CHEMISTRY

mandag 21. august 2023 11:18

Study of atoms

Interactions of elements

Labs / practicals / experiments

Different reactions

Fun

Hard?

Notes Page 1
Structure 1 - Models of the particulate nature of matter

Notes Page 2
1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter
søndag 20. august 2023 20:34

Element: An element is a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with

the same number of protons in the atomic nucleus.

Oxygen the atom, O

Oxygen the element,

Compound: A compound is a substance made by chemically combining two or

more elements in a fixed ratio of atoms.
The physical properties of a compound are different from those of its
constituent elements

Mixture:

Water and oil: heterogeneous mixture

Salt and sand: heterogeneous,

Notes Page 3
Ketchup: homogeneous

Salt and water: homogeneous

Air: homogeneous

How can we separate sand from salt? Design an experiment

1. Add water to the mixture. Salt will dissolve, sand will not
2. Separate the sand using a filter
3. Boil the water solution to evaporate water --> pure salt

How does the movement of particles differ in solid/liquid/gas?

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The movement of particles depends on the temperature
Absolute zero: The theoretical temperature where particles have no kinetic
energy --> no movement. We cannot og beyond this temperature.

--> 0 degrees K. - 273.15 degrees celsius

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 1.2 The nuclear atom
tirsdag 29. august 2023 09:08

Practical 3 - Build an atom

Use the periodic table to determine the atomic number of the elements in the
following questions.
1. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons do chlorine atoms have?

2. The mass number of gold (Au) is 197. How many neutrons does it have?

3. Carbon has several isotopes. How many protons, electrons and neutrons does 14C have?

4. What is the atomic number of Li? How many protons and electrons does Li have?

5. What does the atomic mass in the periodic table represent? Why is the atomic mass
value not exact?

The nuclear symbol provides information on the number of subatomic particles within the atoms
of an element.

Nuclear symbol

• The mass number, A, is the total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
• The atomic number, Z, is the number of protons. The atomic number is characteristic for each
element. Atoms of the same element always have the same atomic number.
• Since elements have no overall charge (they are net neutral), the number of electrons in the
atoms is also equal to Z.
• In ions, the number of electrons is different from the number of protons.
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass numbers. They have identical
chemical properties but different physical properties, namely, mass.

Notes Page 8
Rb exists in two isotopic forms, Rb-85 and Rb-87. Use your
Periodic Table to find the abundance of the two isotopes

The average relative mass =

Notes Page 9
 The abundance of Rb-85 is 76,5% and Rb-87 is 23,5%

2.2 The Mass Spectrometer

The result of analysis by a mass spectrometer are presented in

the form of a mass spectrum

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1.3 Electron configuration
tirsdag 29. august 2023 14:52

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 Models of the Atom Timeline

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HL 1.3.6 + 1.3.7
fredag 15. september 2023 14:14

First ionisation energy: the minimun energy needed to remove

one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in their
ground state

What makes it easy/hard to remove an electron?

- The pull of the nucleus (+) on the electron (-)
- Electron configuration

How do we know how far out to go to find the convergence limit of

lines?

1) Graphically
- Need data on frequency of each energy level
- Plot frequency (f) against Δf
- Regression to find x-axis interception Transfer the table to a spreadsheet and add a new column called Δf. Find the values in this row by letting the spread sheet find the difference between n=3 and n=2, and autofill for
- Use E = h v to find frequence the rest of the row

For Hydrogen:

Remember: the higher the frequency, the

lower the wavelength, the higher the
energy! ( c = f

This will give you a table like this:

X-axis interception has a y value = 0 --> this is when there is no
difference in frequency between energy levels --> we have reached
convergence --> when ionization happens!

Here: interception when x =

E=hf Mark Frequency and Δfrequency and use the regression tool to find the line of best fit:

E = 6.63*10^-34 * 32.357*10^-14 NEED TO SCALE THIS UP TO ONE

MOLE BECAUSE OF THE DEFINITION.

1mole = 6.02*10^23

E=

Choose a model that fits well, and transfer it to the graphing area.
Find where the graph crosses the x-axis, here C - this is where Δfrequency = 0

Q page 76-77

Notes Page 24
Q page 76-77

The intersection between the graph and the x-axis tells me when the difference in frequency between neighbouring energy levels = 0 ---> the convergence limit of lines.
To calculate the energy needed to reach this (the Ionisation energy), I need to use the forumal E = h * f, where h is plancksconstant and f is frequency. Since the definition of
ionisation energy is given per mol of atoms, I have to multiply by 6.02*10^23, which is the quantity ofone mole.

- General increase: it gets harder and harder to remove an electron

as we get closer to the nucleus and the positive charge of ion
increases

- Large "jumps" when we move from a energy level (shell) further

out to one closer to the nucleus, for example from n = 3 to n = 2

- A smaller "jump" within one shell --> going from one subshell to

Notes Page 25
 increases

- Large "jumps" when we move from a energy level (shell) further

out to one closer to the nucleus, for example from n = 3 to n = 2

- A smaller "jump" within one shell --> going from one subshell to
another, for example from 2p to 2s (2s is more stable than 2p)

Homework: read page 77 - 84

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1.4 Counting particles by mass: the mole
mandag 25. september 2023 08:01

How big is a mole? (Not the animal, the other one.) - Daniel Dulek

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No units!
Can be found in the databooklet, section 7

Relative formula mass, Mr - when we have a compound, not just an

atom.

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Solvent - the thing we dissolve in. Highest quantity of

Solute - the thing that we dissolve

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DILUTION - MONDAY 02.10

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How can you prepare a 250 mL solution of
0.075 moldm-3 HCl from a solution of 0.120
moldm-3 HCl?

Notes Page 36
I need to measure out 156.25 mL of 0.120 HCl and transfer to a 250 mL volumetric flask. Then
I need to add water until the mark, and mixt thoroughly.

Notes Page 37
The simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element in a
compound

Show all the atoms present in a molecule, not just the ratio

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Notes Page 39
AVOGADRO'S LAW | Animation

Coefficient: gives the number molecules/atom

Index: gives the number of atoms within a molecule/formula

The coefficient gives the mole ratio of the reaction:

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16.10 - Self study
mandag 16. oktober 2023 09:07

1. Reading assignment on Kognity (Name: Self study 03.10 lesson 2) Read and make notes
where needed.
2. Question assignment on Kognity (Name: Questions 03.10 lesson 2).
3. LAST 5 MINUTES: Answer “Week 40 reflections” given in OneNote under your personal
folder - Reflections

If you finished step 1 and 2 before the break, have a go at these questions:

Notes Page 43
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Answers InThinking
mandag 16. oktober 2023 09:11

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1.5 Ideal gases
mandag 23. oktober 2023 09:29

How to increase the pressure in the box?

- Add more particles

- Increase the temperature
- Decrease the volume of the box

The pressure is dependent on the number of collisons with the

wall

An "ideal gas" is a theoretical concept - no real gas fits the description perfectly.

Assumption 1 and 2 don't hold for real gases:

Notes Page 47
Why at low temperature and high pressure?

1) At high pressure and low temperature, the distance between the particles
are significantly reduced --> more collisions --> greater pressure than
predicted of an ideal gas. See description under S 1.5 figure 3
2) The reduction in speed caused by the intermolecular forces is most
significant when the average speed is relatively low, which happens at low
temperatures. See description under S 1.5 figure 4

What Happens If You Freeze Balloons (0:33-1:00)

Notes Page 48
Relationship between volume and temperature:

The higher the temperature, the greater the volume

Relationship between pressure and volume:

The greater the volume, the lower the pressure

Relationship between pressure and temperature:

Increase of temperature --> increase of pressure (V is constant)

Temp increases --> pressure should increase

Notes Page 49
Temp increases --> pressure should increase

Notes Page 50
Ideal Gas Law Introduction

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Structure 2 - Models of bonding and structure
mandag 6. november 2023 09:30

Notes Page 53
2.1 The ionic model
mandag 6. november 2023 09:33

Notes Page 54
Polyatomic ions: ions that are made up of more than one atom.
Need to memorise the formula and the name

Notes Page 55
How does the reactivity change across and down the
periodic table?

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First ionisation energy: the minimum energy needed to remove
one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in their
ground state

Q page 160-161

Notes Page 57
The lattice enthalpy:
The energy required to separate the ions in a lattice

Notes Page 58
MELTING POINT

High lattice enthalpy means high melting point

--> same trends for melting point

SOLUBILITY

Notes Page 59
CONDUCTIVITY
Need freely moving ions to conduct electricity
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or aqueous state

BRITTLENESS

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Test yourself: naming ionic compounds
mandag 20. november 2023 10:31

Barium sulphate

Magnesium posphate

Sodium carbonate

Sodium hydrogencarbonate

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mandag 6. november 2023 10:24

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2.2 The covalent model
mandag 27. november 2023 09:43

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2.2.1 - 2.2.3 - Lewis structure to coordination bond
mandag 27. november 2023 09:44

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Page 182

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LEWIS FORMULA OF CARBON MONOXIDE

Page 185

Notes Page 73
2.2.4 VSEPR - model
tirsdag 28. november 2023 08:43

H2O

Electron domain:
In how many areas around the central atom do we find electrons?

--> all electron locations in the valence shell (non-bonding, single, double
or triple bonded pairs)

--> need the Lewis formula to determine the number

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Q page 192

Notes Page 76
VSEPR Theory Practice Problems

Chemistry VSEPR Theory

Notes Page 77
What Shapes Do Simple Molecules Make | Properties of Matter | Chemistry | FuseSchool
FuseSchool - Global Education

Notes Page 78
2.2.5 - 2.2.6 Polarity
tirsdag 28. november 2023 13:00

The electrons are not always shared equally in a covalent bond

- Depends on the electronegativity of the atoms

Electronegativity: a measure of the ability of an atom to attract

electrons in a covalent bond. It is described using the Pauling scale
from 0 - 4

Notes Page 79
Effects of difference in electronegativity:

Cl gains more posession of the

electron pair --> partial negative
charge

Pure covalent / truly non-polar: bonds between the same

atoms

Notes Page 80
Page 196

Notes Page 81
 Rule of thumb: need a lone pair to have an
unsymmetrical charge distribution

Page 198

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2.2.7 Covalent network structures
mandag 4. desember 2023 09:25

Covalent network structures / giant covalent molecules:

Crystalline lattice where the atoms are linked together by
covalent bonds.
--> One giant molecule with a regular repeating pattern

Allotropes: different forms of the same element. May

differ in the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids
or in the occurence of molecules that contain different
numbers of atoms

CARBON:

Notes Page 84
SILICON AND SILICON DIOXIDE:
Silicon: group 14

SiO2 - silica / quartz

Notes Page 85
Carbon Video - The Periodic Table of Videos - University of Nottingham (periodicvideos.com)

Notes Page 86
2.2.8-2.2.10 Intermolecular forces
mandag 4. desember 2023 09:44

Size and polarity determines the attractive forces

between molecules (the intermolecular forces)

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 Helpful video on hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen Bonding and Common Mistakes

Notes Page 90
 A dipole-dipole attraction occurs between two dipoles (polar molecules)

Hydrogen bonding is a special case of dipole-dipole

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Volatility: ability to evaporate

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2.2.10 Intermolecular forces and chromatography
mandag 18. desember 2023 20:52

Used for: separation and identification of the components of a mixture

In normal chromatography: the stationary phase is polar

Notes Page 93
Like dissolves like: a polar substance will spend more time in the stationary phase than a non-polar
substance.

Notes Page 94
HL 2.2.11 + 2.2.12 Resonance structure and benzene
tirsdag 5. desember 2023 08:53

Draw the Lewis formula of Ozone, O3

Delocalisation of electrons: When electrons are shared between

more than one bonding position

For ozone: the electrons from the double bond delocalise and spread
themselves equally between both possible bonding positions,
--> Resonance hybrid

Notes Page 95
Watch on your own. Make notes and do questions page 227 (30 min total)

Benzene Structure and Bonding (A-Level Chemistry)

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HL 2.2.13 Molecules with an expanded octet
tirsdag 5. desember 2023 13:25

Elements from period 3 or below can expand their octet

by using d orbitals in their valence shell

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HL 2.2.14 Formal charge
torsdag 7. desember 2023 13:42

Draw the Lewis formula of ClO3-

It is sometimes possible to follow the rules for drawing

Lewis structures and come up with more than one possible
structure that seems acceptable (most often with molecules
that can have an expanded octet)
--> need a way to determine the most stable --> FORMAL CHARGE

Notes Page 102

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 HL 2.2.15 - 2.2.16 Sigma and pi bonds and Hybridization
mandag 11. desember 2023 10:24

Atomic orbitals overlap to form a new

molecular orbital that is lower in energy

The shape of a molecular orbital depends on

the shapes of the overlapping orbitals

The overlap gives rise to a covalent bond.

The overlap can be head on (along the x-axis) or sideways/laterally

Sigma and Pi Bonds (A-Level Chemistry)

Notes Page 105

Give the electron configuration of C using an orbital diagram box

Methane has 4 bonds of equal

length and strength. How is that
possible when C only has two
unpaired electrons?

Notes Page 106

 unpaired electrons?

Notes Page 107

 Hybridization of C-atoms can be determined based on bond character:
-Carbon single bond : sp3
-Carbon double bond: sp2
-Carbon triple bond: sp

This only counts for carbon.

Hybridization for other atoms must be based on the electron domains.

We need to know the number of electron domains --> draw the Lewis formula

E.D of N: 4 --> sp3 --> < 109.5

Notes Page 108

 We need to know the number of electron domains --> draw the Lewis formula

E.D of N: 4 --> sp3 --> < 109.5

E.D of C: 3 --> sp2 --> 120

Notes Page 109

2.3 The metallic bond
tirsdag 12. desember 2023 12:43

Metallic character - the loss of controll over outer electrons

- Small number of valence electrons

- Low ionization energies --> easily lose their outer electrons

Properties of metals?

Notes Page 110

Properties of metals?
- Malleable: can be bent
- Conduct electricity
- Conduct heat
- High melting point (solid at room temp, except Hg)
- Shiny
- Ductile

Metals lose their valence electrons --> delocalised

- No longer associated closely with one metal nucleus
- Spread themselves through the metal structure
- Metals form cations
- Lattice structure surrounded by freely moving electrons

Metallic bonding: The electrostatic attraction between a lattice of

cations and delocalised electrons

So how can the description of the metallic bond explain each of the
mentioned properties of metals?

Notes Page 111

 - The higher the charge of the cation, the higher the number of
delocalised electrons
--> stronger attraction
- The smaller the radii, the higher charge density, the stronger the
attraction is

Same charge of cation, same number of delocalised electrons. The one woth the smallest radius will
have the highest melting point

Notes Page 112

HL 2.3.3 Transition elements
mandag 18. desember 2023 09:49

Transition elements:
- Incomplete d sublevel
- Can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sublevel

Mainly d-block elements, but not all. Why isn't zinc included?

What makes transition elements special?

- Can delocalise d-electrons (in addition to the valence s-electrons)
--> particularly high melting points and electrical conductivity

Higher number of delocalised electrons --> higher charge on the

Notes Page 113
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Higher number of delocalised electrons --> higher charge on the
cation --> higher melting point
- No clear trend across the d-block
- Due to similar ionic radii + large number of delocalised electrons

Higher number of delocalised electrons --> more electrons available to

move freely --> better conductivity

Notes Page 115

Notes Page 116
2.4 From models to materials
onsdag 3. januar 2024 10:00

Notes Page 117

2.4.1 - 2.4.2 The bonding triangle
onsdag 3. januar 2024 10:22

Enables us to make better predictions and explanations of many properties

of compounds.

Example:
Comparison of NaCl and AlCl3:
- Salts (metal and non-metal)
- Ionic bonding

We know that ionic compounds have higher melting points than covalent compounds. As AlCl 3 has a
strong covalent character, it will also (to a greater degree than NaCl) hold some of the properties of
covalent compounds. This can explain why NaCl has a greater melting point than AlCl 3

Composite material: combination of two materials with different physical

and chemical properties. As these are mixtures, each component retains its

Notes Page 118

Composite material: combination of two materials with different physical
and chemical properties. As these are mixtures, each component retains its
individual properties --> a material with enhanced properties designed for
specific purposes

Q page 270 + question 1 and 2 2.4 From models to materials

Notes Page 119

2.4.3 Alloys
onsdag 3. januar 2024 10:41

Alloys: homogenous mixtures containing at least one metal,

and are held together by metallic bonding

Produced by adding one metal element to another metal (or carbon) in the
liquid state
--> different packing of the cations in the lattice --> some distinct properties
compared to their component elements.

Find three examples of alloys. Include:

- Name of alloy
- Component metals
- Properties and uses

Notes Page 120

Notes Page 121
2.4.4 - 2.4.5 Polymers
tirsdag 9. januar 2024 13:24

1) Define the following terms and give examples:

Monomer:
a molecule that can react together with other monomer molecules to form a larger
polymer chain
(Wikipedia)

Polymer:
a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called macromolecules,
composed of many repeating subunits held together by covalent bonds.
(Wikipedia)

Macromolecule: Very large molecule

Notes Page 122

Macromolecule: Very large molecule

Natural polymeres: Polymers that occurs in nature. For example proteins,

starch, DNA

Synthetic polymers: Human-made polymers. For example: plastics

2) Read the article : Plastic Definition and Examples in Chemistry (thoughtco.com)

3) Puzzle

4) Make notes page 277 - 288

5) Questions page 279

Notes Page 123

HL 2.4.6 Condensation polymers
fredag 12. januar 2024 15:04

- Condensation: two molecules are combined to form a single molecule. A

small molecule is released.

- Need two functional groups that are able to react together

SOME RELEVANT FUNCTIONAL GROUPS:

- Alcohol

- Carboxylic acid

- Amine

- Ester

- Amide

Notes Page 124

General representation:

Specific example

Notes Page 125

 - One monomer with two amine groups + one monomer with two
caboxylic acid groups OR
- Two monomers with one amine and one carboxylic acid group each

Polyamide = nylon

Notes Page 126

HYDROLYSIS = OPPOSITE OF CONDENSATION
When a large molecule is broken down to two smaller molecules by the
help of a water molecule

Notes Page 127

Notes Page 128
Structure 3 - Classification of matter
mandag 15. januar 2024 20:34

Notes Page 129

3.1 The periodic table: Classification of elements
mandag 15. januar 2024 20:51

Video:

Wider Periodic Table - The Periodic Table of Videos - University of Nottingham (periodicvideos.com)

There's More Than One Periodic Table. Here Are Some Designs You've Never Seen : ScienceAlert

Notes Page 130

 3.1.1 - 3.1.4 Periodic table and periodicity
mandag 15. januar 2024 20:57

Atomic radius:

Notes Page 131

Atomic radius:

- Increases down a group: The addition of an extra shell increases the radius
- decreases across a period: Same number of shielding electrons, but higher nuclear
charge --> higher effective nuclear charge and stronger attraction towards the nucleus

Ionic radius:
- Increase down a group
- Decreases across a period (ish)

Notes Page 132

Ionization energy:

- Increase across a period: Increase in effective nuclear charge makes it harder to remove
an electron (some exceptions - previously discussed in HL)

- Decrease down a group: Same effective nuclear charge, longer distance to nucleus -->
easier to remove an electron

Electron affinity:

- Increase across a period: higher effective nuclear charge makes it easier to accept an
electron

- Decreases down a group: Same effective nuclear charge, longer distance to nucleus -->
less attraction towards the nucleus makes it harder to gain an electron

Electronegativity:

Notes Page 133

Notes Page 134
Alkali Metals Reacting with Water

High Speed Chemistry Caesium - The Periodic Table of Videos - University of Nottingham (periodicvideos.com)

Notes Page 135

Notes Page 136
3.1.5 Metal and non-metal oxides
fredag 19. januar 2024 14:11

We should be able to say something properties of

corresponding oxides across a period in the periodic table:
- pH trends
- Reaction with water (group 1, group 2, C, S) and relate to
acid rain and acidification of the ocean

Notes Page 137

Reactions with water:

Group 1:

Group 2:

Notes Page 138

Non-metals:

Amphoteric:
Can react both as an acid and as a base

Whatever happened to acid rain? - Joseph Goffman

Notes Page 139

Notes Page 140
3.1.6 Oxidation states
tirsdag 23. januar 2024 08:41

OXIDATION:
- The addition of oxygen
- The removal of hydrogen
- Electron loss
- An increase in oxidation state

Notes Page 141

Oxidation state: the hypothetical chare of an atom if all of its bonds to
other atoms were fully ionic --> all electrons transferred to the most
electronegative atom

Notes Page 142

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