Anode Voltage Drop and Anode Spot Formation in dc Vacuum Arcs

C. W. Kimblin

Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 40, 1744 (1969); doi: 10.1063/1.1657842

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1657842
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 1744 H. E. BISHOP AND J. C. RIVIERE

from expressions (13) and (14). That is, at small
amplitudes, up to about A = 0.3p, the current increases
linearly with amplitude; at large amplitudes, however,
which means in practice A> 3p, the current decreases
as the square root of the amplitude. At some inter-
mediate value of A, the current must pass through a
maximum; that is, there is an optimum value of the
modulating amplitude for maximum sensitivity, in the
electrostatic analyzer.
4. CONCLUSIONS
(a) Under the conditions employed in Auger-emis-
sion spectroscopy, the probability of production of
photons is negligible.
(b) There is an optimum primary electron energy for
excitation of a particular Auger peak, at between 3 and
3,5 times the critical ionization potential involved. On
the other hand, the Auger current will not change in
magnitude greatly between primary energies of 2.5 and
6 times the critical ionization potential.
(c) In a typical example of in terest in surface physics,
that of oxygen adsorbed on a copper surface, the total
Auger current to be expected from K-shell ionization in
the oxygen, at monolayer coverage, can be calculated
to be about 2XIQ-ll A.
(d) If the retarding field method of energy analysis
is used, the current in the second harmonic of the ac
component of the collected current increases with the
square of the amplitude of modulation up to an ampli-
tude of about half the rms width of the Auger peak, and
thereafter flattens off with increasing amplitude, to a
constant value.
(e) If the electrostatic deflection type of energy
analysis is used, the current in a peak in the differential
distribution increases linearly with amplitude of modu-
lation up to an amplitude of about one-third that of the
rms width of the peak, then passes through a maximum,
and, as the amplitude becomes about three times the
rms width of the peak, decreases again with the inverse
square root of the amplitude.

JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS VOLUME 40. NUMBER 4 15 MARCH 1969

Anode Voltage Drop and Anode Spot Formation in de Vacuum Arcs

C. W. KIMBLIN
Westinghouse Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235
(Received 15 October 1968)

Factors influencing the formation of anode spots in vacuum arcs have been investigated. For anode
diameters of 1.25 and 5 em, copper vapor arcs have been drawn to electrode spacings of 2.5 cm, and spot
formation threshold currents of 400 and 2100 A have been determined for the small- and large-diameter
anodes, respectively. Comparison of the arc voltage vs current characteristics, together with probe observa-
tions of potential distribution, reveals that an anode voltage drop is established prior to spot formation.
The magnitude of this drop increases with both electrode spacing and arc current, and decreases with
increase of anode area. By analogy with phenomena in mercury arcs, anode voltage drop formation is
associated with vapor starvation. Photographs reveal that, even in the presence of an anode spot, high-
voltage arcs can exist with a multiplicity of cathode spots and a diffuse arc column. Delays in the onset
of the spot phenomena indicate that a temperature rise of the anode surface to the melting temperature
precipitates the vapor release necessary for spot formation.

I. INTRODUCTION At high currents3-6 the vacuum arc assumes a high-

Vacuum arcs are metal-vapor arcs which burn in a
conducting medium supplied solely by arcing action
on the electrodes. For low-current arcs between closely
spaced contacts, the arc voltage is a characteristic of
the cathode material; the necessary vapor being sup-
plied from a multiplicity of high current-density cath-
ode spots. These low-voltage ("-'20 V for copper),
low-current arcs are further characterized1 •2 by a dif-
fuse arc column, which is essentially field free, and a
diffuse collection of electrons at the anode. The anode
voltage drop is essentially zero.
1 M. P. Reece, J. Inst. Elec. Engrs. (London), New Series, 5,
275 (1959).
2 I. G. Kesaev, Sov. Phys.--Tech. Phys. 9, 1146 (1965).
pressure, high-voltage mode and exhibits a positive
volt-ampere characteristic. Much of the electron cur-
rent is collected at the anode surface in a highly lumi-
nous localized region with resulting gross erosion. The
arc burns in a metal-vapor atmosphere provided by
both electrodes, and a distinct arc column may ap-
pear. It has been further suggested3 that the cathode
spots concentrate in a single region with resulting gross
erosion of the cathode surface.
3M. P. Reece, Proc. lEE 110, 793 (1963).
4T. H. Lee, D. R. Kurtz, and J. W. Porter, Int. Conf. Large
Electric Systems, 21st., (Paris: CIGRE) 2, Paper 121 (1966).
6 R. E. Voshall, IEEE Trans. Paper 68-TR-649, Summer Power
Meeting, Chicago (1968).
6 J. D. Cobine and T. A. Vanderslice, IEEE Trans. Comm.
Electronics 82,240 (1963).

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 DC VACUUM ARCS
Factors influencing the transition between these low-
current and high-current arcing modes have been in-
vestigated in the present experiments, with particular
reference to the transition between diffuse and spot
collection modes at the anode. A small-diameter anode
has been drawn to long electrode spacings from a 5-cm-
diam cathode, and high arc voltages have been observed
for dc currents in the range 80--2100 A. Arc voltage vs
current characteristics have been determined at an
electrode spacing of 2.5 cm, and corresponding condi-
tions at the electrode surfaces have been determined
from arc photographs. The potential distribution within
these arcs has also been probed. In particular, the arc
voltage and threshold current for anode spot formation
have been determined. Similar data has been obtained
using the same cathode but larger diameter anode, and
results for the two anode geometries have been com-
pared. Differences in the V-A characteristics and
threshold currents reveal the pertinent factors which
influence both the magnitude of the anode voltage
drop and anode spot formation.
Time-dependent spot formation has been investigated
in dc arcing experiments using the smaller-diameter
anode. In these experiments, discussed in Sec. III, the
electrodes were separated to preset spacings, and the
duration of high-voltage arcing was increased until
anode spot formation was first observed. These results
are interpreted in terms of temperature rises at the
anode surface.
II. ARC VOLTAGE OBSERVATIONS
A. Experimental Apparatus and Technique
Experiments have been performed using a continu-
ously pumped demountable chamber (Fig. 1) in which,
- High VoHage
Insulator
: :
*.T:----ji-~---~;;L
'l=.=-==- [~:~~ J- Cathode - -
Observation
Windcm
·J----r--- [11.- 1. 25 em diam
Potential Probe : : Anode
.. (pumping port)
Probe l.l. Bellows Shield
Insulator '--.....,r-....,F:'.'t--1'--r--~
~it--- High VoHage Insulator
Bellcms Guide
Sylphon Bellcms
FIG. 1. Electrode configuration within the arc chamber. (In-
ternal components depicted in dashed outline.)
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1745
~1
141._---=:Ca:.::m::::er7-aExposure :..:pe::..:ri=od_ _..
I II second I I
Circuit
I I
I I
Current
I I
I
I
Time
Electrode Instant of
Spacing separation
FIG. 2. Experimental sequence.
following bakeout at 300°C, the pressure was main-
tained at ~2X1O-8 Torr. The chamber was equipped
with a 5-cm-diam observation port, and the bellows
system permitted a maximum electrode separation of
3.2 cm. A 5-cm-diam copper electrode of ultrahigh
purity was used throughout as the stationary cathode
electrode, and the opposing moveable anode was formed
from either a 1.25-cm-diam copper rod (shown in Fig. 1)
or, alternatively, a 5-cm-diam disk. This latter disk had
exactly the same dimensions as the cathode electrode
(including a 4 cm length of broad electrode stem), and
was substituted for the 1.25-cm-diam rod when experi-
ments with the smaller anode had been completed.
Arcs were drawn in the current range 80--2100 A
using Westinghouse type WSH arc welders as the dc
power supply. These welders have an open circuit volt-
age of 75 V and can deliver, for example, 1000 A at
40 V. The welder output voltage increases with current
decrease. Three series-connected welders provided an
essentially constant current supply for experiments in-
volving high mean arc voltage at currents < 1000 A.
For higher arc currents, a series-parallel combination
of four welders was used; each leg of the parallel con-
nection consisting of two welders in series. In all experi-
ments, the power supply "floated" relative to ground
potential; the copper electrodes being isolated from the
grounded metal walls of the chamber by high-voltage
ceramic insulators.
The current-carrying circuit contained sufficient in-
ductance to maintain the arc during periods of arc
instability. Thus arc voltage oscillations and transient
high arc voltages were accompanied by relatively small
fluctuations in atc current. However, extreme instabil-
ity resulted in spontaneous arc extinction.
With reference to the experimental sequence depicted
in Fig. 2, the welders were switched on shortly before
the lower anode electrode was separated from the upper
cathode, and the welder current was automatically
switched off when the electrodes were fully open. The
electrode separation was effected manually with a typi-
cal opening time ,-....,150 msec to maximum spacing, and
the electrode motion was recorded using a linear-motion
potentiometer.
 1746 C. W. KIMBLIN

observation of the arc voltage. On occasion, the second

oscilloscope was used to record the potential assumed
/1 by the 1.3-cm-diam electrostatic probe (Fig. 1) rela-
70
tive to cathode potential. A differential comparator
was employed for this purpose, and the electrode mo-
60
tion was simultaneously displayed to permit subsequent
synchronization of the separate probe potential and arc
la)
voltage oscillograms.
50
>
B. Results
Identical arc voltage vs current characteristics were
u obtained at small spacings when the electrodes were
< first separated. This minimum arc voltage, [Fig 3,
curve (c)], remained essentially constant with arc cur-
I c) rent, varying only from 21 V (60 A)-24 V (2100 A).
------ In the case of the 5-cm-diam anode, low-current arcs
continued to burn with the minimum arc voltage, even
at electrode spacings of 2.5 cm. However, as the arc
10
current was increased, the electrode spacing consistent
with minimum arc voltage became progressively smaller,
the arc voltage exhibiting a positive characteristic for
subsequent increases in arc length. A similar depend-
00 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Arc Current, A ence of arc voltage on both arc current and electrode
spacing was observed for the 1.25-cm-diam anode. In
FIG. 3. Curves (a) and (b) represent arc voltage vs current
characteristics at an electrode spacing of 2.5 cm for anode diam- this case, the onset of high-voltage arcing at given
eters of 1.25 and 5 cm, respectively. V -A characteristics observed current levels was associated with smaller electrode
for both anodes at minimum electrode spacing were identical, spacings than those observed with the 5-cm-diam anode.
curve (c), as were observations of the probe-cathode potential
difference at an electrode spacing of 2.5 cm, curve (d). Further, the voltage rises observed with the 1.25-cm-

A conventional camera recorded arcing conditions

during each sequence. The camera shutter was opened Cathode Potential
manually prior to electrode separation, and the elec-
trodes were moved apart during the ensuing 1-sec
exposure period. Usually a typical time exposure photo-
Zero Arc Current
graph would show copious light emission from the
cathode surface and low light emission from both the Zero Electrode Spaci ng
interelectrode plasma region and the anode surface.
I
On occasion, however, the anode surface would appear II nsta nt of anode spot for mati on)
highly luminous with a luminosity improbable to ex- t = 20 msec per divi sion
Upper Trace Ianode potential during arcing) = 50 V per division
plain from the standpoint of reflected light from the Mid Trace larc current) =400 Aper division
cathode spots. The appearance of anode luminosity Lower Trace lelectrode spacing) =1.1 cm per division
coincided with both anode-melting (observed directly) Ia) Typical Dependence of Arc Voltage on Electrode SpaCing
and arc-voltage changes, and the author consequently
associates the appearance of luminosity at the anode
surface with anode spot formation. An image-converter
framing camera was also available to obtain short-time-
exposure (10 fJ.sec) arc photographs at predetermined _ Zero Electrode Spacing
electrode spacings. --- Cathode Potential
Two dual-trace Tektronix 555 oscilloscopes equipped
with isolation transformers were used to record the
various electrical parameters. One channel of the main
oscilloscope was equipped with a Tektronix type C-A = 20 msec per divi sion
Upper Trace Ielectrode spacing) =1.1 cm per division
dual-trace preamplifier which displayed both the arc Lower Trace I floating probe potential) = 10 V per division
current and electrode motion. A Tektronix type W Ibl Corresponding OSCillogram showing the relative independence
differential comparator was used in conjunction with of probe potentia I
the second channel, and this unit permitted accurate FIG. 4. Observations at 400 amperes--small-diameter anode.

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 DC VACUUM ARCS
diam anode always exceeded the voltage rises observed
with the 5-cm-diam anode for similar conditions of arc
current and electrode spacing.
Volt-ampere characteristics for both anode geome-
tries at an electrode spacing of 2.5 cm are shown in
curves (a) and (b) of Fig. 3. For the small diameter
anode, the arc voltage not only increased with arc
length but became oscillatory with an envelope width
of several tens of volts. The mean arc voltage plotted
in curve (a) represents the voltage value at the center
of this envelope and is determined with an estimated
accuracy of ± 15%.
It will be apparent that, for arc currents <400 A,
the mean arc voltage for the small anode greatly ex-
ceeds the mean arc voltage for the large anode. In the
former case, high-frequency, high-voltage oscillations
with magnitude "-'150 V were superposed on the mean
arc voltage and the arc tended to extinguish spontane-
ously. In the latter case, no oscillations were evident
and the arc remained stable.
For arc currents < 400 A, photographs of both arcs
indicated typical "low-current mode" conditions; a mul-
tiplicity of cathode spots, a diffuse arc column and a
diffuse current collection mechanism at the anode.
A sharp discontinuity in the rise of mean arc voltage
with arc current will be observed [Fig. 3, curve (a)]
at ~400 A for the small diameter anode. With refer-
ence to oscillogram (a) of Fig. 4, the mean arc voltage
was initially observed to rise with electrode spacing
and then suddenly to decrease. During this initial period
of high voltage and high arc instability, arc photographs
revealed a diffuse mode of electron-current collection
at the anode surface. However, the decrease in arc
voltage coincided with the appearance of a highly lumi-
nous localized region at the anode surface. Gross melt-
ing of the anode surface, together with increased arc
stability, accompanied the formation of this anode spot.
Image converter photographs revealed that many cath-
ode spots still existed on the cathode surface, even
though a mode change had occurred at the anode sur-
face. Furthermore, these photographs revealed the con-
tinued presence of a low-luminosity diffuse arc column.
For arc currents ,,-,1000 A and the small-diameter
anode, a highly luminous anode spot appeared shortly
after electrode separation. The arc voltage continued
to increase with electrode spacing to the indicated
value of ~45 V, this final arc voltage containing low-
frequency oscillatory components. Experiments with
this anode were not pursued above 1000 A. At the
higher currents, an anode spot would have formed
almost as soon as the contacts were separated, and the
power dissipated in the high current density spot would
have ruined the electrode stem during the ensuing 150
msec arcing period.
In the case of the large diameter anode, the mean
arc voltage continued to rise with arc current for cur-
rents in the range 400-2100 A. Throughout this range
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1747
arc photographs revealed the continued presence of a
multiplicity of cathode spots, a diffuse arc plasma and
a diffuse current collection mechanism at the anode.
For arc currents> 1000 A, however, the arc exhibited
instability; high-frequency, high-voltage oscillations
being superposed on the mean arc voltage.
It was only at current levels of ~2100 A and maxi-
mum electrode spacing, that an anode spot was formed
on the surface of the large diameter anode. The spot
formed close to the electrode edge and arc photographs
revealed that the area of the luminous region was small
compared to the electrode area. This indication of
small anode spot area was confirmed by direct observa-
tion of the extent of melting on the electrode following
arcing. It was further noted that the high-frequency,
high-voltage oscillations diminished following anode
spot formation and the arc stability increased.
Potentials assumed by the electrostatic probe rela-
tive to cathode potential were also recorded during
these arc-lengthening experiments. With the probe ad-
jacent to the cathode surface as indicated in Fig. 1,
the probe potential remained essentially constant at
~16 V [Fig. 3, curve (d)]; independent of electrode
spacing, arc current, and anode diameter. As clearly
shown in oscillogram (b) of Fig. 4, the probe potential
reflected neither the large rises in mean arc voltage nor
the high-voltage, high-frequency oscillations. Similar
observations of probe potential were recorded when the
probe was displaced a distance of 2.5 cm down the arc
chamber such that the probe was adjacent to the anode
surface with the electrodes fully open.
C. Discussion
The results indicate that even at low currents, vac-
uum arcs can exist with arc voltages well in excess of
the minimum 20 V. Furthermore, arcs with high mean
voltages and superposed high voltage oscillations can
still retain "low-current mode" characteristics; a multi-
plicity of cathode spots, diffuse arc column and a dif-
fuse collection of electron current at the anode surface.
Comparison of the arc voltage characteristics [Fig.
3, curves (a) and (b)] for a given electrode spacing
and cathode geometry reveals that the arc voltage rise
is very much dependent on the anode area. Since the
mean arc voltage and the high voltage oscillations can
be reduced by increasing the anode area, the author
concludes that these voltage changes must be primarily
associated with the formation of an anode voltage drop
rather than voltage changes in either the interelectrode
plasma or cathode region.
Measurements of potential distribution using the
electrostatic probe confirm this conclusion. From Lang-
muir probe theory, a probe immersed in a low-pressure
plasma can be expected to assume a potential several
volts negative relative to the plasma potential. Thus
observations with the probe located adjacent to the
 1748 C. W. KIMBLIN

cathode surface indicate that the cathode fall voltage ence exists between arcs in mercury vapor and arcs
remains essentially constant with both arc current and between copper electrodes. Mercury has a high ambient
electrode spacing with a value several volts higher than vapor pressure, for example 10-3 Torr at 20°C, whereas
16 V. At short spacings when the arc voltage is low copper has a vapor pressure < 10-8 Torr at this tem-
(~21 V), most of the arc voltage must obviously be perature. Thus differences can be expected between
concentrated in the cathode fall, and voltage drops in mercury and copper vapor arC's operating in vessels at
the interelectrode plasma and anode region must be room temperature. The current conduction is probably
essentially zero. At long electrode spacings, however, similar in the cathode regions since vapor jets are also
probe observations in the cathode plane indicate that observed in low-pressure mercury arcs. However, at
most of the voltage rise must be associated with the distances remote from the cathode spots, ionized am-
plasma and anode regions. bient vapor provides the conducting medium in mercury
Probe potential observations with the probe adjacent arcs. For copper arcs, there is practically zero ambient
to the anode permit a distinction between the relative vapor and, since vapor diffusing to the walls is lost to
rises in these two regions. Similar probe potential versus the interelectrode space, the current must be conducted
arc current curves were obtained for the two probe through a medium whose density decreases with dis-
locations. It must therefore be concluded that for these tance from the cathode sources.
relatively low current arcs the interelectrode plasma is Hullll and Knightl2 have observed that the current
essentially field free, and that the voltage rises are carrying capacity (amperes cm-2) of a mercury plasma
associated with the anode region. is limited by the ambient vapor pressure. When this
capacity is exceeded, the arc is termed vapor starved
D. Interpretation and significant rises of electric field ll ,l2,l3 are observed
The experimental data indicates that, for conditions with high-voltage oscillations superposed on the mean
of diffuse current collection at the anode, the anode arc voltage. It will be obvious that, for vacuum arcs
voltage drop increases with both arc length and arc in copper vapor, the density, and consequently the cur-
current. Furthermore, this voltage drop reduces when rent carrying capacity of the plasma, must decrease
either the anode area is increased or, in the case of the with distance from the cathode vapor sources. Owing
smaller electrode, appreciable vapor is released from to diffusion, the radius of the conducting channel can
the anode surface by the action of the anode spot. The be expected to increase with distance from the cathode
author considers that these phenomena can be attrib- and, under these circumstances, the arc path may re-
uted to vapor starvation in the anode region, and will main essentially field free despite the decreasing current
seek to justify this interpretation after a necessary re- carrying capacity of the plasma. However, in regions
view of the basic vacuum arc mechanism. adjacent to the anode the total arc current must be
The cathode regions of relatively low current vac- conducted through an area which is restricted in com-
uum arcs are characterized by a multiplicity of cathode parison with the diameter of the interelectrode plasma.
spots. For 5-cm-diam copper electrodes, the author has It will be apparent that vapor starvation effects can
observed ~100 A per spot, in agreement with Reece's3 be expected in the anode region of copper arcs when,
observations. Prior to anode spot formation, these cath- for a given arc current, the electrodes are separated to
ode spots are the sole source of metal vapor which is a spacing such that the total current exceeds the cur-
introduced into the interelectrode space in the form of rent carrying capacity of the plasma region adjacent
high-velocity vapor jets. The mean velocity of these to the anode. The arc voltage will increase owing to
jets has long been the source of controversy. Reece3 the formation of an anode voltage drop, and in agree-
and Gilmour,1 for example, observe mean jet velocities ment with experiment, this anode drop will increase
,,-,106 cm secl in agreement with earlier observations with further increase of arc length. It will also be ap-
of Mason. 8 Lafferty 9 suggests more modest velocities parent that the anode voltage drop will increase with
"-'105 cm secI, while Arnold lo and von Engel observe decrease of anode area.
an average particle velocity of only 4X 1()4 cm sec-I, Further support for this starvation concept is pro-
with apparently no appreciable numbers of atoms with vided by the change in arc stability and arc voltage
higher velocities. which accompanies anode spot formation. Vapor emit-
The interelectrode copper vapor, when ionized, pro- ted from the spot will increase the current carrying
vides the conducting medium for the arc current, just capacity of the plasma and decrease the arc voltage.
as mercury vapor provides the conducting medium for It will be noted (Fig. 3, curve (a) for the smaller anode)
low-pressure mercury arcs. However, a major differ- that spot formation was accompanied by a marked
7 A. S. Gilmour, AIAA Elec. Propulsion Conf., 5th, San Diego,
voltage reduction.
California, Paper 66-202 (1966).
8 R. C. Mason, Elec. Eng. 52, 709 (1933). 11 A. W. Hull, Elec. Eng. 69, 695 (1950).
9 J. M. Lafferty, Proc. IEEE 54,23 (1966). 12 H. deB. Knight, The Arc Discharge \ Chapman and Hall
10 K. W. Arnold and A. H. von Engel, Proc. 6th Intern. Conf. Ltd., London, 1960), pp. 75, 173, 212,367.
Ionization Phenomena Gases, Paris, 2, 129 (1963). 13 S. Torven, Arkiv Fysik 35, 513 (1968).

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 DC VACUUM
Starvation may also account for the arc voltage in-
creases which occur at fixed electrode spacings when
the arc current is increased beyond certain threshold
values. The cathode spots conduct approximately equal
currents and exhibit mutual magnetic repulsion. 3 At
low currents, the spots can be located near the center
of the cathode electrode, and will contribute vapor to
the interelectrode volume. Low-voltage arcing may then
be possible. At higher currents, many of the additional
spots may be mutually repelled to the periphery of the
cathode electrode, and the jets from these peripheral
spots can be expected to make a reduced contribution
to the interelectrode vapor density. Thus although the
latter will increase slightly with arc current, the in-
crease may not compensate for the current increase,
and higher current arcs may tend to become vapor
starved.
A discussion of anode voltage drop formation and
vapor starvation would be incomplete without refer-
ence to what may be termed the "plasma cone" model
for the vacuum arc. Reece3 and Gilmour7 have observed
that the cathode spots on copper are the source of
high-velocity vapor jets with the vapor concentrated
essentially in a cone of semiangle 300 ; the apex towards
the cathode spot. Reece3 has further observed that low-
voltage vacuum arcs are consistent with a geometry
such that the anode sub tends a large solid angle at the
cathode. These arcs are associated with a low-field and
low-anode drop. Fundamental to the mechanism of such
arcs, Reece3 concluded that some of the positive ions
generated in the cathode-fall regions would be swept
along with the neutral vapor towards the anode, against
the weak field. He tentatively postulated that ",,1 posi-
tive ion was introduced into the cone for every 10
vapor atoms and 100 electrons. Thus a plasma cone
model was proposed in which ions and atoms were
jetting towards the anode at velocities ",,106 cm sec1
(",,34 eV) and electrons at ",,108 cm sec1 (",,3 eV).
Charge neutrality would consequently exist throughout
the cone to the anode surface, and the movement of
the ions would only reduce the total circuit current to
99% of the electron current. Relative to this model,
it is of interest to note that Davis14 and Miller have
observed high positive ion energies in vacuum arcs.
They observed that the energy distribution for ions
peaked at about 40-60 eV per unit charge, although
the distribution for atomic copper peaked at zero
eV.
Reece3 distinguished between arcs in which (a) the
geometry is such that the anode sub tends a large solid
angle at the cathode (the "line of sight" arc) and (b)
the anode subtends only a small solid angle or is even
completely screened from the cathode. It is instructive
to consider a plasma cone model under these two condi-
14 W. D. Davis and H. C. Miller, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 11, 504
(1966) .
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ARCS 1749
tions. In type (a) there is zero field throughout the
plasma cone, and the anode voltage drop is zero. In
type (b), most of the positive ions and vapor "miss"
the anode. The lower energy electrons are easily de-
flected to the anode surface but, since charge neutrality
no longer exists in this region, an anode voltage drop
will develop. Thus the arc voltage for a restricted line
of sight arc can be expected to exceed the minimum
value of ~20 V. Furthermore, Reece's3 calculations
show that the cone vapor density at a distance of 1 cm
from a cathode spot may reduce to ",,5 X 1013 atoms
cm-3. The arc is essentially starved of vapor in the
anode region, and, owing to the long electron mean free
path, electron acceleration in the anode voltage drop
cannot be expected to cause ionization. Thus the anode
voltage drop may even exceed the ionization potential
of the low density vapor.
It should be noted that plasma flow towards the
anode can also influence the anode voltage drop in
high pressure arcs. Finkelnburg15 and Maecker state
that a pronounced effect on the anode drop is made
by a plasma stream flowing axially from the cathode
burning spot. They cite, for example, the work by
Mtiller16 and Finkelnburg who found in a 200 A arc
with a large-surface, nonvaporizing anode, but with a
well-formed plasma stream, an anode drop of only
1±2 V. Busz-Peuckert17 and Finkelnburg have ob-
served similar phenomena in argon arcs.
The plasma cone model can be used to explain the
increase in arc voltage with electrode spacing. As the
anode is drawn to long electrode spacings from the
cathode, the anode surface will subtend a decreasing
solid angle to the cathode spots. An electron space
charge will be formed adjacent to the anode electrode
and the arc voltage will increase. For a given electrode
spacing and arc current, the magnitude of this voltage
rise will obviously depend on the anode surface area;
decreasing with anode area increase, as observed in the
present experiments.
Perhaps this model can also explain the increase in
arc voltage, at a given electrode spacing, with arc cur-
rent. As already outlined, at low currents it can be
expected that the cathode spots will be located near
the center of the cathode where the anode surface
sub tends a large solid angle to each spot. At the higher
currents many of the additional spots may be mutually
repelled to the periphery of the cathode electrode where
the anode will sub tend a small solid angle. Thus, due
to the fact that cathode spots are distributed over the
cathode surface and carry an upper limit of approxi-
mately 100 A, an electron space charge may eventually
develop in the anode region.
16 W. Finkelnburg and H. Maecker, Handbuch der Physik
(Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1956), Vol. 22, Sec. 121, p. 438.
16 G. Miiller and W. Finkelnburg, Naturwiss. 42, 294 (1955).
17 G. Busz-Peuckert and W. Finkelnburg, Z. Physik, 144, 244
(1956) .
 1750 C. W.
TABLE 1. Range of mean arc current and mean voltage rise for
each individual sequence.
Electrode Mean arc Mean voltage Number of
spacing (cm) current (A) rise (V) sequences
~1.3 320--380 ~8 10
2 ~2.2 330--410 20--34 30
3 ~2.5 320--440 40--50 7
III. ANODE SPOT FORMATION
In the present experiments, spot formation threshold
currents have been determined for the small and large
diameter anodes. At an electrode spacing of 2.5 em,
these currents are 400 and 2100 A, respectively. At
these currents and prior to spot formation, substantial
voltage rises from the minimum arc voltages are ob-
served (Fig. 3).
It will be apparent that, for a given anode diameter,
the probability of anode spot formation increases with
both arc current level and electrode spacing; two fac-
tors which increase the anode voltage drop. Further-
more, for a given arc current level and electrode spacing,
the probability of spot formation increases with decrease
in anode diameter; a geometrical change which again
increases the "diffuse mode" anode voltage drop.
These observations lead the author to conclude that,
except perhaps at extremely high currents ('"'-'10 kA)
where magnetic constriction5 can be expected to influ-
ence the arc column, a rise in arc voltage from the
"low-current mode" voltage (,.....,20 V) is a necessary
precursor of anode spot formation; a diffuse-mode anode
voltage drop must be established.
Additional experiments show, however, that estab-
lishment of a diffuse-mode anode voltage drop is a
necessary but insufficient condition for anode spot for-
mation. Significant time lags have been observed be-
tween the onset of high voltage arcing and the transition
to the spot mode of current collection. For example,
when the small diameter anode was rapidly drawn to
an electrode spacing ,.....,2.2 cm at a dc current level
,.....,370 A, the mean arc voltage typically rose by ~27 V
but an anode spot was only formed after ~225 msec
of high-voltage arcing. The relationship between the
magnitude of the arc voltage rise, arc current and time
lag prior to anode spot formation was consequently
investigated in an effort to understand this time de-
pendent phenomenon.
A. Procedure
Time-dependent spot formation was studied using
the small diameter anode at given electrode spacings
for dc arc currents ,.....,380 A. In a typical experimental
sequence, the electrodes were rapidly separated by a
solenoid actuator (opening time ,.....,25 msec) to a preset
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KIM B LIN
electrode spacing and, after an arcing period of con-
trolled but variable duration, the arc current was termi-
nated. For each individual sequence, the arc duration,
mean arc voltage, mean arc current and electrode spac-
ing were recorded oscillographically, and the vacuum
arc was photographed simultaneously. If the photo-
graph revealed a diffuse electron collection mode at
the anode surface, the next sequence would be per-
formed with a longer arc duration at the preset spacing.
Thus for each arcing event, the arcing period was pro-
gressively increased until anode spot formation was first
detected.
Eventual spot formation was detected from the time
exposure photographs. In addition, the arc voltage usu-
ally showed a decrease in both mean value and the
magnitude of the high-voltage oscillations. Further-
more, the anode surface was visually examined after
each arcing sequence to observe the possible presence
of freshly molten regions consistent with spot activity.
B. Results
Time-dependent spot formation was investigated at
essentially three electrode spacings as tabulated in
Table 1.
For each spacing, definite time lags were observed
between the attainment of maximum electrode separa-
tion and anode spot formation. Further, for a given
arc current this lag decreased from several hundred
milliseconds at spacings '"'-'1.3 cm to several tens of
milliseconds at spacings ,.....,2.5 cm.
C. Analysis
It has been observed that a diffuse mode anode volt-
age drop must be established prior to spot formation.
Furthermore, appreciable time lags can exist between
the formation of this anode voltage drop and the onset
of the spot phenomenon. Since the diffuse mode anode
voltage drop will increase the power flux to the anode
surface, these observations suggest that the anode sur-
face temperature plays a significant role in spot forma-
tion.
Following the analysis of Cobine18 and Burger, the
direct electrical power input to an anode surface is
equal to the current I times the sum of the anode
drop V and the work function c/J of the surface; the
latter term being the heat of condensation of the elec-
trons. Thus the electrical power input density P e is
P.=I(V +c/J)/A, ( 1)
where c/J has a value of 4.5 V for copper, and where A
is now the total surface area of the anode electrode.
With this definition for A, it will be obvious that the
diffuse mode of current collection is being considered.
with the further assumption that the current is col-
lected uniformly ov~r the anode end surface.
18 J. D. Cobine and E. E. Burger, J. Appl. Phys. 26,895 (1955).
 DC VACUUM ARCS 1751

In the present work, the anode voltage drop V for a 1.. 1 ....L2--+-3
lOOOr'-m~----r-~'---~--~---'----.
given arc current I and electrode separation d is de-
800
fined as the difference between the arc voltage at
separation d and the arc voltage at minimum electrode 600
separation (,......,21 V). With reference to the previous
400
Table I, it will be observed that heat flux experiments
have consequently been performed for values of V in
ill
the range 6-50 V. E
200
Cobine18 and Burger, in their discussion of spot phe- d;
c:
'u
nomena in high-pressure arcs, state that the anode also <
receives thermal and radiant energy from the arc col- j I I
'0 100 I Surface
umn regions adjacent to the surface. They suggest that >
.c: 1 Temperature Vapor Pressure
= 80 I"
the energy transferred by neutral atom impacts can 'i"
I 1083" C 4 xlo:::~ Torr
15
be neglected, and further assume a 2 V upper limit for 60 1 983°C 3 x 10_ Torr
:5 6
~~~:~ :::: Ilg-7 i~;;
1
the thermal energy of the electrons. ~::J II "
Q 40
In the present analysis for vacuum arcs, it is assumed I
I
that all of these energy terms are negligible compared I
I ----- I
to the electrical energy input. However, the possible ---1 1 -
I I
presence of high-velocity vapor jets3 •7 could make the 2D I
1
neutral impact contribution significant, and radiative I""
energy transfer may be important. I
I
"
10
With the above simplifications, Eq. (1) has been 0 10 15 2D 35
used to calculate the uniform power density at the end -2
Power Input to Anode End Surface, kw cm IP e)
surface of the 1.25-cm-diam anode. Each of the indi-
vidual oscillograms at the three electrode spacings FIG. 5. Time-dependent anode spot formation. For each in-
dividual sequence the power flux to the anode end surface \anode
(Table I) was analyzed to determine V, I, and the voltage rlropXarc current) is plotted vs arc duration. Experi-
duration of the power flux to the anode end surface. mental points designated ",6," indicate a diffuse anode collection
The resulting values of p. are plotted as a function of mode throughout the arcing sequence. The "e" symbols indicate
eventual spot formation. Solid curves represent the theoretical
the observed duration of high voltage arcing in Fig. 5, time for the surface to attain given temperatures.
where the data points are designated by two types of
symbol. The" D." symbol indicates that the mechanism
of current collection at the anode remained diffuse Further, radial power losses can be considered negli-
throughout the arcing sequence. The "e"
symbol in- gible.
dicates eventual anode spot formation.
A large variation in p. will be noted for each particu- D. Discussion of Time-Dependent Observations
lar electrode spacing [range (1), (2) or (3)]. With
reference to Table I, this is due to appreciable varia- From the experimental data and theoretical curves
tions from sequence to sequence in the values of mean of Fig. 5, it will be observed that spot formation is
voltage rise and mean arc current. associated with a large temperature rise at the anode
Theoretical curves have also been plotted in Fig. 5. surface. The data in range (3) lies slightly below the
The four curves indicate the time t required for the high temperature theoretical- curves, but this should
electrode surface to attain a given temperature T when not be considered significant since the power input was
subjected to a given constant power input P, and have difficult to calculate at the longer electrode spacings.
been determined from the simple formula for the tem- For an electrode opening time ,......,25 msec, the power
perature rise at the surface of a semi-infinite solid input during the opening sequence was comparable
subjected to constant heat flUX19 with the power input at constant electrode spacing,
and only the latter has been considered. Thus the ex-
T=2P(kt/lr)1/2/JK, (2) perimental points in range (3) should be displaced
towards higher temperatures.
where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat, k the
Assuming that spot formation is associated with a
thermal diffusivity, and K the thermal conductivity.
temperature rise ,......,1000°C, it is instructive to consider
This equation can be justifiably applied to the present
how anode temperature can possibly influence the for-
experimental conditions since, with a length of 10 cm
mation mechanism. Lafferty9 has suggested a tempera-
and the observed range of power inputs and arc dura-
ture-dependent mechanism which is consistent with
tions, the rod can be considered of infinite length.
the author's concept of vapor starvation. Following
1. H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids Lafferty, some local area of the anode where the heat
(The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1959) 2nd ed., Chap. 2, p. 75. conductance is poor will be heated hot enough to re-

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 1752 C. W. KIMBLIN
lease metal vapor. This vapor will immediately be
ionized by the incident high-energy electron stream,
and the resulting positive ions will neutralize the space
charge in the volume adjacent to the anode area emit-
ting the metal. This will produce a sharp reduction in
the anode voltage drop, and will lead to a runaway
effect causing a constriction of the arc at the anode
with the production of an anode spot.
In the present experiments, however, the indicated
temperature rises are not consistent with an initial re-
lease of appreciable vapor from the anode surface. The
author never observed anode melting without spot for-
mation, and consequently the transition from diffuse
to spot collection must have been associated with a
maximum anode temperature ~ 1083°C. Even at the
melting temperature, the vapor pressure of copper is
only 4X 10-4 Torr (particle density ~3 X 1012 atoms
cm-a) ,~O and this is unlikely to exceed the arc plasma
density at the anode surface, thereby precipitating
Lafferty's formation mechanism. Reece,a for example,
suggests that metal vapor jets result in vapor densities
5 X lOla atoms em-a at a distance of 1 cm from the
cathode of a 100 A arc. Hoyaux,21 by comparison with
low-pressure mercury vapor arcs, expects a plasma den-
sity ,.....,1015 cm-a for vacuum arcs at 1()4 A with a column
diameter of 5 em.
Since spot formation seems to be associated with a
temperature rise ,.....,1000°C but is not directly related
to vapor release from the anode surface, it appears
that the transition phenomena are precipitated by the
onset of anode melting. Several reasons may be postu-
lated.
A localized anode region, probably an edge, will first
begin to melt and, since the factor k 1/ 2/ K [Eq. (2) ]
then increases by approximately 1.4, the rate of rise of
temperature in this molten region will also increase.
A further temperature increase to 1383°C, for example,
would raise the local vapor pressure to ~10-1 Torr and
20 An. N. Nesmeyanov, Vapor Pressure of the Elements (Aca-
demic Press Inc., New York, 1963), p. 457.
21 M. F. Hoyaux, Proc. IEEE 55, 2123 (1967).
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the particle density to 5 X 1014 atoms cm-a. This could
then precipitate the "runaway effect" discussed by
Lafferty. Melting at the anode surface may also be
accompanied by geometric changes within the molten
region. A change which reduces the rate of heat flow
from a molten copper globule will obviously result in
enhanced heating, with subsequent temperature and
vapor-pressure rises followed by spot formation.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
In the transition between "low-current" and "high-
current" arcing modes, electron space charges develop
adjacent to the anode surface with consequent forma-
tion of an anode voltage drop. These high voltage arcs
retain many "low-current mode" characteristics; a cath-
ode fall voltage ,.....,20 V, a multiplicity of cathode spots,
a low field in the diffuse interelectrode plasma (except
in regions adjacent to the anode), and a diffuse collec-
tion of electrons at the anode. Analogies with arcing
phenomena in low vapor pressure mercury tubes indi-
cate that the increased arc voltage is associated with
vapor starvation in the anode region.
Formation of an anode voltage drop results in a heat
flux to the anode surface with consequent temperature
rise. This surface will be grossly eroded if the melting
temperature is achieved since, for copper anodes, a
molten surface in the presence of an anode drop precipi-
tates anode spot formation. Spot formation is accom-
panied by increased arc stability due to reductions in
the magnitude of the high-voltage oscillations and, in
the case of the smaller anode, marked reductions in the
mean arc voltage; presumably due to vapor emission
from the anode into a previously vapor starved region.
Photographs reveal that low-current arcs with a well-
developed anode spot can still exist with a multiplicity
of cathode spots and a diffuse interelectrode plasma.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
. The author wishes to acknowledge valuable discus-
sions with Dr. W. S. Emmerich, Professor M. F.
Hoyaux, R. L. Hundstad, and H. C. Ludwig.