidity, EC/TDS, Na, Cl-, NO3-, F-, K,
and Fe in the water samples are presented in Figs. 4 (A-D) and 5 (A-D). Since the water
sources are mainly used for domestic purpose, the results are discussed and compared

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with WHO (2011) and MBS (2005) (MS 733:2005) guidelines for drinking water.
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Surface water and groundwater sources typically have pH ranges of 6.5-8.5 and 6.0-8.5
respectively (USEPA, 1992). In this study pH ranged from 7.38 to 7.64 in shallow wells
and 7.10 to 7.55 in borehole water (Fig. 4A). There were no statistically significant
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differences (p > 0.05) in the water pH among the sampling sites. All the water sources
(n=11) registered pH within recommended ranges of 6.5-8.5 and 6.0-9.5 set by WHO
(2011) and MBS (2005) for drinking purposes respectively. The results are consistent
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with previous studies which reported pH range of 6.70 to 8.10 for borehole water from
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some districts in Malawi including Zomba, Machinga, Mangochi, Nsanje, Chikwawa,

Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzimba (Sajidu et al, 2008; Palamuleni, 2002; Mapoma and Xie,
2014; Chidya, 2016a, b).
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The EC of most freshwater sources has been reported to range from 10 to 1000 µS/cm or
above especially in polluted water (Chapman, 1996; WHO and UNICEF RADWQ, 2012).
In this study most of the water sources (64%, n=11) fell in this category and did not vary
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significantly (p>0.05) with sites. The highest EC was recorded at borehole BH6 (2220
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µS/cm) followed by boreholes BH2 (1341 µS/cm) and BH1 (1011 µS/cm) (Fig. 4B). The
range of EC values were below the maximum permissible limit (3,500 µS/cm) set by
MBS (2005) for borehole and shallow well water sources. The EC values were consistent
with results (EC= 254 – 1428 µS/cm) of a previous study by Mapoma and Xie (2014) in
other parts of the district. There is no EC standard limit set by WHO (2011) for boreholes
and shallow wells. Varied EC values of shallow well and borehole water sources, both
below and above MBS (2005) limits have been reported in some rural and peri-urban
areas of Malawi including Machinga (55-1175 µS/cm), Chikhwawa (1450-2800 µS/cm),

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Nsanje (2150-6600 µS/cm), Lilongwe (382-2300 µS/cm), and Mzimba (437-3128 µS/cm)
(Sajidu et al., 2008; Chidya, 2016a, b).

All the water points registered TDS values below the maximum permissible limit of 2000
mg/L set by MBS (2005) for borehole and shallow well water sources. Similarly, results
on TDS were consistent with a previous study by Mapoma and Xie (2014) in the district

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(152 - 686 mg/l). However, the palatability of water at borehole BH6 may be
objectionable since TDS contribute greatly to offensive taste when its concentration is
greater than WHO recommendations of 1000 mg/l (WHO, 2011). In this study, the TDS

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values showed a strong positive correlation with EC (r2>0.97), and this was expected
since TDS is measure of the total ions in solution while EC measures the ionic activity of
a solution in term of its capacity to transmit current (LENNTECH, 2016).

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Two shallow wells (SW2 and SW3) reported turbidity values slightly above of WHO
limit (5.0 NTU) for drinking water while the rest of the water sources (82%, n=11) were

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below this limit (Fig. 4C). Sites SW2 and SW3 pose a health risk to users as the high
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turbidity levels above the WHO limit may entail possible contamination of the water
sources. All the water sources registered turbidity values below the maximum permissible
limit of 25 NTU (Fig 4C) according to MBS (MS 733:2005) specifications for borehole
and shallow well water quality. The relatively higher TDS and turbidity values for the
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shallow wells indicate the intrusion of run-off which could be attributed by the absence of
casings and caps or soil disturbance and re-suspension within the well during water
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withdrawal.
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Mapoma and Xie (2014) reviewed that sodium (Na) ranges from 5 to70 mg/L in
weathered basement and 20 -1500 mg/L in alluvial aquifer for Malawi. In the current
study sodium concentration levels (2 0 - 490 mg/l) were within the aforementioned
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values and below the recommended limit of 500 mg/L set by MBS (MS 733:2005) (Fig.
5D). However, two water boreholes (BH2 and BH6) registered sodium levels above the
acceptable taste threshold value of 200 mg/l set by WHO (2011) for drinking water. The
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chloride levels ranged from 5.45 mg/L (SW3) to 89.84 mg/L (BH1), values below
the recommended maximum permissible limit 750 mg/L set by MBS (MS 733:2005).
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This means that the levels of chloride in the water sources of this area pose no health
threat to users. Previous studies on surface, ground water sources and wastewater in some
districts of Malawi reported chloride levels below the WHO (2011) limit of 250 mg/L in
drinking water (Palamuleni, 2002; Sajidu et al., 2007; Chidya, 2011; Chidya et al,
2016b). From the simple linear regression analysis of the cations and anions, it is evident
that the sodium chloride salts (NaCl) (r² = 0.2830) contributed significantly to the
saltiness of the water sources compared to potassium chloride (KCl) (r² = 0.1760). As
expected the coefficient of determination for Na (r² = 0.9290), K (r² = 0.0056) and Cl- (r²

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= 0.3329) computed against EC showed that Na significantly influence the mineralization

of the water sources in the area. This was more pronounced at boreholes BH1 and BH2 in
which EC values were also comparatively high and this is consistent with perception of
respondents on the salty taste of water at these sites. This is also the case since sodium
greatly contributes to saltiness of water in boreholes and shallow wells (WHO, 2011).

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The potassium concentration ranged from 2.40 to 14 mg/L (Fig 5B), and this is in tandem
with literature in which the element is reported to rarely occur in high concentrations in
natural waters (0–15 mg/L) (Hem, 1985). Furthermore, the WHO guidelines for

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potassium has not been established as it occurs in drinking water at concentrations well
below those of health concern (WHO, 2011). Compared to the local standards, the
potassium levels were below the recommended limits (25-50 mg/L) by MBS (2005) for

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treated drinking water. However, no local specifications are set by MBS (MS 733:2005)
for maximum permissible limits of potassium in boreholes and shallow well water
quality. Fluoride levels (0.89-1.46 mg/L) in all the water sources were within the

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acceptable limit of 1.5 mg/L set for drinking water by WHO (2011) and maximum
permissible level of 6.0 mg/L (MS 733:2005) for boreholes and shallow well water (Fig.
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5C). Consequently, regular intake of the water sources in the area may not causes
fluorosis – rather would be beneficial on the structure and resistance to decay of
children’s teeth (USEPA, 1992). All the boreholes registered comparatively high
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fluoride levels (>1.20 mg/L) than the shallow wells. Baseline studies in Malawi revealed
relatively high levels of fluoride in groundwater sources mostly in some parts of
Nkhotakota, Lilongwe, Karonga, Nsanje, Chikwawa, Mwanza, Mangochi and Machinga
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(Msonda, 2003; Sajidu et al., 2007). In similar studies comparable levels of fluoride were
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reported in some rural and peri-urban areas of Lilongwe City (0.74-1.02 mg/L) and rural
areas of Zombwe in Mzimba (0.10-8.10 mg/L) (Chidya et al., 2016a, b).

Nitrate levels (0-0.16 mg/L) in all the water points were below the permissible level of
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50 mg/L set by WHO (2011) for short term exposure. The nitrate levels were also far
below the maximum permissible limit 45 mg/L set by MBS (MS 733:2005). The variation
of nitrate concentration among water points was insignificant (p< 0.05). In contrast with a
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study by Fan et al., (1987) in Napocho and Manyele, (2010) who indicated that high-
nitrate drinking water is most often associated with shallow wells (<15 m depths) with
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permeable soils, all shallow well in the current study registered insignificant nitrate
levels. Iron below levels found in natural fresh water (0.5-50 mg/l) (Hem, 1985) were
measured in all the sites (0.10-0.4 mg/L) (Fig. 5D). The iron levels were also below the
maximum permissible levels of 3.0 mg/L (MS 733:2005) set for boreholes and shallow
well water quality. However, water at shallow well SW2, whose Iron levels exceeded 0.3
mg/L, may cause characteristic reddish staining, precipitates after exposure to air and
contributes significantly to increased turbidity (USEPA, 1992; WHO, 2011).

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3.3. Microbiological characteristics of the water sources

Microbiological results on faecal coliform (FC) and faecal streptococcus (FS) bacteria
showed ranges of 0-56 cfu/100 mL and 0-120 cfu/100 mL respectively (Fig. 6).
Compared to boreholes, all the shallow wells had high bacteria counts (FS: 62-120
cfu/100 mL, FS: 40-56 cfu/ 100 ml) above the permissible level of 0 cfu/100 mL (WHO,

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2011) set for drinking water. In contrast, boreholes had FC bacteria counts of 0-16
cfu/100 mL and FS counts of 0-20 cfu/ 100 mL. The MBS (MS 733:2005) recommends
maximum concentration of 0 cfu/100 mL for FC and 50 cfu/100 mL for FS in borehole

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and shallow well water. All the shallow wells did not meet the MBS (MS 733:2005) and
WHO (2011) limits for FS in drinking water, hence deemed contaminated and pose a
health risk to consumers. Generally, all the shallow wells were grossly contaminated with

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FC and FS, hence not suitable for human consumption without treatment. This could be
attributed to some form of open defecation, runoff and discharge of livestock faecal waste
into the water sources. Contamination of the shallow wells with faecal bacteria was also

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attributed to proximity of the water sources to sanitary facilities such as toilets hastened
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by permeability of the geology of the area. During participant observation, pit latrines
were seen sited and built closer (<20 meters) to water sources. These findings may give a
general picture of contamination levels in other unprotected shallow wells in the study
area and some parts of the district.
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In a similar study, drinking water from shallow wells in southern districts of Malawi
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(Blantyre, Chiladzulo and Mulanje) were reported to have higher potential for
microbiological contamination (Pritchard et al., 2007; Mapoma and Xie, 2014) attributed
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to soil re-suspension within the well during water withdrawal, shallow depth at which
water is tapped (2-5 meters), settlement pattern and land use practices (Napocho and
Manyele, 2010). In Balaka district, a similar study conducted by Mapoma and Xie (2014)
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found that FC were in the range of 0 – 4230 cfu/100 mL in groundwater. A recent similar
study in urban and peri-urban areas of Lilongwe City revealed relatively higher counts of
FC (0-2100 cfu/100 mL) and FS (0-1490) (Chidya et al., 2016a). The microbial findings
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of this study show that hygiene practices, sanitation and waste management in the study
are compromised. The goal of Malawi National Sanitation Policy (2008) – in particular
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‘Sanitation and Hygiene in Rural Areas’ is to achieve universal access to improved

sanitation and exposure to safe hygiene practices, and properly manage waste to protect
the environment (Malawi Government, 2008). However, it is evident that some of the
water sources used in the study area are contaminated with fecal matter. This necessitate
the need to emphasize implementation of national sanitation strategies in line with safe
water abstraction and use in rural and peri-urban areas mainly by unprotected shallow
wells. Despite continued use of unprotected shallow wells in rural areas, the National
Sanitation Policy (2008), National Water Policy (2005) and the revised Water Resources

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Act (2013) do not clearly address such water sources in line with hygiene interventions
and public health as they are regarded as emergency water supply systems.

Table 3: Results on risk-to-health classification for the assessed water sources to the
area.
Results on risk-to-health classification of the water sources compared to standards

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showed that boreholes fell in two classes of <1 and 11-100 counts, with half of the sites
in each group (Table 2). Several water sources (73%, n=11) were classified as
“Intermediate risk” with FC counts of 11-100 cfu/100 mL. All the shallow well water

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sources registered in this class require treatment before consumption – with possible
options like boiling, chlorination and solar disinfection. From these findings, it is evident
that the assessed water sources still pose risks of FC contamination despite none of the

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water points registering “high risk” nor “very high risk” category (Table 2).

3.4. Household water treatment options and storage facilities

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The household water treatment options (HWTS) capable of improving microbial
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contaminated water quality include boiling, addition of bleach or chlorine, and use of
water filter or solar disinfection (CAWST, 2009; Mwabi et al., 2012; WHO, 2011). The
results showed that most households surveyed (>95%, n=204) in study area were actively
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engaged in some form of an appropriate in-house drinking water treatment methods either
by boiling or use of chemical disinfectants (water guard/chlorine) (Fig. 7). The majority
of the households (70%, n=204) used water guard or chlorine while few of them (25%)
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use boiling method to make it safe for drinking and other household use (Fig. 7X).
Among options for storage of drinking water, majority of the households surveyed (77%,
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n=204) indicated use of open containers with lid to store drinking water after treatment
followed by use of jerry cans or narrow neck containers with lid (12%) (Fig. 7Y). From
the results, it is evident that majority of the respondents (>85%, n= 204) were actively
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engaged in safe storage of water after treatment in their respective homes. It can be noted
that majority of households in the area are probably well informed on HWST. However,
efficiency of these practices need to be evaluated by comparing quality of the raw water
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from boreholes and shallow wells with treated and stored water. Due to financial and
time constraints, the current study did not evaluate such factors.
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4.0. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study revealed that several households in Njerenje accessed water from shallow
wells and rivers for domestic use whilst in Phimbi majority of residents rely on borehole
water. There was general satisfaction in borehole drinking water availability, safety and
quality in Phimbi area. However, dissimilar views regarding the state of current and
future access to reliable, safe and good quality drinking water were raised among

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Njerenje residents. Generally, several water quality parameters (75%, n=12) measured in
the two areas registered values within the WHO (2011) and MBS (MS 733:2005) for
boreholes and shallow well drinking water. Several water sources in one village (Njereje)
were deemed unsafe due to elevated levels of FC and FS above limits. By and large,
several water sources (73%, n=11) were classified as “Intermediate risk” with FC counts
of 11-100 cfu/100 mL – posing a threat to human health when consumed untreated.

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Results of this study provide a general representation of water quality in the two areas
and probably depict similar trends in other parts of Balaka District. However, no

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categorical statements can be drawn on the safety of the water sources since other equally
important water quality parameters were not assessed due to study limitations. This, then
calls for periodical and further monitoring studies on water quality in the two areas and

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entire district. Further studies are also needed on Mg and Ca to validate the water
hardness perception by respondents. Spatio-temporal assessment of ground and surface
water sources with substantial sample size and number of water quality parameters will

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also be significant to influence policy decisions in provision of safe water and continual
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dissemination of HWTS practices and basic sanitation practices in the area. Follow up
studies could be done on efficiency of the HWTS practices in the study area in line with
public health. The continued use of water drawn from the unprotected shallow wells with
high levels of FC and FS calls for a need to increase improved water supply coverage and
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functionality rate in the study areas through borehole drilling and rehabilitation. Further
studies could be conducted on water demand and non-functionality of borehole
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infrastructures.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the Central Water Laboratory (Lilongwe) personnel for their
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support in laboratory analyses, Balaka/Mpira Dam Water Supply and Mzuzu University
(Department of Water Resources Management and Development) for logistical assistance
during the study. We are grateful to Charles Chawinga for his technical support in
production of map. We also thank delegates to the 2015 (16th)
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WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP-SA Symposium in Mauritius for their constructive and useful

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comments.

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Table 1: Water source characteristics and geographical location of the study area.

Name of water source Site Code GPS coordinates Characteristics of the water
location (E and N) source

Njerenje SW1 719740 8313070 Unprotected shallow well

Yasini SW2 718753 8313312 Unprotected shallow well

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Mussa SW3 720545 8311868 Unprotected shallow well

Njerenje school BH1 721694 8313008 Borehole water (IPBH0007)

Jonasi BH2 721521 8314364 Borehole water (IRBH0232)

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Phimbi Post Agency BH3 726356 8312679 Borehole water (IRBH0227)

Phimbi Village BH4 726138 8313101 Borehole water (IRBH0225)

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Matipani BH5 725987 8313491 Borehole water (IRBH0224)

Naweta BH6 725186 8313942 Borehole water (IRBH0223)

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Kapalamula BH7 724799 8314026 Borehole water (IRBH0222)

Jiya BH8 723211 8313864 Borehole water (IRBH291)

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BH: borehole; GPS: Geographical position system, E: eastings. N: northings, UNP SW: Unprotected shallow well
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Table 2: Results on risk-to-health classification of the water sources compared to standards*

Risk Category and recommendation on the Category of the water
FC Count/100 ml
water source sources (n=11) under study
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In conformity with WHO guidelines (36%) BH2, BH3, BH6,

0
(May be consumed as it is) BH8
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Low risk nil

1-10
(Treat if possible, but may be as it is)
Intermediate risk (64%) BH1, BH4, BH5,
11-100
(Must be treated before consumption) BH7, SW1, SW2, SW3
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High risk nil

101-1000
(Rejected or must be treated thoroughly)

> 1000 Very high risk nil

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(Rejected or must be treated thoroughly)

*
CAWST Training Manual (2009) and WHO (2011)
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Fig. 1. Map of Balaka district showing location of the study area (TA Nkaya) (Insert Map of Malawi)
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Fig. 2. Map of TA Nkaya showing location of water sampling points and other features.

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Fig. 3: Picture showing some hand-dung wells (unprotected) (a-c) and borehole (d) used in the study area.
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A B

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Fig. 4. (A-D) Spatial variations in pH, EC/TDS, turbidity and Na in the water samples (n=11) compared to standards.
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A B

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Fig. 5. (A-D) Spatial variations in Cl-, NO3-, K, F- and Fe in the water samples (n=11) compared to standards.
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Fig. 6. Microbiological characteristics (FC and FS) of the water sources compared to standards

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Fig. 7. Percentage distribution of households (n=204) by water treatment (X) and water storage (Y)
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Highlights

We evaluated drinking water quality and household water treatment and storage (HWTS)
practices in Nkaya, Balaka.

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Shallow wells were mostly used (in Njerenje) followed by boreholes (in Phimbi)

Several water quality parameters conformed with standards except turbidity, EC, Feacal coliform
and Faecal Streptococcus

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Full adoption of HWTS, spatio-temporal and periodical water quality monitoring are needed in
the study area.

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