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Square root of 2 -Extension of Ancient Indian Vedic Method

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 Square root of 2 – Extension of Ancient Indian Vedic Method
Vikash Khatri & Pankaj Tiwari
Centre for Vedic Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
BHU, Varanasi, India

Abstract:
Square is one of the main geometric figures used from ancient time for constructing
various sacrifices. From ancient time researchers are not interested in calculating the value of
2 , instead they are interested in measure of diagonal of a square, which obviously 2
times the side of a square.
Many ancient researchers have tried to measure the diagonal of a square or calculate
square root of 2, like Babylonian in 1600 BC, Baudhayana in 800 BC, Greek
mathematician Hero of Alexandria in 60 AD and Newton in modern era.
In this paper we discuss geometric proof of Babylonian and Baudhyana value of 2 .
In detail we discuss ancient Indian Baudhayana Sulba Sutras, in which we proof transfer of
area from rectangle to square, used to calculate the value of 2 , correct upto 5 decimal
places.
We further extend this geometric approach given by Baudhayana to proof irrationality
of 2 . And we see that further extension of this method not only converge as fast as
Newton-Raphson method or Heron’s method, but also more easy and efficient in terms of
calculation.
At last we modify and extend this method, in general, for calculation of square root
and cube root of any natural number.

Keywords. Vedic math, sulba sutras, Baudhayana, Babylonian, diagonal of a square, square
root of 2, Newton Raphson method

.
.

1
1. Introduction
Construct a square of unit side, and measure its diagonal you will get a value which is
approximately equal to 2 , but not exactly equal to 2 , with whatever accuracy you
measure. This gives the real life proof of irrationality of 2 [1].

   

0 1 2 2
Now, consider the successive approximation of 2 that is
3 7 17 41 99 239 577
, , , , , , ,... in which each fraction gives more accurate approximation than
2 5 12 29 70 169 408
its previous one, but it never gives a fraction exactly equal to 2.
In ancient time, the approximate value of 2 was known to the Babylonians [2]
around 1600 B.C, given by Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 in four sexagesimal figures
which is accurate upto five decimal digits, that is
24 51 10 30547
2  1    =1.41421 296...
60 602 603 21600
In India [3], the approximate value of 2 was given by Baudhayana around 800 B.C in
Baudhāyana sūtras [4]. Baudhāyana gives the length of the diagonal of a square in terms of
its sides. That is, ‘The side of the square is to be increased by its third, and this third again
increased by its fourth, which is to be decreased by 34 th, which measure the diagonal of a
1 1 1 577
square [5]. That is, 2  1     =1.41421... , which is accurate upto five
3 4.3 34.4.3 408
decimal digits [6].
Heron's method given by first-century Greek mathematician, Hero of Alexandria, in 60
A.D. is most widely used recursive algorithm in computers for approximating value of 2 . It
states that, with an initial guess a0  0 , iterations are carried out to reach an approximation of
1 2 a 1
a certain accuracy based on the recursive formula, an1   an    n  . And in
2 an  2 an
1 N
general, for N the recursive formula is an 1   an   .
2 an 

2
 In modern era, numerical analysis, Newton's method or Newton–Raphson method, is
most efficient algorithm for finding roots of a real-valued function. It states that, for a real
f ( x0 )
valued function f ( x) , with initial guess x1  x0  , the recursive iterations are carried
f '( x0 )
f ( xn )
out to reach an approximation of a certain accuracy based on the formula, xn 1  xn  .
f '( xn )

Note: Newton method is the general method to find roots of a function, while Heron’s
algorithm is specially used to find square-roots of a number, which is derived by assuming
x 2  2 xn2  2 xn 1
f ( x)  x 2  2  f '( x)  2 x , that is xn 1  xn  n   
2 xn 2 xn 2 xn

2. Baudhayana SulbaSutra: Transformation of a Rectangle into a Square

The process of transforming a rectangle into a square is as follows:
i. Let ABCD be the given rectangle
A D

B C
ii. Cut the portion ABEF, such that AB  BE  width of rectangle and cut the remaining part
CDFE in two equal parts EFPQ = CDPQ.
A F P D

B E Q C

iii. Transfer one part CDPQ and placed it on the other side of square with position AFC’D’
and fit a small square C’FPR at the corner.
D' C' R

F
A P

B E Q

3
iv. Allow the side QR to fall on side EC’, denote this point as R’, similarly allow the side
D’R to fall on side AP, denote this point as R’’

D' C' R
R'

A P
F R ''

B E Q
v. Transfer the side QR to new position passing through R’’ and transfer the side D’R to new
position passing through R’

D' C' R
A' R' S

A P
F R ''

B E Q' Q
vi. Thus the area of new square BQ’SA’ obtained is equal to the area of the given rectangle
ABCD
Note: It would not be an exaggeration to say that Baudhayana method of transforming a
rectangle into the square is the simplest method than all the methods available in modern era.

2.1. Proof: Transfer of a Rectangle into a Square

i. Let the sides of the given rectangle ABCD be 1 and 1+2a, then area of rectangle will be 1.
(1+2a) = 1+2a sq. units. Let the sides of square ABEF be 1 unit and divide the portion DCEF
in two half, such that EQ  QC  a

A F P D

B E Q C
4
ii. After transferring the areas CDPQ on the other side of square we get new square BQRD’
in which small square C’FPR is empty at the corner.
D' C' R

F
A P

B E Q

iii. Now we fill this empty portion C’FPR, by cutting two small portions R’’Q’QP and
R’C’D’A’ (let Q’Q = C’R’= x). Thus we get new square BQ’SA’ of side 1 + a - x

D' C' R
A' R' S

A P
F R ''

B E Q' Q

iv. Let the angle ER ' Q   , then side of square SQ '  BQ '  QR 'cos   (1  a) cos  .

Thus area of the square BQ’SA’ is equal to (1  a) 2 cos 2   (1  a) 2 1  sin 2  

  a 2   1  2a 
 (1  a) 1  
2
   (1  a) 2  2 
 1  2a , which is equal to area of the given
  1 a    (1  a ) 
 
rectangle ABCD.

3. Baudhayana SulbaSutra: Value of 2 or diagonal of a unit square

Baudhayana around 1600 B.C in Baudhāyana sūtras, gives the length of the diagonal of
a square in terms of its sides. That is, ‘The side of the square is to be increased by its third,
and this third again increased by its fourth, which is to be decreased by 34 th, which measure
1 1 1 577
the diagonal of a square. That is, 2  1    =1.41421...
3 4.3 34.4.3 408
5
 1 1 1
Proof: The proof of 2  1   is based on transformation of rectangle into a
3 4.3 34.4.3
square. The proof is as follows

i. For calculating value of 2 , we take a rectangle of area 2 sq. units. When we transfer this
rectangle into a square of side l, then area of square equal to area of rectangle = 2 sq units =
l 2 . Thus, side of the square obtained is l  2

ii. Let take a rectangle ABCD of sides 1 unit by 2 unit, then area of rectangle will be 1.2 = 2
sq. units. Divide the rectangle in two squares ABEF and FECD with sides 1 unit, and divide
1
the portion FECD in three equal parts, such that EQ  QS  SC 
3
A F P R D

B E Q S C

iii. Out of these three equal parts, leave first part FEQP at its original position, transfer the
second part PQSR on the other side of square, and remove separately the third part RSCD,
1
thus we get a new structure as shown in the figure below, in which side BQ  BR  1  .
3
1
And the sides of remaining part RSCD is 1 by .
3
R S
1
3A D
P R
F

1 1

B 1 E 1 Q S 1 C
3 3
iv. Similarly, divide the portion RSCD in four equal parts, and out of these four equal parts,
transfer two parts on either sides of the square (adjacent to sides PQ and RS), and remove
1 1
separately the remaining two parts. Thus we get a new square ABCD of side 1   in
3 4.3
6
 1 1
which small square EFGD of side  is empty at the corner. And the sides of remaining
3 4.3
 1 
parts PQRS is 1  2.
 4.3 
A E D

G P S
F

1 1

B 1 1 1C Q R
1
3 4.3 2
4.3

v. Now we fill this empty portion FGDC by cutting two small portions of width x along sides
 1 
AD and CD, along with remaining parts PQRS is 1   2 . That is,
 4.3 
2
 1 1   1  1 1 
2  x  1      1  2    
 3 4.3   4.3   3 4.3 

25  24
2
 34   5  2 1
 x     34 x  x
 4.3   4.3  4.3 4.3 34.4.3
1 1 1
Thus, we get square of side 1   
3 4.3 34.4.3

1 1 1
1
3 4.3
34.4.3
Note: In this process we get a small empty space at the corner of the square, later we use this
concept to prove irrationality of 2.
7
4. Babylonian value of 2 : Proof based on Baudhayana Transformation
Ancient Hindu or world today, uses the decimal place value system in numerals 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is used. However, the Babylonians developed a number system that was
sexagesimal in nature, which means that instead of having a base of ten (decimal), it had a
base of 60. In modern day we used sexagesimal system for measuring time, geographic
coordinates, angles, etc.
In ancient time, the approximate value of 2 was known to the Babylonians around
1600 B.C, given by Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 in four sexagesimal figures which is
24 51 10 30547
accurate upto five decimal digits, that is 2  1    =1.41421 296...
60 602 603 21600

The proof of Babylonian value of 2 , based on Baudhayana transformation of rectangle into

a square is as follows:
i. Let take a rectangle ABCD of sides 1 unit by 2 unit, then area of rectangle will be 1.2 = 2
sq. units. Divide the rectangle in two squares ABEF and FECD with sides 1 unit, and divide
the portion FECD in five equal parts, and each part in further 12 small parts, such that each
12
part is equal to 1
60
A F D

B E 12 12 12 12 12 C
60 60 60 60 60
ii. Out of these five equal parts, transfer two parts on the other side of square and remove one
24
part separately, thus we get a new square RBQT of side 1  in which small square SFPT
60
24 12
of side is empty at the corner. And the sides of remaining part RSCD is 1 by .
60 60
R S T
24
60 R D
A P
F

1 1

B 1 E 24 Q S 12 C
60 60

8
 12 12
iii. Similarly, divide the portion RSCD in five equal parts of size  , and out of these
60 60
24
four equal parts, fill the empty corner SFPT. Thus we get a new square RBQT of side 1  ,
60
12 12
and the sides of remaining fifth part is  .
60 60
R S T
24
60 R D
A P
F
S C
1 12 12

60 60

B 1 E 24 Q
60
x  24 
iv. Now add two equal strips of size  1   on either sides of the square with the
602  60 
2
x  24   x   12   12 
remaining area RSDC, thus 2   1         
602  60   602   60   60 

x 84  x   12 
2
12 12  60
2
  x 
2

 2   2      x   51.43  51  neglecting  2 
60 60  60   60 
2
2  84   60  
51
That is, add strip of width on either sides of the square, thus we get new square ABCD of
60 2
2
24 51 12 12 51 84  51 
side 1   2 , and a remaining portion RSCD of area   2 2    2 
60 60 60 60 60 60  60 

12.12.60.60  2.51.84.60  512 1719

 
604 604
A D

R Q

S P
1719
604

B C
1 24 51
60 60 2

9
 x  24 51 
v. Similarly, again add two equal strips of size  1    on either sides of the
603  60 602 
2
x  24 51   x  1719
square with the remaining area PQRS, thus 2  3  1     
60  60 602   603  604

x  24 51  1719   x  
2

 2  3  1   2    neglecting  3  
60  60 60  604   60  
x 5091 1719 1719  60
 2 3  2  x  10.13  10
60 60 60 4
2  5091
10
That is, add strip of width on either sides of the square, thus we get new square ABCD of
603
24 51 10
side 1    .
60 602 603
A D

C
B 1 24 51 10
2 3
60 60 60

5. Further Extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2 and Proof of Irrationality

of 2
1 1 1 577
Baudhayana value of 2  1    =1.41421... which is accurate upto
3 4.3 34.4.3 408
five decimal digits If we further extend the Baudhayana process of transforming a rectangle
into a square, then we get more and more accurate value of 2.
In Baudhayana process, the side of the square using transformation is
2
1 1 1  1 
1   with a small empty space of area   at the corner of the square.
3 4.3 34.4.3  34.4.3 
1 1 1
That is, the value of 2  1   with some negative error equal to the side of
3 4.3 34.4.3
the small empty space at the corner of the square.

10
 A D

2
 1 
 
 34.4.3 

B 1 1 C
3 1 1

4.3 34.4.3

1st Extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2

2
 1 
In 1st extension of Baudhayana process, we fill this empty space of area   by
 34.4.3 
cutting two small portions of width x along the sides (AD and CD) of the square, that is,
2 2
 1 1 1   1  2.577  1 
2  x  1     x     x  2x2   
 3 4.3 34.4.3   34.4.3  34.4.3  34.4.3 
2
 2.577   1 
 x 
 34.4.3 
 x
 34.4.3 
1
34.4.3.2.577
 Neglecting 2 x 
2

Thus, after 1st extension the value of

1 1 1 1
2  1     1.41421 356 237 ... which is accurate upto eleven
3 4.3 34.4.3 34.4.3.2.577
decimal digits. After 1st extension the negative error or the area of the small empty space at
2
 1 
the corner of the square is x   2

 34.4.3.2.577 

2nd Extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2

Now in further extension of Baudhayana process, we again fill this empty space of area
2
 1 
  by cutting two small portions of width y along the sides (AD and CD) of the
 34.4.3.2.577 
2
 1 1 1 1   1 
square, that is, 2  y  1      y   
 3 4.3 34.4.3 34.4.3.2.577   34.4.3.2.577 

11
 2
 

2.665857
34.4.3.2.577
y  2 y2  
1

 34.4.3.2.577 
 Neglecting 2 y  2

2
 1331714   1  1
 y   y
 34.4.3.2.577   34.4.3.2.577  34.4.3.2.577.1331714

Thus, after 2nd extension the value of 2

1 1 1 1 1
 1      1.41421 356 237 309 504 880 168 ...
3 4.3 34.4.3 34.4.3.2.577 34.4.3.2.577.1331714
which is accurate upto twenty-three decimal digits. After 2nd extension the negative error or
the area of the small empty space at the corner of the square is
2
 1 
y2   
 34.4.3.2.577.1331714 

Similarly, if we extend Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2 infinitely times than after

each step we get more and more accurate value of 2 . But after each time we get small
empty space at the corner of the square which after infinitely times tends to zero but never
ceases to zero, which proves the irrationality of 2.

6. General Extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra for 2 and Its Comparison with

Newton-Raphson Method
Let using Baudhayana process, the side of the square using transformation of rectangle
2
1 1 1
of area 2 sq. unts is 2  1  with a small empty space of area   at the corner of the
a b b
square.
A D

2
1
 
b

B 1 1 1 C
a b

12
 2
1 1
Now, this empty space of area   will be filled by cutting two small portions of width
b x
2
1  1 1 1 1
along the sides (AD and CD) of the square, that is, 2   1       
x  a b x b
2
1
2  1 1 2 1
2  
1 b  2
  1     2       Neglecting 2 
x  a b x b x  1 1  x 
2 1   
 a b
2
1
 
Thus, the value of
1 1
2  1   b
a b  1 1
2 1   
 a b
Similarly, the further extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2 is
2
1
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2  1     1    c
a b c d a b c  1 1 1
2 1    
 a b c

The general extension of Baudhayana SulbaSutra Value of 2 is as follow,

2
1
 
1 1 1 1 1
2  1     ...    x
a b c d x  1 1 1 1 
2 1     ... 
 a b c d 
That is, in Baudhayana Sulba Sutras Value of 2 we have to calculate only last term in each
step.
Comparison with Newton Raphson method:
1 1
In Newton–Raphson method, if we take initial guess x0  1   for computing
a b
approximate value of 2 , then 1st approximation will be equal to
2
 1 1
1  2
f ( x0 ) 2
x  2  1 1   a b 
x1  x0   x0 
0
 1     .
f '( x0 ) 2 x0  a b  1 1
2 1   
 a b

That is, in Newton–Raphson method for value of 2 we have to calculate whole terms
2
 1 1
1     2
 1 1   a b
1     in each step.
 a b  1 1
2 1   
 a b

13
 Initial Value
1 1 17
Baudhayana
x0  1    Newton–Raphson method
3 4.3 12 Sulba Sutras

2
 17  1
f ( x0 )  x02  2     2 
 12  144
 1 
2

17 17 17  4.3  577
1st approximation f '( x0 )  2 x0  2    
12 6 12  17  408
2 
f ( x0 ) 17 1/144 17 1 577  12 
x1  x0      
f '( x0 ) 12 17 / 6 12 17.24 408

Each
approximation
Each approximation required 3 steps
required only 1
step
Note: It shows that Baudhayana Sulba Sutras is not only same as Newton-Raphson method,
even the calculation in each step is less in Baudhayana Sulba Sutras over Newton-Raphson
method.

7. General Extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra for n

For calculating square root of any natural number n, using Baudhayan transformation,
we transfer rectangle (made up of n squares of unit sides) of side 1 n into a square.

Baudhayana
1 1 1
Transformation

n 1 1

a 1
b

Then, using Baudhayana process, the side of the square using transformation of
(n  m2 ) 1
rectangle of area n sq. units is n  m   a  , where m 2 is the perfect square less
2m b
2
1
than n , with a small empty space of area   at the corner of the square.
b
2
1 1
Now, this empty space of area   will be filled by cutting two small portions of width
b x
2
1  1 1 1
along the two sides of the square, that is, 2    a      
x  b x b

14
 2
1
2  1 2 1   2
 2 
 a    2       
1 b
 Neglecting 2 
x  b x b x  1  x 
2 a  
 b
2
1
 
n a   
1 b 1 1
Thus, the value of a 
b  1 b c
2 a  
 b

Similarly, the further extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra Value of n is

2
1
 
1 1
n a   c 1 1 1
 a   .
b c  1 1 b c d
2 a   
 b c
2
1
 
This, may proceed infinitely as, 1 1 1 1
n  a     ...   x
b c d x  1 1 1 1
2  a     ... 
 b c d x

Example: Value of 5
For calculating square root of 5, using Baudhayan transformation, we transfer rectangle
(made up of 5 squares of unit sides) of side 1 5 into a square.

Baudhayana
1 1 1
Transformation

5 1 1

1
2
4

Then, using Baudhayana process, the side of the square using transformation of
rectangle of area 5 sq. units is obtained by making a square with 4 unit squares, and
remaining one square will be divide in four equal parts, and transfer each part on the other
(5  4) 1 9
side of square, that is n  2  2   2.25 , with a small empty space of
2 2 2 2 4
2
1
area   at the corner of the square.
4

The further extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra Value of 5 is

2
1
 
5  2   
1 4 1 1 161
 2    2.2361 .
4  1 4 2  4  9 72
2 2  
 4
15
Similarly, the further extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra Value of 5 is
2
 1 
 
1 1
5  2    72  1 1
 2  
1
 2.236 067 977 .
4 72  1 1  4 72 2  72 161
2 2   
 4 72 

3
8. General Extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra for n
For calculating cube root of any natural number n, using Baudhayan transformation, we
transfer cuboids (made up of n cubes of unit sides) of side 11 n into a cube. Thus the side
1
of the cube obtained is equal to 3
n a . The further extension of Baudhayana Sulba
b
3
1
 
Sutra Value of 3
n is 3 1 1
n a   c 1 1 1
a   .
2
b c  1 1 b c d
3 a   
 b c
1

1 1 1
1

1 1
a 
b b

1 1 1
Baudhayana  
b b b
Transformation aaa
1
aa
b

a 1
b

3
Example: Value of 2
For calculating cube root of 2, using Baudhayan transformation, we transfer cuboids
(made up of 2 cubes of unit sides) of side 11 2 into a cube.

16
 1
1 1
1 
4 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 
1 4 4 4

1 1 1
1
1 1
4
2
Baudhayana
Transformation
1 1
4

Then, using Baudhayana process, the side of the cube using transformation of cuboid of
volume 2 cubic units is obtained by making a cube of 1 unit. Remaining one cube will be
 1
divide in four equal parts  1 1  , and transfer three parts on the three sides of cube.
 4
Now to fill three empty portions at the side corners of the square we again divide fourth
 1  1 1
part  1 1  in four equal parts  1   and transfer three parts on the three sides of
 4  4 4
cube.
 1 1 1 1 1
Now divide the last part  1   in four equal parts     , and with one part
 4 4 4 4 4
3
1 1 1 1
    fill the small empty space of volume   at the corner of the square.
4 4 4 4
3 1 1
Finally, the remaining part     will be transfer to the three sides of the cube of
4 4 4

3 1 1   1   1  3  5  4 x  5  4 x 
width x, that is      3  x  1   x   1   x     3x   
4 4 4   4   4   4.4.4  4  4 


1
4
1
 x(5  4 x)(5  4 x)   25 x  x 
4
1
100
 Neglecting x 2 , x3  .

1 1 126
Thus, we get the square of side 3
2  1    1.26
4 100 100
3
The further extension of Baudhayana Sulba Sutra Value of 2 is
3
 1 
 
 
1 1 100 
3
2  1  2
 1.2599 , which is correct upto four decimal places.
4 100  126 
3 
 100 
17
 Conclusion:
Baudhayan method of transforming rectangle into a square is one of the oldest, easy,
and most accurate approach for of constructing square. With this method ancient researches
Baudhayan not only able to transfer rectangle into square, but also able to calculate the value
of 2 correct upto 5 decimal places.
With Baudhayan method of transforming rectangle into a square we able to proof
irrationality of 2 and modify of this method gives general solution for calculating values of
square root and cube root of any natural number.

References:
[1]. T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and MedievalIndia, Motilal Banarsidass,
New Delhi 1979; Rep. 2007
[2]. Tom Zara, A Brief Study of Some Aspects of Babylonian Mathematics, Ph. D. Thesis,
Liberty University, 2008
[3]. B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh, ‘History of Hindu Mathematics, Asia Publishing House,
1962
[4]. S. N. Sen and A. K. Bag, The Sulbasutras, INSA, New Delhi 1983.
[5]. Bibhutibhushan Datta, The Science of the Sulba, A Study in Early Hindu Geometry,
University of Calcutta, 1932.
[6]. K. Jayashankar, Sulba Sutras: A Critical Analysis, Ph. D. Thesis, Mangalore University,
2007

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