Control system

Definition of Terms
System- combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form a whole unit
such that it performs to achieve a certain goal.
Control- command,regulateor direct a system.
Plant/process- Part or component of a system that needs to be controlled.
Input-It is a signal or excitation supplied to the control system
Output-actual response obtained from control system
Controller- the part or component of the system that controls the plant.
Disturbance- The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
Control system-
Actuator- A device that causes the process to provide the output. Provides the motive power to the
process.
Signal flow graph-A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed branches and is a
graphical representation of a set of linear relationship.
Specification- Is a set of prescribed performance criteria.
Open loop control system-it utilizes a device to control the process without using feedback hence the
output has no effect upon the signal to process.
closed loop control system-The system that uses measurement of the output and compares it with the
desired output.
Servo system- The control of any physical quantity e.g. position,velocity,displacement etc.
stability- If the system is able to follow the input command and unstable if its output is out of control.
Multivariable- A system with more than one input variable or more than one output variable.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

A. On how & who made the system
i. Natural control system
ii. Human made control system
iii. Hybrid control system
B. What the system does
i. Regulator –maintain set conditions
ii. Servo mechanism- on how it controls physical quantities e.g. positions, displacement, velocity.
C. How a control system performs its task
i. Open loop
ii. Closed loop
Open loop control system
It’s a control system where its control action depends on input signal and does not depend on its output
response.
Examples : traffic signal, washing machine, bread toster etc.
Advantages:
 Simple in construction
 Economical
 Easy for maintenance
 Highly stable operation
Disadvantages:

 Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are variable in nature
 Recalibration of the parameters are required time to time

Closed loop control system

It is a control system where its control action depends on both of its input signal and output response

Examples: automatic electric iron, missile laucher,speed control of DC motor

Advantages
 More accurate operation than that of open loop
 High bandwidth of operation
 Time to time recalibration of the system not required
 There is facility of automation
Disadvantages
 Complex design and difficult to construct
 Complicate for maintenance
 Less stable operation than that of open loop control system
 Expensive
SERVOMECHANISM
Automatic control of physical quantity, position, velocity, displacement.
Servomotor: Is a rotary or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or linear position,
velocity and acceleration in a mechanical system.
Types of servomotors

Requirements of good servomotor

 Linear relationship between control signal and motor speed over a wide range
 Inertia of the motor should be as low as possible
 Response should be high as possible
 Easily reversible
 Linear torque characteristics
 Stable operation without any oscillations
DC SERVOMOTORS
Stator-field winding
Rotor- armature winding
Field controlled servo motor:

Features of field controlled DC motor

 Preferred for small rated motors

 It has large time constant
 It is an open loop system
 Control system is simple to design
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

1. https://youtu.be/t_k7oRICmWo?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRineUwP-HPdkQvowXqq5IxA
2. https://youtu.be/iLSb89PK_ec?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRineUwP-HPdkQvowXqq5IxA
3. https://youtu.be/Aabq8t9EE1M?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRineUwP-HPdkQvowXqq5IxA
4. https://youtu.be/bk5Lmk-mr-I?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRineUwP-HPdkQvowXqq5IxA
5. https://youtu.be/T3AD4rxIJxI?list=PLBlnK6fEyqRineUwP-HPdkQvowXqq5IxA
6. https://youtu.be/plHIyNUvwiQ

process control
Process control refers to the methods and techniques used to monitor and regulate industrial
processes to ensure they operate efficiently, reliably, and consistently. It involves the
measurement of process variables, comparison of actual performance to desired targets or set
points, and adjustment of process parameters to maintain optimal operation. Process control is
essential for industries such as manufacturing, chemical processing, power generation, and
many others

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A PROCESS VARIABLE(https://youtu.be/IpOKELxqjqA)

The process has 3 requirements

1. Measurement made by the sensor/transducer (measurement of controlled variable)

2. Evaluation-controller needs to evaluate information from the sensor i.e. by comparing
sensor signal with reference input/set point
3. The corrective mechanism(actuator)

Process characteristics
 I. Process Load-Amount of the control agent that is needed the process in a balanced
condition.
II. Process Lag-Time taken for a control variable to reach a new value after the process load
change.
It can be caused using 3 properties
 Capacitance-ability of a system to store energy i.e. high capacitance more time and
vice versa is true.
 Resistance- (opposition to flow, thermal resistance)
 Transportation/dead time-Time taken for a change to move from one place to
another in the process.
III. Stability –a system is said to be stable if the controlled can be returned to its steady
state value.
INDUSTRIAL CONTROLLERS

Uses of controllers

 Amplification
 Ensure the reference input is close as possible to the controlled output

Modes of controls

It’s how the acts in order to restore its system to a controlled value.

I. Two position
II. Floating
III. Proportional
IV. Integral mode (reset)
V. Derivative mode (rate or preset)

I. Two position control

 Neutral zone are set of values around zero on the error must pass
 It supplies energy in pulses e.g. Iron box it supplies energy in pulses by switching ON
and OFF depending on the set temperature.
 The pulses are called cycling or the control variable and the amplitude depends on:-
i. Capacitance of the process
ii. Dead time
iii. Size of load changes that the system can handle
  The controller is simple and cheap and is always preferred if the cycling can be reduced
it acceptable limits levels. Examples are switch, iron box etc
II. Floating control

Is a special application of two position control in the final control element is always stationery as
long as the error is within the neutral zone but when the control variable goes beyond the
neutral zone the final control element changes at constant rate and is in the direction
determined by the sign of the error.

The final control element will continue to change until the error returns to neutral zone or until
the final control element reaches one of its extreme position either fully opened or fully closed

It can be represented by input/output curve shown above

Just like two position it produces cycling. Advantage of this floating controller is that it has the
ability to handle large load changes done by adjusting final control element.

III. Proportional controller https://youtu.be/un2m21646Ug

The output(voltage) is directly proportional to the input(error)

The proportional control cannot completely eliminate the error in the system hence there is
always an offset e.g. an electronic amplifier
 Time domain equation
v=ke+vo
frequency domain equation
V=KE
Transfer function:
𝐕
=𝐊
𝐄
v=Time domain output signal & always given as a %
vo=Time domain output signal when e=0
V=Frequency domain output(laplas transform) vo is assumed to be zero
e=Time domain error signal
E=Frequency domain error signal
RF
𝐊=
R1
where:
RF=Out resistance in ohms
R1=input resistance in ohms

Terminologies used

1. Process Variables: These are the measurable quantities that characterize the state of
the process, such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, level, pH, concentration, etc.
2. Set points: Set points are the target values or desired levels for the process variables.
They are typically determined based on factors such as product specifications, quality
standards, safety requirements, and energy efficiency considerations.
3. Sensors: Sensors are used to measure the process variables in real-time. They provide
feedback to the control system, allowing it to monitor the current state of the process.
4. Controllers: Controllers are devices or software algorithms that receive input from
sensors, compare the measured process variables to the setpoints, and generate control
signals to adjust the process accordingly. Common types of controllers include
proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers, which use a combination of
proportional, integral, and derivative actions to achieve control objectives.
5. Actuators: Actuators are devices that receive control signals from the controller and
physically adjust process parameters to maintain the desired setpoints. Examples include
valves, motors, pumps, heaters, and cooling systems.
6. Control Strategies: There are various control strategies and techniques used in process
control, including feedback control, feedforward control, cascade control, ratio control,
and advanced control methods such as model predictive control (MPC) and adaptive
control.
7. Control Loops: A control loop is the fundamental building block of process control,
consisting of a sensor, controller, and actuator working together to regulate a specific
process variable.
8. Safety Systems: Safety is a critical aspect of process control, and systems such as
emergency shutdown systems (ESD), safety instrumented systems (SIS), and alarm
systems are implemented to prevent accidents and protect personnel, equipment, and
the environment.
9. Human-Machine Interface (HMI): HMIs provide operators with graphical interfaces to
interact with the control system. They display real-time process data, alarms, trends, and
allow operators to adjust setpoints and control parameters.

Block diagram
https://youtu.be/uk57TnrCoIw?list=PLVsrfTSlZ_41FNjVk8MjdFVR1zONyf5-5
 Types of Analogue Controllers

Analog controllers are devices that operate on continuous signals, often used to regulate or
manipulate physical systems. Here are some types of analog controllers:

1. Proportional Controller (P-Controller):

 Adjusts the control variable proportionally to the error signal. The output is
directly proportional to the error signal, with a gain factor.
 2. Integral Controller (I-Controller):

 Integrates the error signal over time and adjusts the control variable based on
the accumulated error. It eliminates steady-state errors.

3. Derivative Controller (D-Controller):

 Adjusts the control variable based on the rate of change of the error signal. It
anticipates future behavior and helps in stabilizing the system.

4. Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller:

 Combines proportional and integral control actions to improve system response

and eliminate steady-state errors.

5. Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller:

 Combines proportional and derivative control actions. It provides damping to the

system and improves transient response.

6. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller:

 Incorporates proportional, integral, and derivative control actions. It's one of the
most common types of controllers due to its ability to balance stability, accuracy,
and responsiveness.

Proportional derivative
Proportional-Derivative (PD) control is a type of control system that combines both
proportional and derivative control actions.

In a PD controller, the control output is determined by two terms:

1. Proportional (P) term: This term is proportional to the error signal, which is the
difference between the desired set point and the current value of the process
variable. The proportional term determines the immediate response to changes
in the error signal.

2. Derivative (D) term: This term is proportional to the rate of change of the error
signal with respect to time. It anticipates the future behavior of the error and acts
to dampen rapid changes, thus improving system stability and reducing
overshoot.

The combined action of the proportional and derivative terms in a PD controller helps to
achieve a balance between responsiveness and stability. The proportional term provides
quick response to deviations from the set point, while the derivative term helps to
dampen oscillations and improve the transient response of the system.
PD control is commonly used in various control applications where there is a need to
minimize overshoot and improve stability, such as in motion control systems,
automotive control systems, and process control systems.

(https://youtu.be/cvPvPkBMM7I ){mechanical system}

 SYSTEM MODELLING (https://youtu.be/MyKkNgJX6ec)

Model: - Is representation of system it has the same characteristics of a system

They are represented mathematically, the model is changed to a form which is
acceptable by the computer.
Types of systems and methods of analysis

1. Mechanical systems
 Newton’s law of motion
2. Electrical systems
 Ohms law
 Kirchhoff’s law
3. Chemical systems
 Heat balances

Differential equations

Differential equations can be solved using two methods: -

i. Transient
ii. Steady state

Notations used to represent differential equation

i. Dot method
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑥. = 𝑥 .. =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
ii. D-operator
𝑑 𝑑𝑛
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑛 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑛
iii. S-operator
𝑑 𝑑𝑛 𝑑 1
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 and ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑆
s-operator transforms transfer function from time domain to frequency domain
 TRANSFER FUNCTION
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑻. 𝑭 =
𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
IF INITIAL CONDITIONS WAS ZERO

If Input=r(t), output=c(t) and T. F=G(s)

Then
𝐿𝑐(𝑡) 𝐶(𝑆)
𝑮(𝒔) = 𝐿𝑟(𝑡) 𝑮(𝒔) = 𝑅(𝑆)

EXAMPLE
Derive the t.f of a physical system which can be described by the following differential equation
𝑑2 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑟(𝑡)
+ 10 + 5𝑐(𝑡) = 7 + 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Solution
Taking LTs
S2C(s)+10SC(s)+5C(s)=7SR(s)+R(s)
C(s){S2+10S+5}=R(s){7S+1} hence t.f of the system
𝐶(𝑠) 7𝑆 + 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑆 + 10𝑆 + 5
1. T.F of Electricals network (https://youtu.be/xzGOpHFIhx8)

Steps to follow:

 Integral differential equation using kickoffs law or ohms law

 Take LTs of equation and then eliminate undesired variables
 By transposition and arrangement obtain the transfer function

Example 1

Ei=Er+Ec but Ec=Eo

Ei=Er+Eo but Q=CV and it=cv Vi=VR+VL+VC BUT VC=VO
𝑐𝑣
𝒊= Current through a capacitor
𝑡 𝑐𝑣
𝑐𝑑𝑣 Q=cv it=cv 𝒊 =
𝒊= 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑑𝑣 𝑐𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝒊=
𝑐𝑑𝐸𝑜 𝒊= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑑𝑖
Ei=ir+Eo Vi=iR+ +VO
𝑑𝑡
𝑐𝑑𝐸𝑜 𝑑2
+𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡2 𝑉𝑜(𝑡)+VO(t)
Ei(t)= r(t)+Eo(t) 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 Vi(t)=R𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑜(𝑡)
Ei(s)=RCSEo(s)+Eo(s) Vi(s)=R𝐶𝑆𝑉𝑜(𝑠) +𝐿𝐶 𝑆2 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)+VO(s)
𝐄𝐢(𝐬) 𝟏 Therefore:
=
𝐄𝐨(𝐬) 𝐑𝐒𝐂 + 𝟏 𝐕𝐨(𝐬) 𝟏
=
𝐕𝐢(𝐬) 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 + 𝐑𝐂𝐒 + 𝟏

Ei=VL+VR VR=Vo
𝑣 𝐸𝑜
Ei=VL+Vo V=IR 𝒊 = 𝑅 Hence 𝒊 = 𝑅
𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝑬𝒊 = + 𝐸𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝑙𝑑𝑖 Vi=VL+VR BUT VR=VC= VO
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Vi=VL+VO
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑑𝐸𝑜
𝑬𝒊(𝒕) = (𝑡) + 𝐸𝑜(𝑡) I=i1+i2
𝑅𝑑𝑡
Current across the resistance:
Taking LTs 𝑉𝑜
𝐿 𝒊=
𝑬𝒊(𝒔) = 𝐸𝑜(𝑠) + 𝐸𝑜(𝑠) 𝑅
𝑅
𝐿 And current through the capacitor:
𝑬𝒊(𝒔) = 𝐸𝑜(𝑠){ 𝑆 + 1} 𝑐𝑑𝑣 𝑐𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑅 𝒊= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Vi(t)= 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 (𝑡)+VO(t)
𝑑𝑖
𝑬𝒐(𝒔) 𝑹
= 𝑑 𝑉𝑜 𝑐𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑬𝒊(𝒔) 𝑳𝑺 + 𝑹 𝑽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐿 { + } (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM 𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑑 2 𝑉𝑜
𝑽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝐶 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑡)
𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑉𝑜 𝑑 2 𝑉𝑜
𝑽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝐶 (𝑡) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑡)
𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐿𝑆
𝑽𝒊(𝒔) = 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) + 𝐿𝐶 𝑆2 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) + 𝑉𝑜(𝑠)
𝑅
𝐕𝐨(𝐬) 𝐑
=
𝐕𝐢(𝐬) 𝑳𝑪𝑺𝟐 𝐑 + 𝐋𝐒 + 𝐑
Show that the transfer function for a circuit shown TRANSFER FUNCTION OF MECH
below is given by:
SYSTEMS
𝐕𝐨(𝐬) 𝝰(𝟏 + 𝐬𝐉)
= (https://youtu.be/oUYyDgy0PBc)
𝐕𝐢(𝐬) 𝟏 + 𝝰𝐉 1. Transitional system
R2
Where 𝝰= and J=R 1 𝑪 2. Rotational/rational system
R 1 +R2

1. Transitional system
M-mass of an element
K-spring constant
R-friction constant
F-force applied
y/x-displacement
V-velocity
I. MASS

𝟏
R 1 .𝐉𝐰𝐜
𝑽𝒊 = 𝐈 { 𝟏 } + 𝐈R2 but JW=S
R 1 +𝐉𝐰𝐜
R1
𝐒𝐂
𝑽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐈(𝐭) { R1𝑺𝑪+𝟏 } + 𝐈R2 (𝒕)
𝐒𝐂
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
R1 F(t)=Ma(t) a= but v=
𝑽𝒊(𝒕) = 𝐈(𝐭) { } + 𝐈R2 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
R 1 𝑺𝑪+𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
F(t)=M 𝟐 (t)
𝒅𝒕
𝐕𝐨 R2 II. SPRING
=
𝐕𝐢 R1
+ R2
R1𝑺𝑪 + 𝟏
𝐕𝐨 R 2 (R1 𝑺𝑪 + 𝟏)
=
𝐕𝐢 R1 + R 2 (R1 𝑺𝑪 + 𝟏)

Dividing the expression by R1+R2

R2
𝐕𝐨 (R1 𝑺𝑪 + 𝟏)
R1 + R 2 F(t)=Kx(t)=K∫v(t)dt
=
𝐕𝐢 R1 R2
+ (R 𝑺𝑪 + 𝟏)
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2 1

𝐕𝐨 𝝰(𝟏 + 𝐒𝐉)
=
𝐕𝐢 𝟏 + 𝝰𝐒𝐉
III. DASHPOT/DAMPER 𝒅ɵ
T(t)=RW(t)= R (t)
𝒅𝒕
EXAMPLES

𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
FR𝝰V hence FR=RV but V= thus FR=R (t)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

2. Rotational/rational system
J=Inertia of an element
S=Stiffness
R=Friction
T=Torque applied
ɵ=Angle moved
W=Angular velocity Newton’s law of motion
F(t)=FM+FR+FK
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
F(t)= M 𝟐 (t)+ R (t)+ Kx(t)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Taking the LTs
F(s) = MS 2 x(s) + RSx(s) + Kx(s)

𝐗(𝐬) 𝟏
=
𝐅(𝐬) 𝐌𝐒 𝟐 +𝐑𝐒+𝐊
ɵ 𝒅ɵ
T(t)=S∫Wdt but W= = hence T(t)=Sɵ
𝒕 𝒅𝒕
(b) Moment of inertia
𝒅𝑾
T(t)=J (t) = J𝑑𝑑𝑡ɵ (t)
2
2
𝒅𝒕
(c)The dashpot
J & E=negligible
F(t)=FM+FR+FK Taking LTs
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 RCSɵL(s)+ ɵL(s)= ɵj(s)
F(t)= M 𝟐 (t)+ R (t)+ Kx(t)
𝒅𝒕
Taking the LTs
𝒅𝒕
ɵL 1
F(s) = MS 2 x(s) + RSx(s) + Kx(s)
=
ɵj RCS + 1
𝐗(𝐬) 𝟏
=
𝐅(𝐬) 𝐌𝐒 𝟐 +𝐑𝐒+𝐊

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF THERMAL SYSTEMS

https://youtu.be/9HRW8nn74TA

Let: M=Liquid mass

ɵL=Liquid temperature
ɵj =Jacketed temperature
Input-jacket temp ɵj
Output-Liquid temp ɵL
The amount of heat transferred to the liquid ΔQ
depends on resistance R (results between the
wall & steam)
Temperature difference (ɵj- ɵL) at a time interval
Δt.
𝟏
ΔQ= (ɵj- ɵL) Δt------------------------------1
𝑹
From heat balances equation: -
ΔQ
ΔɵL = --------------------------2
𝒄
Where c= Thermal capacitance of the liquid
Re-arranging equation 2
ΔQ =ΔɵLc---------------------------3
Equating equation 3 to 1
RCΔɵL
(𝒕) + ɵL(t) = ɵj(t)
Δt
 𝐿𝑑𝑖 1
V=iR + + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡------------------------2
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
dq
ELECTRICAL ANALOGIES OF MECHANICAL Substitute the value of i= in eqn 2
dt
SYSTEMS dq 𝒅𝟐 𝒒 𝟏
(https://youtu.be/1zyiSeSOr6o) V=R + L 𝟐 + 𝒒 -----------------------3
dt 𝒅𝒕 𝑪
Two systems are said to be analogies to each COMPARE THE ANALOGUES
other if the following conditions are met: -
QUANTITIES FOR MECHANICAL &
i. The two systems must be physically
different e.g. mechanical &electrical ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
systems MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
ii. The differential equation modelling of this Force(F) Voltage(V)
two systems must be the same. Mass(M) Inductance(L)
We have two analogies: - Damper(B) Resistance(R)
i. Force voltage analogy
Spring constant Reciprocal of
(K) 𝟏
capacitor( )
𝑪
Displacement x Charge (q)
Velocity (V) Current (i)

ii. Force current analogy

F=FM+FB+FK
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑉 1 𝑑𝑣
F(t)= M (t)+ B (t)+ Kx(t)--------------1 i= + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 -----------------4
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛷
substitute V=
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝛷 1 𝒅𝟐 𝛷
i= + 𝛷+𝐶 ----------------5
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝒅𝒕𝟐
hence
𝒅𝟐 𝛷 1 𝑑𝛷 1
i= 𝐶 + + 𝛷---------------6
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Comparing equation 1 and 6
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
F(t)= M (t)+ B (t)+ Kx(t)---------1
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
 Where never the armature is rotating a voltage
proportional to the product of the flux and angular
TRANSLATION MECH SYS ELECTRICAL SYSTEM velocity is induced to the armature.
Force (F) Current (I) If 𝛷 = constant then
Mass (M) Capacitance(C) 𝒅ɵ 𝒅ɵ
Frictional coefficient (B) Reciprocal of Eb𝝰 Eb=Kb --------------1
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
1
resistance(𝑅) Taking LTs
Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Eb(s)=K b 𝑺ɵ(s)
1 Equation of the motor
inductance(𝐿)
Displacement(x) V=Ia Ra + 𝐄𝐛
Flux𝛷
Velocity (V) Voltage (V) Block representation

DC MOTOR TRANSFER FUNCTION

(https://youtu.be/mMp5Wq_rZQY)
1) Armature controlled D.C Motor
Coming up with the differential equation from the
sketch
𝑑𝑖𝑎
Ea=IaRa+𝐿𝑎 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐸𝑏
Taking LTs
Ea(s)= RaIa(s)+LaSIa(s)+Eb(s)
Ea(s) - Eb(s)=Ia(s)(Ra+LaS)
Making Ia(s) the subject of the formula:
𝐄𝐚(𝐬)−𝐄𝐛(𝐬)
Ia(s)=
𝐑𝐚+𝐋𝐚𝐒

In this system let:

Ra=Armature winding resistance ohms
La= “ “ induction Henrys
Ia= “ “ Amperes
If= Field current amperes Relationship between the electrical system and
Ea=Applied current amperes rotational system.
Eb=Back emf volts The armature current usually produce a torque
ɵ=Angular displacement of motor shaft radians which is supplied to the inertia and the friction
T=Torque delivered by the motor kgm Torque equation:
J=Equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load 𝟐
referred to the motor shaft kgm2
f=Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of the motor
J𝐝𝐝𝐭 ɵ+ f dɵdt = T = KIa----------------3
𝟐
Taking LTs
and the load referred to the motor shaft
JS2ɵ(s)+FSɵ(s)=KIa(s)
kgm/rad/sec
ɵ(s)( JS2+FS)=KIa(s)
Φ𝝰If therefore Φ = K f If
K f = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
Φ = flux(airgap)
T𝝰Ia Φ T = KT Ia Φ hence
T = KT Ia Kf If
Armature controlled If is constant hence
K T Kf If = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭=K thus
T = KIa If (𝐬) 𝟏
K-motor torque constant =L 𝑺+I R
Combining the block diagrams 𝐄𝐟(𝐬) f f f
Block 1

Using torque equation:

ɵ(𝐬) 𝐊 𝟐

𝐄𝐚(𝐬)
=
𝐒{(𝐋𝐚𝐉𝐒 𝟐 +(𝐋𝐚𝐟+𝐑𝐚𝐟)𝐒+𝐊𝐊𝐒} J𝐝𝐝𝐭 ɵ+ F dɵdt = T = K2If ----------------3
𝟐
LTs of the equation above.

FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR JS2ɵ(s)+FSɵ(s)= K 2 If (s)

ɵ(𝐬)
K2
=𝟐
If (𝐬) 𝐉𝐒 +FS

Let Rf=Field winding resistance ohms

Lf= “ “ inductance henrys
If= “ “ current amperes
Ef=applied field voltage volts Hence the overall transfer function is given by:
Ra=Sum of armature resistance and inserted
resistance ohms
Ia=armature current amperes

ɵ= Angular displacement of the motor shaft

radians ɵ(𝐬)
K
T=Torque developed by the motor kg-m =(L S+R )(𝐉𝐒2 𝟐 +FS)
J=Equivalent moment of inertia and load Ef (𝐬) f f
referred to the motor shaft kg-m2.
F=Equivalent viscous friction coefficient of
the motor referred to the motor shaft,
Kg-m/rad/sec
Torque T developed by the motor is directly
proportional to flux and armature current.
T𝝰 ΦIa hence T=KTΦIa
IaKFIFKT=Constant
Therefore
T=K2If ---------------------------1
𝑑I
𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝑡f + If Rf = Ef--------2
Taking LTs
LfSIf(s)+RfIf(s)=Ef(s)
EXAMPLE 2 𝐡
But qo= 𝐑
For the liquid level system shown below 𝒅𝒉 𝐡
obtain the governing mathematical model 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆: 𝑪 = 𝒒𝒊 −
where:
𝐝𝐭 𝐑
𝒅𝒉
Qi=Inflow rate of the liquid in m3/sec 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆: 𝑹𝑪 + 𝒉 = 𝑹𝒒𝒊
𝐝𝐭
Qo=Outflow rate of the liquid in
M3/sec Laplace transforms:
Ho=Height of the liquid in m 𝑹𝑪𝐒𝐇(𝐬) + 𝑯(𝒔) = 𝑹𝒒𝒊
Δ=Change in respective values
𝑯(𝒔) 𝑹
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: =
𝐐(𝐬) 𝐑𝐂𝐒 + 𝟏

Under steady state condition: -

qi=qo
𝐡
qo=
𝐑
Rate of liquid Inflow-Rate of liquid
outflow=Rate of storage/volume in the
tank
𝒅𝒗
= 𝒒𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐
𝐝𝐭
Where:
R=resistance of the outlet pipe
C=capacitance of the tank (rate
of volume (m3) of the tank over rate of
change of height (m))
𝒅(𝑨𝒉)
= 𝒒𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐
𝐝𝐭
𝒅𝒉
𝑨 = 𝒒𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐
𝐝𝐭
But Capacitance=Area
Hence
𝒅𝒉
𝑪 = 𝒒𝒊 − 𝒒𝒐 − − − − − −𝟏
𝐝𝐭