BOARDS-2021 for #BPARMY

CHEMISTRY
SHORT NOTES

made With
By-Bharat Panchal Sir
.
⑧
Telegram -
Bharat Panchal Sir chemistry
Guruji
unacademy-Bharat Panchal so
->

58.
⑧.
-
↳ Instagram -
bharatpanchal 92
 2
Chapterwise one shot
of Class 12 Chemistry
Chabterwise D.Y.C9
Class 12 Chemistry
-
INDEX -

Galvalkanes and Haloauene- 1.3

Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers - 3 -
5

59
-

solution -

Electrochemistry -
9-12
12 15
chemical Kinetics -
-

d-and f-Block elements --

15-19
co-ordination compounds >
20 -
23

Amines >
23 -
26

Aldehyde, Kelones and carb. Acid -

26-30
Biomolecule -
31-35

to help in our

Journey, you
can donate
Haloalkance R-I) R-Br > R-C) R-F ①
hydrogen atom in
· BPt Order ->

aliphatichydrocarbons replaced by ·
Mipt of prisomer is more than that a
halogen. Ortho and meta due to symmetry.
X(X F,4,Br, I) R -
=

the
·

density increases with increase in

no.
of carbon atoms, halogen atoms and
classification: 1 R-CHX ->

atomic mass of the halogen atom.

· Haloalkanes -->
2: Re-CH-X
·

Solubility Although Haloalkanes, are polar

but they can not form Hydrogen bond
-> 3° Ry-C-X with water molecule hence they are

X insoluble in water and soluble in organic

·
AllylicHalide -
I solvents.

CH, CH-CH, -X=

1 Finkel Stein Reaction
A> R-I+NaX
Benzyl Halide VinylAnyHalide
Halide R-X NaI
+

·
Acetone

swarts Reaction
loT* * -X
/

-
C R X
-
AgF, HgF, CoF orSbY R-f
Preparation R-X+4,0

monthsthatpostBest Properties
(XBU, I2)
Chemical
=

method
>
NaBr, HISOY R-BU +NaHSOn+H,O
Elimination Reaction

from Alkene Mark.

X CH-CHH,CH =
CH, + k4+H8
R -
CH (H + =

HX
, R-CH-cHa Br ↳
R -
CH
CH
=
+
HBr moy'peroxide R-CH-CH2 I

Anti-Markonikovs Acc. to saytzelf Rule

Rule
test o
=+Bu BUCH,-CH,Br (unsaturation) In elimination reaction, prefered
alkenes is one in which double
C d
bonded (-atom are more alkylated
Halogenation,--CHs **, CHy-CH-CH, +CHICHC 3 x B
major
CHy-CHiCret
Preparation of Halovenes CHy-CHy-CCH ↑

CHy-CH-CH CH2
80%

X 20%

an, ox
I
-
A9, KOH- alcohol -

High Polarity
- R-X Al. KOH -> Alkene ->
low Polarity.
X

te
I
-
Reaction with Metal
1,
R-X +

Mg Ether
-> R-Mg-X
X
Grignard Reagent
H /I
/
I 0
I /
CHS-c +
Mgr CHy-MgC
- Grig hard Reagent

Physical Properties Griguard reagentare highly reactive

and reactwith any source of
B.P < Mol. MASS

BP C Surface Area proton to give thydrocarbons

BP <
1/ Branching
 I
WURTZ REACTION Resonance in Haloarenes:
2
R-X 2 Na+X-R
+

Yer R-R+2NaX
I Aryl Halides are less reactive towards
Nucleophilic substitution reaction because
FITTIG REACTION c. bond acquire partial double bond

<X + 2Na+X-
other
due to resonance

cleavage in Halogenes
as a

is
result the bond

difficultthan
WURTI FITTIG REACTION halo alkanes.
: :
xx yi
s
-
+

Te
-

per xi -

R-X 2Na+X-12 R-4* -

* x

↳I
+

Nucleophilic substitution Reaction:when an atom or

group of atom is replacedby nucleophile

↳
*

+Nut -
- 2
S-
ix*
+

leaving group.
Sai (Unimolecular Nucleophilic) SN2 C Bimolecular Nucleophilis)
CH3 CH3 H
-

Steps H

+B not [no......- 4]
I

⑪ - -

in c -x - >

ins it
is
/

nota
CH3 Ches
⑮
I
I
OH - c OH
->

CH]
+ -

5s
+

its
Reactivity order 319 Reactivity
Order 1993
·
Polar Protic solventis used ·
Inversion's confittakes place
·
Racemisation takes place ·
Nucleophile attack from opp-side
Ag, NaOH, R-OH +KX
Electrophilic substitution Rxn
RONa;R-O-R +Nax
Williamson Sun
i outhoand
kCN,R-CN + KX
Halo group on benzene ring
para directing due to +R esfect
GN,R-NC +AgX ↳
Xz/fely
*
I
- X
NY
-
kNO2 - +
> R-ONO + KX
Halogenation
-As NOS; 4
R-NOx +AgX
u

+NO,
I
COU. HNO3
R-X -

Y
conc. H2SO4
#A, R-NHTHX
Y
'NO2
↳ 4

+so,
-
conc. H2SO4 I

R-COOAg,R-COOR' +AgX Hi -
⑮
KCN
takes
is predominantly ionic, the attachment
place mainly through carbon atom -
CHIC
Al 43
-
lis
a
I
sos,Y.cHs
Anky. -

and thus form cyanide Ms

cocHs
U
is covalent in nature CH,COC
AgCN
All
11
+

->

nitrogen is free to donate the e0 Arby. ocs

pair forming isocyanide. Para isomer is the major product
 Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers &
Alcohol Phenol Ether
HCHO
i) RMgX
Is alcohol
>

of ii) H0 /H+
R-H TR-OH I R-O-R

My
RYHO 2e alcohol
Stre Str. Si
109:

Cy -
T Y

-
~I

CHI--CH,
-11.7
..
R-CO-R
is RM3,+ Y 3 Alcol

due to
due to double due to Lucas test (Lucas Reagent H4+inch)
up-LP
bond character bulky alkyl
repulsion I alcohol 2: alcohol 3 alcohol
and sp" hybridised group.

Types of Alcohol
R-CH-OH +H4

↓ Inc
R-CH-OH +HY
↳ R-N +

19 28 3 ↓2nc2 ↓24G2
R-CH,-4 R
Ru +
10
ch-on
R- 1 R- +H
CH
4 e
+
-

Rack-OH R -

-
C oH
Turbidity
Alcoholvinyl Alcohol appears on turbidity appears Turbidity
Benzyl in min.
Allel Alcohol heating 5
appears
CH2-OH CH CH-0H immediately.
CHy-CH=CH-CHGOH K, =

Methods of Preparation Preparation ofPhenol

ane
O
CHI-4 + 99,KOH->CH3-OH tIU
,
101 +
NaOH is
From Carbonyl compound

ot
,P sost
Art CH-CHa-OH
CHz-C-H Hc
+

-
&
OH ↳I
11
Hi
CH-c-cHy+H CH3-CH-CH3 N Ne
O --
↳
0 --

14I ↳
R--on
>
0-5°
R-CH-OM
10
Acid catalysed
Cumene Process, 1s
From Alkene:
CAS
-

COOH on
X Hydration CH, -, CH-CH3
Kel
I
-
+140
i
Ii x+0# cHy-
/- -
=
↳ +Os -

Hydroboration Oxidation Ran -

Physical Properties
CHy-CH CH
=

+
(BHs),- CH-CH-CHB.Due to strong hydrogen bonding b/w
molecules have
of alcohol, they higher
CH-CH2-ON +HyBOs X/42a, OH-
but
allane
as

having
compaare to molecules
same
o
molecular mass.

From Grignard Reagent: ·

As molecular weight increases

0 0 MgBs let also increases and
surface area
H
CHyMgBr->H-C-H H,0-
+

+
H is increase in der
-

there van
-

bits Waal force. As a Result m.pt

CHy-CHOH Mg <s
+

increases.
 increase
the bots blendincreases
HL
·
with
O
-
anny. 2nc, CCHs-4 H0
+

A
HI

Nature ofPhenol: RedpYCHs+ Ic H0

+

PL5
order of acidity [0471-72%3 [245-4+POU, +HU
x

electron
withdrawing group like NOx
-

SOUL,2H5-4 +SO, +HY

-

X,-CHO,-COOH increase acidic

due to-I effect
strength while
NH3
electron donating group like-R,-OR >
C2H5-NH, +H20
znUs
decrease acidic strength due to +1
Na
effect CqHs-OH
-

~CcHs-0Na
Na Na
-
Y
Lo, H2
CHSCOOH,
I
ONG CH,CO0CaH5
NaOH
1,
-
Y H0 H2SO4
+

In 413k
>Cats-0-C Hs
--
Y 10 1 + 2no
Distillation --
⑳],
NH3 --
,
Hr CHICHO IS CHICOOH
Y
znC 1↳I + H,0
OH H2SO4
i
4434"CH, CHa+HcD
=

PC5

I
/
I
-
Y
, +
H,0

↳b -COU
N90H
-100-
(n

573KY CHSCHO + Ha
OH
BU2
Br /I- Bu
Y Iz NaO
+
-

CHIs
↳

Water 11
Br
2,4,6-Ti

"xidation
bromo
OH OH puenol
BUL
-- Br

E
I
Y
↳ E
<Sa Aldehyde
+

i alcohol

0. and b-Bromo phenol

2 alcohol to ketone
Ol
conc. HNOs [0]
NOW/I- NOz No Ray
3: Alcohol
-
Y -
-
conc. H2SO4 10 I
No.
2,4,6- Trinito phenol Ethers R-O-B' CnHan+2O
conc. H2SO4
Y
psosH+
-
Preparation
so
99,
HNO3 H
Dehydration of Alcohol
·
-- NO2
↑
11 1 conc
C245-0-GH5
-
2 CHs--OH) -
OH 'ND2
KOLBE'S NaOH +CO2 /-
I
- COOH 413k
Reaction
Y 10 I salicylic
2(45-4) Ag,O 7;G45-0-945
H +
- Acid ·
+

OH
Reimer. Tiemann CHCs +KOH S
salicyldehyde

I
-- - CHO
Rx It
Y 101
-
Williamson Synthesis (SN2)
R-O.R1 NaX
R-X Na-O-R'-
+
>
0 +

Nar CU, 07
Oxidation Rx I
Benzoquinone
·
If alkyl halide is lether will form
son
is so alkene will form
·
If alkyl halide
!
 ⑦
Ho
OCHs
Chemical Properties S
BU,
CHSOOH
in
-
[

Br

I
Bromination 10 -

-
·

Ethers are less reactive than alcohols

is ortho and
Alkoxy ion para
s Oc
·

sonc. If NO] - -
the
activates
Yol
it
directing benzene
Y 1 1+
OCHs
0
sub. H, SOn
sing electrophilic conc. -/
towards -

↳:OCH3 OCH] + - No,

Xy ↳
+

I
Il
OcHs
/I
I
/- --
&CH]
I)! CHs/auchytee Ke Y
I
/--CHI
I

S-
#I
CH

I
In
-

R-O-R+HX-R-OH
->

+R-X
CHy-"- 4 lan

OR Alls
a
-
>
HX EC. Acelation
1
-
+

-> +
R-x
OCHS
OCH, I

IOCH,
->
order of reactivity
HI >HBr>HC -

1 0 1 +

ch
Forwecan donate
Polyhalogen SOLUTIONS
compounds is
-t
I a homogeneous mixture two
of or

pure
more substance
in
sentandin
In Chloroform (Trichloromethane, cas see Dissolved
<Hy+31 might, culls +3nc
smaller Quantity.
controlled
oxidation eg sugar, salt
eg Water, Milk.
* Lodoform (triiodoform, CHI)

CHyCOCHy +
3E+1NaOn-ChIyy+3NaI +CHycooNa
3H2
-

In Carbon Tetrachloride [((1]

is CH1+A42 Sunlight, C++1HC

ii) CHU, +42 AC1+IHC
+ is a colourless, non-inflammable, poisonous liquid,
soluble in alcohol and ether.

Usesasolventer or
oils,fats,essextinguise -> solution exist in single phase
particle size in solution is less than 1um
trichlowethque)
->

PDT (bb-Dichlow Diphenyl

Dilute solution:Large amount of Solvent
-- 4

=-
a -

concentrated solution:Small amount of solvent

ue in
K
Solventis
-

-
chloral
2,2-bis (calow Aqueous Solution water
chlorobenzene Phenyl)
1, 1, 1-pichlow ethane Non-Aqueous Solution:Solventis other
than
-

water
Mass Percentage insole 100
():msolute
Man
sure No significant effect. ⑥
of solution
Volume Percentage HENRY'S LAW the partial pressure
(r):Volume -
of solute in sold
x 100
the in vapour phase is proportional
voluine of solution of gas
in solution.
to the mole fraction of gas
Mass byvolume (W): Massof solute
volume of So
the
in

in
X 100
p.KNC kn is Henry's constant.
Parts per million (oom)-A
componentylot
all component soln
value of an increases with
increase in temp.
of
Mass fraction
·
solubility decrease with increase in kn.
(x)
solute
nation
=

Effect of temperature:
As dissolution is an
Mole fraction (K): exothermic process i.e solubility q
cases in liquid decrease with increase

uBn
un:
in temperature.
Unitless
KATB: 2, mole fraction is a
quantity.
Vapour Pressure:the pressure, exerted

Molarity (M) Number of moles of solute by the vapour m

per litre of solution. equilibrium with

the liquid/solution at
a particular temperature
ofsoleis a m
M-moles factor. Weaker intermolecular forces greater
is the vapour pressure.
Unit =
molL or M or Molar
·

temperature 4, YP also increases.

Molality (m):Number of moles of solute
per kg man of solvent Molarity depends upontemperature but

molality doesn't
ofSolg * ig.
m-oles, Application of Henules Law

Relation ship blw Molarity and Molality:

·
scuba divers from
suffer bends
·
Climbers suffer from anoxia.
M- molarity

1M (
M =

me molality RAOULT'S LAW:

The
19)- Molar
in
Man partial vapour
component is equal
kg pressure of a

to the vapour pressure of that

SOLUBILITY:Maximum amount thatcan
componentin pure state multiplied
be dissolved in a specific
by the mole traction of that component.
amount of solvent at a specific temperature.
PA DAXCIAPB bXCIB
= =

Factors Affecting sink

for volatile solute For Non-Volatile Solut
Nature of Solute and Solvent Polar -

P=PA PB +
PG =
DA
solute dissolve in bolar solvents and non
bolar solutes dissolve in Non-polar PG:DAXCIA
solvents, it like dissolve like.

Effectof temperature
Exothermic Alt=-ve Endothermic Alitre

solubility
decreases solubility increases
with increase in with increase in
temperature temperature
 B. P+ 8 solution
⑦
Tn +

As:wewon hisBitee
solvent

ko- molal
elevation
constant
Ov

-
ebullioscopic
constant
me
molality
Note evalue
-

of ky
debends
upon
nature o
solvent

Depression in freezing Point (ATS) rpt of

Azcotrope:These are liquid mixture
a solution

which distil over without change containing a non-volatile solute is always

a composition lower than Fpto pure solventand

the deviation are known as win. this difference in freezing jointis

in
poiling azeotropes e.g (aHsOH +H,0
called depression freezing point.
AT1
kW
=

-
ve deviation are known as max.
1 1
=

boiling azeotrobes eg HNO,

+
H,0 If Ks:
&
=

used calcul-
to

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES -
ate M2 for
normal
Depends upon number ofmoles of solute. molecules
Relative lowering of Vabour pressure Relative

lowering of labour pressure is equal to

k1 molal
->
depression or
Cryoscobic
constant
the of solute in the solution. constant
more
fraction
Pi P
wBX T
-

( AT I
=
= -
=
-

pi
of V.P is not a it freezing point of pure solvent
colligative broberty
Lowering
- -

-
RLVP is a colligative property T:freezing point of solution

pi-x.p of pure solvent wa-mass ofsolute

ATF kAXM
=

0.-Y.P & Solution M.- Molar Mass & Solvent

My-test
nig
Wi-Mass & Solvent Mr-Molar Mass & solute.

Elevation in Boiling Point ->

B. Ot of solution
containing a non-volatile solute is
OSMOTIC PRESSURE:
always higher than
boiling point o
pure solvent and this difference in External pressure used to stop
boiling point is called elevation osmosis
in boiling point A tb:
Tb-Tb M ART
=

V
A Tb KDM =

5S M 1
MB XT
=
=

ATb Kb=

V
 W e
of Association () and Van't Host factor (i)

⑧
If molecules
i Osmotic pressure
a
of a substance A associate to form An
=
T Temperature :

and a is the degree of association, then

R Ga, constant An

alleibummohemales,asetatthe
nA-
v Volume
=
=

used to calculate Me for macromolecules

I
SOTONIC SOLUTION:
i association dissociation
have 1
=
no or

Two solution same

is particles undergoes dissociation
osmotic pressure (T) is a particles undergoes association

egsaline solution (0.9%) and Blood. ·

calculate the molarity of 9.8% (w/w)
solution of HISOn if the density
IA) MB
El ↳ of the solution is 1029ML/C Molar
solu
Hypotonic Solution
mass of HSOG:90$ C mol")
Hypertonic
have High osmotic Have low osmotic Man & Soluts:9.89
pressure Dressure Man of Solution:100g

Reverse Osmosis Density of solution:1.029mL-1

when a pressure more than
the osmotic pressure is applied to the
:: Vol. 8 Soln: Sol
Density of Sol
solution, the solvent may pass from
into the solvent through 98.039(1:0.0984
solution, agmc
=

the semi-permeable membrane

desalination of
by sea water.
X
Number of moles of solute, n=
9:0.1 mol

ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASS

Molarity:a
observed
calculated
colligative proberties
values due
deviate
to association
from
or
some cases,
their normal
dissociation of
moles
can
molecules.
Colligative properly <1
in
MB =Bag = 102M

higher values observed case a association e.g benzene

Lower values observed in case
a dissociation e.g ki
·
For a 5% solution of Urea (Molar Mass

(I) :60g/moll calculate the osmotic

·

VAN'T HOFF FACTOR

ratio of observed value of
colligative properly to the calculated value of colligative pressure at 300K 2020

TR:0.0821 (atm K-1 mol-]

property.

I
colligaleProbeeet
red
=

& Am
or l normal molecular mass
=
-
Molality (m) of urea solution
observed molecular mass

owsom
or no.
=

A particles after association or dissociation ·

number of particles initially

08
Colligative Property
and Van't Host factor

AT ikom
=
I for strong like
electrolyte 0.5 m
=

AT1 11m KC 2, MgSOYNaCl =2, 2

= = =

i CRT kgSOy 3, Aly(SOnly= 5 Osmotic pressure (T)=CRT

= =

ic
= =0.877X0.0821 x 100 =

21.6 atm

Degree of Dissociation () and Van't Holf factor (i) h

if one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into
·
calculate the solubility of CO2 in
In particles and x is the degree dissociation then water at 248K under 760 mmHg.
(kn for in water at 290K is

!
A up
>
co,

= e
-

initially 1 mol D
1.25x100
At 1 x 4x
mm teg)
29,
-

Total no.gmoles
equilibrium:
at
1-x+h<
solubility of CO:*
Ex,00osxio"
 <Electrochemistry Salt
->

Bridge $ its functions: ⑨

Electrolyte:Those substance which dissociate into You a U-shaped
concenterated
glass tube
sold
containing
of an
in their aqueous sold on
passing electricity
are known as
inert electrolyte like k1, KNO3
electrolyte. e.gNa, kn SO, in agar-agar form
Non-Electrolyte .

Those substance which whose one end is dipped

in beaker and and end
doesn't dissociate into ions in their
one

is dipped in another beaker.

aqueous solution on
passing electricity
is known as non- electrolyte

e.g sugar, Urea, Glucose. function

is Preventthe
passage of one electrolyte into another
-

ii) It complete the inner cell circuit.

iii) It maintains the electrical neutrility of soln in both half

cells.
iv) used to connect both the beakers.
which dissociate
into ions.
completely
whichdissociate particlein

e.g HU, HNOS, HaSO, etc. e.g NHAOH, CaCONIc,

Electrochemical cell/Galvanic cell/Voltaic (ell:-
It is used to
CHICOOH etc. convert chemical energy into electrical
energy.
CONDUCTORS beakers
·
we take two

Metallic conductors Electrolytic conductors In Ist beaker we take In

·

rod dipped in InsO+ sol?

·
flow of
electricity is due to the Flow of electricity is due to ·
In Ind beaker we take
flow of ea the flow of ions cu rod dipped in CuSo-sol"
electronic Also known as ionic
Also known as
Bridge's used to
·

conductors.
·

Salt connect
conductors.
both the beaker
·
flow of electricity takes place. Flow of electricity
takes place
oxidation takes place at
without the decomposition of by the decomposition of
·

substance substance. zu rod in Ist beaker

·The electrical conduction decreases. The electrical conduction increases

·
Reduction takes place at cu
increase of temp. God in 2nd beaker.
withincreasetacticeg
with ·
oxidation half Rxn
because increase of temp, increase in -> in++ 200
which produce hinderance in in dissociation or decrease in ·
Reduction half Rxn
the flow of electrons. interionic attraction.
cult+200 -> h
well
low as as
high Only low voltage of current In+cuc+-> Ins++ h
· ·

Overall
voltage of current can pass can pass
through elecbolytic
conductors conductor
through metallic

e.g fe, Al, Ag etc.

e.g Nay, Noon etc.
Electrode potential
the tendency electrode to either
of an
Factors
Influencing Electrolytic conduction:
·

lose or
gain to when it is placed in its own solution.
S
Nature of Electrolyte:
->

larger the no. of ions, more is conductance ↓ t

Oxidation potential Reduction potential
Nature of Solvent:
->

ionize in
The electrolytes water but not in
tendency of electrode electrode
The an The tendency of an

organicsolvents likeDeereareacotta bes to lose o to

gain o

polar solvents. STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE (S.U.E) Device which is used to

calculate standard electrode
set
solute Solvent attractions/solvation Hydration: Potential
->
or
electrode.
larger of any
-

the
solvation of ions, lesser is conductance -> It can act as oxidation
both
as well as Reduction potential.
Temperature:
->

increases becausethe micareas oftheseto reas s Anode

A

24+ 2eo
-
+

So, number
of ions as well as the speed of ions increases.
->
Dilution: ions
As dilution increases, the number of of a
weak 2H+ 200 - +

H.
electrolyte as well as their speed increases and so

conductance also increases.

Bharat Panchal Sir lectrochemical series
#

9. What is cell? Arrangementof various electrodes in the

AnIt is a device which used
into another form of
to convert one form of energy increasing order
of standard reduction potential.
energy.

atthe
Li -> lithium - 3.05V
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL.
ca- calcium -

2.87V
Al-Aluminium -
166V
Inezinc -
0.76W
Fe+ Iron -

0.44V
at Ni-Nickel -0.15V
ricldol
-

ob- lead -

0.13V
* H
cute
->
Hydrogen 0.0OV
14-copper 0.3AV
'Mol
+

3id

sna? -
Age
Br
silver
- Bromine
+
0.SOV

+.08V
I
A An- Gold +
1.50V

Bharat Panchal-chemistry
⑧ Gurujic.o
 Application
1.) Comparison of Relative Reducing Power or
oxidising Power.
conductance of Electrolytic solutions
⑩
·

Resistance: It's the obstruction to the flow of electric

2)
Predicting the feasibility spontaneity of Redox
or a
Reaction through the conductor. YORy/
current.

metal will react with dilute is directly proportional to its (l) and length inversely
Predicting whether a will
3) It

mineral acids evolve

and Not. proportional to area of crossection (A)
Hydrogen gas or

4) Activity
or reactivity of metals.
RC
A or R8 =

1
specific Resistance A
3.) calculation of the EMF ofa cell. or Resistivity.
Unit of Resistance ohm(2) =

E.M.F:Ecel:Ep-Es
Unit of Resistivity: ohm metre (-2m)
=Ecathode Enode ·
conductance:
inverse of resistance.
the
EReduction Foxidation
-

B* k
-

Nernst Ea," a t
= =
=

Dependence EMI of on concenteration of electrolyte is ohmtormho or

and temperature
Unit of conductance or siemens.
Nevst eq," for half cell Ryn CONDUCTIVITY:
inverse of resistivity is called conductivity
·

The

-Manateneedanis
especific conductance)

a
unit=ohm- cm-1
1 11m
a
k* when A:km2
= =

G 15
=

EM:electrode potential of metal under given condition material is its conductance

conductivity of a

EM:electrode potential of metal under standard condition when it is 1m

c
long and its area of
R:gas constant:8.31451-1201-1 cross section is time.

Kelvin MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY:

T temp in It
·

conductivity of all the ions

=

is the
F Faraday constant (96500 (moll) produced by in sold
dis
solving 1g mole of an electrolyte
=

n nod to loss or gain in reaction

=

It is denoted by Am
hm:KXV or Am=
14x = KX
EM:
Em-serant Units: ohm" cmamolor s cm2 mol-
Molarity.

For
cell:-aA+bB =cC+ dD
Note
R
SA:it
=

is called cell constantdenoted by *

G* 1 Rk
- =

Ecell=Fcelllly e 9. Discuss the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity

or with concentration CNCERT

Fcell-logds
Ecell: AnIn case of strong electrolytes the molar conductivity
increases slightly with dilution, as mobility of ions increase
electrolytes degree
Ecel-O lig D
the
increatecase itweak
sequilibrium
->

of ionisation dilution therefore, there is a

large increase in molar with dilution.

conductivity
where IC is concenteration quotient is conductance between two
conductivity
At equilibrium Ecess: 0 and GC:Ke opposite faces of one centimetre cube. On dilution, no.
of
ious cm3
ber decreases therefore conductivity decreases
(at 298k)
Ecel 0 Migk on dilution
=

CH3COOH Aim:limiting molar conductivity

standard when concenteration approaches
Maximum
molar conductivityt
Gibbs or work done A4 =-nEces zeros the limiting molar
Free by cell
Energy ku
conductivity.

calculate the emt of following cell at 290K:

Mg/Mg2+ (0.001M) //cu2t10.000m)/(n EMgCYMg=-2.37V KOHLRAUSCH LAN:

Ecust/=0.37V
is
-Limiting individual
molar conductivity of
contribution
an

0.31-(-2.37) electrolyte the of of

Am Fell:Ep-E,
sum
-> =
2.71V
anion and cation of electrolyte.

Fell:Ecel- Aim AmA++ AmB-

lgeas
AB =

RinAt: limiting molar conductivity of cation.

9.71-0,541 lg]
=

KinB:limiting molar conductivity

of Anion.
Applications:
calculation of limiting molar conductivity
of weak
-

is
electrolyte.
=2.11-
al eg ii) calculation of the Degree of Dissociation
-

Degree of Dissociation()
memeandwriteatate
=

COUC. C

2.71 -0.02955: 82.68V

=

standard
Gibbs free energy change for the
iii) calculation of dissociation constant of weak electrolyte:
calculate
->

concentraldissociation.
given reaction:
2n+cu2+-> Zust+(u
Given Ecell: 1lop
Dissociation constant (KC):
I
AsDG=-UFEcel
-

=
2X96500X1.10
=-212300Tmolt=-212.3K5 mol-
 determine
BATTERIES
·
suggest a way to the air value of water. which
Am
These are source ofelectrical energy
CH0) dmH++ d'
·

Am OH-
may have in series
=

cells connected
-

one or more
We find out ai crce), Aim (Noon) and him (Nase) then
⑳Good quality battery should be compactand light,
Aim CH0):Ai Ctece) + Am (NaOH) -
Ai(NaU) its
voltage
PRIMARY BATTERIES
should not
vary during its use.
⑪
9. The conductivity of
0.0248 s cm. calculate
0.20M solution & I at 298K
its molar conductivity (CFR)
is
he eatoccur onand
after use over

a period oftime, battery

becomes dead
Anam: DRY CELL OR
LECLANCHE CELL
t x1000:124Scremo =

(H) Terminal This cell consist as In God acta s

is carbon rod which is
anode

.Meter
and cathode
9. Aim for Nall, HC and CHylooNa are
126.1, A25.9 and
Me
91.0 Scm2 mol" respectively. Calculate for CHyloon.
Sc.M2 molt D
: surrounded by powdered
At Anode-
AiNaC:IiNat dinct=126.1
A + zinc vessel (Anode)
-
->

Scm2 mol - - > Porous paperlining in -> In+ 200+

Aim HC:sift
+ dinc-=125.9
At Cathode-
Grabhitea
cathedeit
·CHyCOONa=diCHyCOO-+diNat=91.0 Sc m2mol" -
am
we have to calculate him CH3COOM:Ai CHyl00+hiHt
.... t h e e n is cell
MnOL +2NH4Y
has a
+2e0 -
potential of
MYOy +2N+Ha
1.5V.
- Terminal

operating & +0 -P => 390.5 scm2mol-

MERCURY CELL Anode.
It consist of zinc-mercury amalgam as

Faraday's law ofElectrolysis:

~> Anodecabencing) The cathode paste of mercuric oxide (Hgo)
-

is a

evaranrtEldengos
(Amalgam and carbon powder. The electrolyte consist of
firstl aw:
The mass of substance deposit or liberated at
a
mixtured kon and zno.
At Anode
any electrode e
during
lecbolysisis directly
proportional to the amountof charge
In+20n - > 2n0 +40+2e0
At cathode
-

11
passed.
Mathematically WO H90+H0+e0--Hg+ZON
[. =9H]
5 W x Ixt
In+ Hg0--2n0tHg
[IXt 0]=

W 2 =
XIXt
#The potential of a mercury cells approximately 1.35V.
we mass substance deposit lliberate
of ions
It remains as
constant in the overall cell reaction no
2- electrochemical equivalent
g5500:M
2 =

It current to time are involved in solution. Thus longer.

itlasts

Uses of Mercurycell
①what do you mean by Faraday constant? It is suitable for low current devices
like watches,
As charge of one mole of to heaving aids, toys etc.
=6.022x1023 X 1.6x10-19 = 96487 (mol
(molt
secondary Batteries
96500
*

A secondary cell after use can be recharged

second law: -when it
same amountof electricity passed through by passing currentitin opposite direction so that can
two differentelectrolyte connected in series, amount be used
again. Agood secondary cell undergo large no. can a

I substance deposited at electrodes is directly proportional I discharging and charging cycles.

to their equivalentweight. Nickel-cadmium battery, v-ion battery
eg lead
storage Battery,
LEAD- STORAGE BATTERY:
AmountAg deposit:tA:
rethe
-

it consist lead anode

of a
⑦ and lead oxide cathode. A 38%
Anod,
4 I
⑰
cathode
solution
as
of sulphuric
electrolyte. Each cell
acid acts

give

Ettisi
9. A solution of Cuso, is electrolysed for 10 minutes with
a the
voltage I 2y so this
current of 1.5 amperes. Whatis of copper cell is give
depo sited at cathode them
as the
sufficient to

Am
Acc to Rxn cult +200-cu voltage
9 124. These
-> - voltaic cells are separated

ob
n -

2XIXE
W: =
Maby IXt=> gso5x600 by thin fibre glass sheet.
UXF

During Discharging,
are
-
0.29389 the cell reactions
A solution of NiCNO3, is electrolysed between platinum electrodes
AT ANODE
using a current of 5.0 ampere for 20 minutes. Whatmass of Pb+ SOy?-PbSO, +2e0
Heikel will be deposited at the cathode? (At man of Ni=58.7) NCERT
AT CATUODE
An Acc. toReaction
Nic+ +200 Ni
PbO, + SO4+1Ut+2e0 ->PbSO,t2H0
-
->
->

W=2 XIXt
MX Ixt=
soog The Overall cell Rx:-
=

2P650, +240
Pb +
PbO, +21SO, ->

9. How much
charge is required current is passed through terminal
During charging, the
(i)
the
I mol of Ats+ to Al
electrode reaction is
Al3 + + 308 - Al
You
support
Matters
from external

it
source. The

is commonly used in automobiles, power

reactions are reversed

inverters.
charge required:3f
FUELCELL:

96500votene
-

(ii)
chemical energy from combustion o fuels
20.0g g ca
is at
like
hydrogen, methane andethand
at convert
me
(a required:2F
fog of
209 o (a required:1F.
 ⑫
highly efficient(70%)
Ito cathode It is

to
i
-

their
- method when compared to the

1
ofthermal power plant
e efficiency (40%)
- side product is water which when one or more substance undergo a
change which
02 doesn't cause pollution. results in the formation ofa new product, called chemical
↳ In the and oxygen reaction.
cell, hydrogen
through porous carbon CHEMICAL KINETICS, is the branch of chemistry
are bubbled
which
electrodes into aqueous sodium deals with the study ofrates of chemical reaction
hydroxide divided
platinum
solution,
finely and the conditions in which rates
or balladium acts as a catalyst. their mechanism
in can altered.
providing
be
⑭ Itwas used
for electrical power
were
Apollo space programme. The water vapours BASIS OF SPEED
ON THE
produced condensed and added to the drinking is VERY FAST REACTION:Some reaction such as
water supply for astronauts. ionic reactions occur very
At cathode fast AgNOs +NaCl - > AgH + NaNOs
e.g
02 + 240+1eo-YOU ii) VERY SLOW REACTION:Some
slow
reactions
it takes
are

At Anode months to in very

completion
years
24 + you-->4H0+ 4e0 moisture
e.g.Rusting of galant Beeg
air and
overall
cell Ry 2Ha+Os ->
2Ha0
iii) MODERATE REACTION: Those reactions which are

very slow nor

neither

very fast but takes place at moderate speed.

inversion of came sugar
e.g
# CH1206 +CoH1z0s
CHON +Hy
Glucose fructose
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF STEPS=>
COMPLEX REACTIONS
ELEMENTARY REACTIONS when a sequence of elementary
reactions gives us the product called
complex reaction, each step in a
The
in
reactions taking
called
place complex reaction is called elementary RX4
one step are
slowest step is called rate
elementary reaction
determining step.

RATE
O F CHEMICAL REACTION:
It is
chemical Kinetics
the change i molar
concenteration taking
&

species part the chemical reaction

of u

per unit time.

*
Effect of temperature on rate ofreaction: - for the reaction A-B

disappearanceasa
sale of
The rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature
temperature
Arrhenius probosed an equation
reaction
that related

quantitavely Time taken

conc.A=-A
and constant
rate for a

Arrhenius Equation Rate of disappearance of B

Acc. to
/

Intercept -Increase inCong +

e
=

A
=
109,

-
K A e-
=
EaRT
slobe=-Ea NOTE
where concenteration
The
of reactant
23R
K rate constant of
the RXlog, decreases, so it
sign,
=

represent by-ve while

A Arrhenius factor/frequency the of product increases
=

cone
factes
it the sign.
"
I pre exponential faster So represented by

Ea:ActivationEnergy 115 TYPES OF RATE OF REACTION:

constant
R Universal Gas
enks-enk,-E, Eme Eineous
=

Average Rate Rate

T Temp. In Kelvin (asa
=

change in molar couc change in molar conce reactan

Taking
ent(s)
in both sides reactant and product and product at a given
I
given interval of time instant of time.
Ink InAe-EaRT
=
at a

enK =
·
-

Ea +nA
RI
2.303
40GKE)
Avg.
Reaction
Rate of
BP + AID)
It
"PRate Inst
Reaction
of
-

d=+
*Ot temp RELATION BETWEEN RATEOF REACTION AND STOICHIOMETRY
T,

Ink, =
InA
-

--
RT
e.g.a ( ·)
Rate of Qx
A B +
> 2 D +

= d +
-

+
-

= =

↳ At Hemp T2 1
where
is clear It stoichiometry of reaction
UK =
SUA-Ea
②
Ea- Activation Energy
·
IA ->
C+D that the rate from
of disappearance of A
Tz R- Gas Constant
i twice the velocity of formation of a CD

operating 9 -D
 So, rate
of reaction can be given as below
SURFACE AREA ⑬
dA-so,
Rate of Ron
is
Greater the surface
the rate of reaction. It is observed thatif
area of reactant, higher
reactant is a solid substance then rate of reaction depends
e.g 5B+ BrO5 +
e upon the size of its particles
cay. I (ag) a) (g)
e.g A piece o wood burn slowly but it burns rapidly
Rate of Reaction =

BU)=BrOs
I -
A:ABk)= when cutinto small pieces.
EXPOSURE TO RADIATION:

RATE OF REACTION increases rapidly in presence

The rate of some reactions
of radiation (and visible

Mollment
Photons of UV and visible light having high energy
:Mic minor Molly
sect or dissociates chemical bonds of reactants rapidly which
or Moll hist innease the 9.ate of reaction.

Consider a
general reaction: 4 + H, Indark, and (810w) *a
Hance (osion
+

aA+bB - cC
RATE LAN
Rate of Rate of Reaction is directly proportional to
reaction
-AT -1dB]=t1 a
->
=

the productof molar concentration ofreactant and

each raise to the power their coefficient on which
rate
of disappearance g A
d
= -

rate ofreaction actually depends.

Product
rate of disappearance g B
d aA+bB Rate Cons tant
= -
->

actual
used ↓ or
specific
rate
Reaction

Rated appearance of C =
+

a Rate & Ryn YTA]

=

B]*
9AtBD,
the rate
of disappearance of B is 2x10mol ↳Rate law for any reaction be
can not predicted
determined
(i) Rate Rx iRate of change in conc.
8 A and s theoretically but must be
experimentally
An Rate I disappearance B,
-d= 1x10-2 mols-1 RATE CONSTANT:
rate constant is equal to rate
RategRxn reactant
-1d = 5d= of reaction when concentration of each
de
=
=
+
becomes unity.
:. Rate Ryn
-d 1 = X 1.0X10-2=0.5x10-3
mol(-15-1
ORDER:
It is the sum of powers acc. to rate law
iii) Rate I change
concA,dA)=RO.R-> expression.
in
0.5x10-3 me
Rate of Rxx KTA)<TBTB order x B=

=>
+
=

(IS-1

Enemies
Rate of change conc.4C
in
of Bale constant
+
d:3XR.OR=> 3x0.5x10-
5x10-4molls. Indicates
1. the speed of reaction, Greater the value
of rate constant, faster is the reaction.

See
AFFECTING RATE
OF REACTION ·

I Every
constant
reaction
at a
has a

particular
particular value of
temperature.
rate

·
CONCENTERATION OF REACTANT:
It is observed that rate
·
The rate constant for the same reaction differs
of decreases
reaction with time. We know that initially with temperature.
the cone of reactant is maximum so the rate of change
is also maximum. As the 9) The value of rate constant for a reaction does
in conc. cons.
I reactant decreases
when the rate I reaction also decreases
not depend upon the concenteration of reactant
is
It means that the rate of reaction
directly proportional The unit of rate constant is dependent on the
of reactant.
6)
to the cone
order
of reaction.
·
TEMPERATUREOF SYSTEM:
reactions
Iother
approximately increaseenerally in
rate of reaction also decreases
easing a MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
words, the
on
decreasing temp. Generally, the rate of reaction mixture The total number of atoms, ions or molecules of the
increases two three times
to on
increasing
temp. upto 20° reactant which collide effectively to give product
·
NATUREOFREACTANT: is termed as
molecularity.
its
In a chemical reaction old bonds
are broken and new bonds are formed A ->
Product, Molecularity 1 =
3
NHyNOc ->
Nat2H20
So, the reactivity of substance depends on 2A -> Product, Molecularity 2 =

3
breaking and formation of specific bonds. GHI- H+Ez
A B + -> Product, Molecularing2
2N0 +Or -> 2 NO Sfast) "2N0 +O - 2NO_
A B +) +
-> Product, Molecularity 3 -

2C0 +O2 ->

2102 (Slow
Characteristic of
Molecularity:
·
EFFECT OF CATALYST:
catalyst
·

Molecularity of a reaction is always an integer.

values (a
increasestance of reaction It can not have fractional or zero zero
·
a
which
without any chemical implies
molecularity effective collisions blu
that no
undergoing
2
them. reactantmolecule takes place is reaction doesn't
change in

Itis
considered that occur at all).

presence of catalyst decrease judged by balanced chemical

Molecularity
· can be a
Ren
the
energy of reactant
activation · For a complex reaction, molecularity has no
significance
which increase the rate of re N205- [NOx+ molecularity: 1 CHI- HatI,
mole: 3
 REACTION
ORDER OF
⑭
↑

Integrated Rate Equation

The order of a reaction is defred as the sum of powers first Order
to which the concentrationterms are raised in rate those reaction whose rate depends upon one
law equation. concenteration term of reactant.
A 2B +
-
C D
+

R ->
P
Rate law R:KCAJM [B]n (experimentallyed.) Rate of Reaction < [R] put value
of I eq

R) -Irece
-
InR kt =
+ I
order w.st A
m,
=
order wart B u
=

-MUR=Kt-In Ro
overall order of given reaction:mth
.

OnRo-UR:kt
9. What is the order of reaction?
(Integerating both sides
tu:Kt
I. B.S
AtRate law, R:KTA]Y [B]2
(d= kdt
-

-
order of reaction:It 2.5

integration
or

-OUR K+ +1
Characteristics of Order of
=

a Reaction:
2)
It represents the number of species whose concenteration to getthe value of I UNIT Mol(-1g-1
=

affects the rate of reaction directly. t 0,=

R:Ro
obtained by adding
t
23 eg
=

)
Reaction order can be all the exponents -
InRo=I
ofthe concenteration hums in rate expression.
·
The stoichiometric coefficients to each
corresponding

-
-

species in the balanced reaction have no effect on the

-
I

order of the reaction

log tyz
·
The reaction order of a chemical reaction is always (at4 ⑨
↑
active with Body inthen concentration and

t i(a x) -> (a x) -
sloweststep is determining
-
->

·For
-

a complex reaction, the rate

step. Zero Order Reaction
Zero Order Reaction: those reaction whose rate depends
upon zero concenteration terms of reactant.
Rate:
KCAJHa +Uc* CHH:2NcO-2N +Or R

First Order Reaction:

Rate of Reaction < [R]

Rate KTA)' 2HcUc-2Hc +02 :1 R kt + I

- =
->
=

second order Reaction -

R:Kt -
Ro
-
d[R]= K. dt
Rate:KTAJE Ro-R kt
I.B.S)
Integerating both sides
=

=
eg CFOs -> C0 +O
-

SdIRY=K/dt
2N0 -> 2NO +O - Integeration
R k+
-
-

1
-
=

content
+

UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT

getthe
to value
ofI
(moLL-1)" sect (atml" q
-

at
-

k =

K =
sect
t 0, =

R Ro I
=

zero order
(moll)"sect-> moLL
n=0
= sect -
Ro=I K ty
Firstorder + "(ax) "(ax) "
->

K: (mol-1)"sect=> sec-
-
->

n 2 Put I in equation 1
=

second order n= = (moll-)"sect->

K: molt sect Half life of a Reaction:
The time in which the concenteration
half order n=1l K:(molL)'ssect me mol" [/2 sect of a reactant is reduced to onehalf of its initial cons.
is
It represented by typ
9. Identify the reaction order

-setx Joder
(i) 1 = 2.3x10-5(mols--> Order 2
=
first
(ii) 1 3x10-45-1
=

-> Order:1

9. conversion of molecules X to Y follows

The second
order kinetics, if concenteration of X is increased to t:
three times how will it affect the rate of formation gY? R t tyz, R:Role
=

As The reaction is X-Y

ty:Ro-
ACC to rate law e
rate:k[X]2
collision frequency of collisions per second
If (X) is increased to stimes, then
ber unit volume of mixture. It is
rate=k[3XK
reacting
generally denoted
by 2

rate"=9KIXC consider the biomolecular reaction

=>
gxrate
At B -> Product
thus, rate reaction becomes a times and hence
collision theare
rate 1 Acc. to
formation of inneases g-times. calms
 Elements
PSEUDU FIRST ORDER REACTION
Reaction which are not
truely oft he firsto rder butunder
d-and +- Block
certain conditions reactions of first
⑮
become order are called

pseudo first order Reactions.

d-Block elements
egAcid catalysed inversion ofcane sugar Those elements in which the last ed
Is CotzUs+GH1206 enters in the d-subshell of penultimate shell
C12H2201 +HO
<excess)
Glucose auctose General Electronic configuration -
(n-1)d'-onso-2
Rate:KIC12Hax01]

Acid catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate.

# +CaMsOH
CHyCOOCHS + HaO cHycooH
cexcess)
Rate:K [CH, C00 [H5]
Both of the above reactions are biomolecular buta re found
be the firstorder because
to water' presentin such a
large excess that its concenteration remains almostconstant
during the reaction.

P. Y.D
9. A
reaction is second order, wire a reactant. How is the
rate
of reaction affected of the concenteration of
subdivided into four series.
reactant is NCERT (2009, 2012, 2014) They are

vi) doubled (ii) reduced to half

Am.Rattik. TAJE
(2012:
TAS:2a, rate:K
4K9"times
SAT:
I 9, rate:
4[2]2-1499:t h

9. Afirst order is found is have a rate constant

K 3.5x10-4 seal. Find half life of the reaction.
in
=

The d-block elements which the atoms or ions have

Hall life for a first order reaction in NCERT incomplete d-orbitals are called transition elements.

encd and to havecompletelyfilleda double

-> as
ty
= =1.26x10's
=

5.5x10-14 other transition elements.

9 The half life for radioactive decay g "45730y.2 There are four series
of d-block elements.
An archaeological artifact contained wood that had 3d Series (SC to In)

only 80% of the c' found in living tree. Estimate 40 Series CY to (a)
age the sample 50 series
Hg)
of NCERT
(la and if to
6d series CAC and RA to (u)
AnRadioactive decay follows firstorder kinetics
Electronic configuration: By-Bharat Panchal six
Decay (K): = S-Scandium [Ar]'83d4.52
I
21.
5730 22. Ti-Titanium -A5]18 39 2 USY

[Ar] 18 3d3
E. Vanadium
452

sos eg):25730x0.09
t =

Chromium -

[A]'8 3d 5 4
4S'

25. Mn-Manganese [Ar]18 305 4S3

26. Fe-Iron [Ar] 18 3d 6 4S2
1845 4995. 18 3d 7 4S2
Co-Cobalt [Ar]
-

27.
Ni-Nickel [A2] 18 3d8Us
28.
9 A firstorder reaction takes 20 minutes for 20% 18 10
3d 4 Si
29.C4-copper [Ar]
decomposition. Calculate
ty 0.0969) -AU]18 Id4s
(19978 =
30. In-zinc

a
Am
-
282+ -> [Ar] 18 30445°
24
to half
cut -> [Ar)183d 4s (stable due
filled +zg)
8
24
x0.8, e
=

sadn't ->
[ArY'8 3d"45" fully filled)
9
0.011158:11.158x10-3 [Ar18 3945O

as
=>

->

+y2:0 0.692
=

62.Imin. [AU]18 390450

-

-
1 1.158 X 10
-
3

All the Best O safe

3t
- [Av]'8 39545Chalf filled)
Atomic Radius
As we
from left to
right, atomic radi
2
e.g TiC, MN, FeyN,
interstitial compounds
YHo.56 and TiH,7 et
0
16
firstdecreases
The are very hard,
largely, then decreases slowly retain have
and increases in the end the series.
metallic conductivity, high m.pt
of and are chemically inert.
This decrease in atomic radio Alloy formation: -

in the
beginning is due to Alloys are homogeneous solid solution
the increase in effective nuclear Many ad-block elements form alloys because
they
havesimilaratomic radi due to
when
charge with
the increase in
atomic number they the atom of other metal.
with
t he increase. In Alloys thus formed and often have high
number
of 10 in (h-lld subshell Mopt.
Brass (Cu+In), Bronze ((u+Sn)
the screeningeffectof these d-electrons on the outermost e.g
increases. This increased By-Bharat Panchal six
us-electrone also
screening Magnetic Properties:
effect counterbalances the effect increased nuclear of iamagnetic substances are repelled
charge, therefore the atomic radic remains by magnetic field while
paramagnetic substances
almostsame attracted
are
by magnetic field.
the end ·

of the series co-co

Those substance which are attracted very strongly
repulsion takes place so the size atom increases.
of by the applied field are called denomagnetic
IONIRADIUS
the d-block elements
and their compound
In general, ion
of the same oxidation Many of
is due
state in given series show progressive decrease
a are
paramagnetic in nature it to

in radius with increase in atomic number due the presence unpaired in incomplete
to the increase in effective nuclear charge
of to

d-orbitals
Ionic Radius 4 I [ionic Radi FeCt) Fe3t] no.
o unpaired to
oxi. State
- The
paramagnetic Nature 4

Melting and Boiling Point

m.pt and B. Pt moment(21) xh+2) B.M
High Magnetic
=

-
due
first increase and then decrease
to increase and decrease in n is number r
number of unpaired electrons
o unpaired co
Magneton
because the strength o bond
depends on number
of unpaired to complex formation: -

Many of a-block elements form

Note ->

Tungsten (W) has the highest Mist complex compounds, because

Mercury CHg) is the only metal in liquid form (i) They have small atomic radi
->

Metallic Character is High Nuclear charge

iii) Presence vacant drobital
·
show all the properties of general
metals.
of so they can
·

strength
of metallic bond a number accept lone pair of to from ligands.
I increase the chance and
unpaired to which
Catalytic properties: -
By-Bharat Panchal six
makethebondsonswhile In is softwe are
Transition elementsa nd their
catalytic
a
show
.

compounds properties due to variable

oxidation state and their ability
Enthalby of Atomisation" to adopt
bond due
iney have strong metallic multiple oxidation state.
to which they have high enthalpy

SuscontactProsin
of e.g

20000
alomization
Ionisation Energy? -
By Bhavat. Panchal six
-
Fr

Lies blws-and b-block elements The

of unpaired
in incomplete d-orbitals,
(more thanblockbut lessthan block elementtothe
presence ears
hence to absorb and re-emit
possess the
capacity
wide which is
as the effective nuclear charge increases. range of energies used as an
activation energy.
&
I.E Effective Nuclear charge formation of Coloured Ions: -

·
IoE
g zn, cd and He is very high due to
fully ·
if unpaired to
present, complexis coloured due to did transition
filled orbitals
and also paramagnetic in nature
·
IE
g 5d and 60 series elements is more than 3d
is absent,
unpaired
if to

and ad elements due to lanthanide and complex to the absence of

or compound is due
Actinide contraction. did transition and diamagnetic in nature
e.g CuSOn is blue
formation of Interstitial compounds: -
..
in colour while
eg
E
Transition metals have a
tendency is
Inson
to form interstitial compounds with

1,C, B Natoms.
colourless
11-
or
Y teg
They are usually non.Stoichiome
tric and are neither tubically
ionic nor covalent.
Oxidation State:
due to the
"show large number of oxidation state
participation of both (n-ild and us electrons
⑰
in bonding in different compounds. oxide formation: -

Many of the d-block elements forms

oxides
of different types because
of the presence of
so
many different oxidation state.
N Acidic character oxi. State
Ionic character a oxi. State.
·
Mn shows maximum number
of oxidation state due to
the presence of maximum number of unpaired co F-Block Elements: -

Elements in which last to

·
Osmium (Os) show to axidation state enters in f-orbital
of bre-penultimate shell
->

cuct is more stable than cultbecause it undergoes

General Electronic
disproportionation Reaction in aqueous sol (n-2) f(n-1) do use
configuration:
<cult-> <u2++c
Not The
ability of oxygen to stabilise these high
oxidation exceeds that
state
of fluorine because

oxygen can form double bond while fluorine form

single bond.
By-Bharat Panchal six
As a result
highest Mn
fluoride is Mufy it series
whereas the highest oxide is M1207. Or

Electrode potential: -
Lanthanoid series
The stability of a compound Or

depends upon electrode potential and it further ItInner

*
Transition
depends upon. series
is enthalby q alomisation/sublimation
i) Iovisation enthalpy
(i) Hydration enthalby
By-Bharat Panchal six

MCs( Areau, Mag.) Aatomisation = tHe

Oxidation State:-
The oxidation
common state of
lanthanoids is to with +2and 4.
AnydAionisation
=1e
Aat_ I. E
A
Hydration
H =
-
ve Lanthanoid contraction: -

Mcg) -> Migh ionic

The regular decrease in the atomic
and
radiocanthanoids with the increase in
atomic number
from left to right in lanthanoid
series is called lanthanoid contraction.

cause ofLanthanoid contraction

-> increase in effective nuclear charge
poor
screening effect of 4 elections.
->

consequences of lanthanoid contraction

I canthanides is difficult as there theregeparation

little
difference in their size due to which they
have similar chemical
properties.
There is regular trend for MC4M Basic from left
no standard electrode of hydroxides
strength decreases
·

potential due to irregularities in ionisation

the to right
enthalpies and enthalpy of atomisation ·
covalent character of hydroxides increases from LOR.

The size 3rd transition series elements is similar

copper is the only metal having positive value of of
·

I
so it does liberate the
not hydrogen gas from of and transition series
to the size

acids
Reactivity: Bharat Panchal sixUseglanthanides
By Bharat Panchal SirBy
chemical -

chemical in glass industry

reactivity at
·

E
·
As an oxidising agent
·

EPCM2+/M) is very less (more-vel except ca ·

In
making magnetic
and electronic behaviour
so these metals are highly reactive
·

oxidising power E
·
In
making alloy steel
which is in
used
making
·

Reducing Power 1 bullets.

Eo Mischmetal
e.g.
(lanthanides fets +

+
c (a + +

Al)
 COMPOUNDS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
For Help
·
Potassium Dichromate ·
Potassium Permanganate
you can donate
⑱
(kM404)
(k,(V,07)
Chemical Reactivity ↳ Dichromate(k,(207)
Potassium
it is prepared
03
15 a from chromite ore
Baca Alid;
is
O ith Step 1 comersion of temchromate into sodium
-

chromate
Mass heated withs
Ln
With
halogens;Lnxs
↑FeCU,O- + I6NaOH +70, 8Na;CUU1 +IFE,s
withi with
40 yellow
8C02
+

seated - "In
CON tH2
step-2 conversion of sodium chromate into
in
inc Sodium dichromate
Uses
Na,CrOf t2HU ->
Na,Cr2O7
+ INat+HO
Lanthanoids for steels for
1) are used the production of alloy
-

Step-3 orange
blate and bikes into
ii) of lanthanoid is used in Mg-based Conversion of sodium dichromate
Mischmetas alloy
alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint.
potassium dichromate
lanthanoids used catalyst in + 2 Nall
Na,Cr207 +2k-> ke(,O7
of as
(iii) Mixed oxides are

cracking ofbetroleum
LivI some lanthanum oxides are used as phosphorus in Orange Crystals
television screen
chromates and dichromates are interconvertible
ACTINOIDS

Cr,O-CrOu
These are the elements in which last to

filled in 5f-orbitals. The actinoids are radioactive elements -

Ht
Electronic confi structure..
confi. 5fdo Is dichromateion (CU,072
(CrOy2-1
electronic
The general chromate ion

irregularities in the electronic configuration ofactinoids 0

It
is due to stabilities of f, f, f' occupancies
On 0

-E
o 5f-orbital. 38 1- 28
o 68- goi
similarities btw Lanthanoids and Actinoids lo-
· Both predominantly
exhibit is oxidation state Properties
Both are electropositive and have high reactivity. 2) These soluble in cold
orange red crystals, moderately
·

are
like canthanoid contraction, there is actinoid contraction also.
water but
·

readily solublein hotwater

Difference blu lanthanoids and Actinoids 2.) Action of heat

Lanthanoids Actinoids

show 3
Oxi. State.
YKC7 = 4K,C0;+2CV20s +
302
·
They show mainly 3
+
Oxi. State. They 3.) Action of Alkali-
like
+2 and to oxidation State Higher oxidate
and +7
YO7+YH
+ 6
+4, +5,
also
2K(r0++ H0
->
exist

poor
They have boor shielding. They have 2k2(rOp
·
even +
H,SO+ K,Cr201 + K,SUxT40
->

effect shielding effect

They are
paramagnetic and
·

They
but their
are also paramagnetic

magnetic
Cryo 2CWO,
their
can
paramagnetic character
be explained easily character can't be
alined
4)
Oxidising Property -

behave as a powerful
K2Cr20z
to They have tendency (u(I)
oxidising
·
more
have tendency
They agentin
less into
complexes (r (1) ischanged
form complexes to form
·

These are non-radioactive. These are radioactive Ionic Reaction

2(r3
+

except bromethium substance.

(1,024 + 1H
+ +620 ->
+
7H20
Application of Actinoids Molecular Reaction
Actinoids are used in nuclear

k,SOp +CV,(SO4, 44,0

·

((2,07 4H,S0x
->
for 3703
+

reactors the production of electricity.

+
+

·
Actinoids are also used for the synthesis of
transuvanic elements.
↳ It
oxidise
->CO, + Het
⑲
oxalic acid

Crest (Ferrous salt Ferris

to
SO,
-

HE SU
43 ->s <sulphide to
sulphur) I. -> I2
SO,-> SOY (sushite to
sulphate) H209- c
SO, --4,SO4 (sulphur dioxide to sulbhuric
Acid) oxidising Reactions in Neutral Medium...
4x ->
X2 CHalogen Acid
Halogen)
to 2kMn0s +H0 ->
2kOH +2Mu0,-13 [0]
suct-> sutt
MnO +
2H0 +YeO-MnY, +90H

ethyl alcohol acetic acid

-

It oxidise
->
acetaldehyde ->

CHROMYL CHLORIDE TEST Has -> S

This test is done for

the identification of C-ions
MnSO--> Mua
during salt analysis,
potassium dichromate is heated with conc. H2SO4 Na,S2Os -> Na,SOp (thiosulphate
to sulphate
and a salt
having -
Leg Nace,KU) and reddish
Oxidising Reactions in Alkaline Medium
-

brown vapours of chloride obtained.

chromyl are

k(407 4k4
+

+6H,SU; -2CrO,4,+6K4SO, 3H +

2kMnOm +H- n0+ + H20 + YO]

disinfectant, in
oxidising agent, K2MPa H0 MnO, +OH+ 310]
Uses It is used
-
as an
-> x2
leather and in chromyl
+

volumetric analysis, for tanning in

Chloride test.
2kMnOx H20 MnO, +2KOH +TO]
+
->

physical Properties
veddish orange colour.
crystalline ionic solid having bright,
MnO+ 2Hc0 +3e0 -MnO+4ON-
·

insoluble in alcohol, acetone

etc.
· it is soluble in water and
density around 2.57g cms
·
It is odourless, with NOTE

Potassium
The overall reactions inalkaline medium is
-
Permanganate (kMn04) same as in neutral
kMnOp is prepared from medium.
burolusite
(MnOz) ore. structure of
↳ Pyrolusite (mnor) react with alkalimetal hydroxide
CKOU) Mn0- MnOI
to
give potassium manganate
2 MnO, +4KOH
O- i
+O, -2kMnO+Y2H0 I Mu

↳
(dark green) Mn

of I To-
oo-
/

Potassium
manganate disproportionate in acid
Tetrahedral permanganatsion
Tetrahedralmanganate ion
or alkalito
give potassium bermanganate
(green) (paramagnetic purple (Diamagnetic
21Ma0x+Cn -> 2kMnO+ + 2KL
USES
of
Properties oxidant in the
preparation
soluble. It is used as an

crystalline solid,
kMno, is dark purple. Black
organic compounds. the

bleachingof100cotosilk,decolourisalon
of
in warm water. ·

2.) Action of Heat -

on
heating, it decomposes

2kMnOp KaMnOp -MnOctO2

3)In Acidic Medium
k2SO1 2MuSO, +340+
+ 5707 for Help
3H,50 +
->

2kMnOx +

-Mn+ + 4H,D
MnOn + 8H+ 508 you can donate
-it oxidise
+->Fest (ferrous saft into Ferric salt)

Has ->S
 Ambidentate ligands
Those ligand, which have O
20
COORDINATION two donor atoms but use one atom to attach with
a central metal atom. So these
COMPOUNDS CN- (Cyanol
are monodentale ligance
eg SCN-Cthiocyano)
Transition metals
NC (isocyano)3 NCS -

cisothiocyano
form a large no.
Negative ligands which have negative charge
compounds
complex in which the metal bound Neutral
atoms
ligands

I
are
Symbol o Name of charge on
to a number
of anions or neutral molecule bysharing lig ands lig ands
geo. Such compound are
known a co-ordenation CN-Cyanido
ligands NH ammine O

compounds. II CHy-NH Methylamine 0

UB- Chlorido -

Difference blw Double Salt and Co-ordination compound Bromido I

-

0
I- iodido-I 120 4944
co-ordination compounds.
NO, Nitrito-N -
1 NO Nitrosyl O
Double Salt I

or-to
ONO-
-

SO carbony 0

They usually contain two simple

-
I
->
- The simple salts from which NO, Nitrato
CS this
carbonyl 0

in equimolar proportion
-
salts they are formed may or S (N- thiocyano
-

I
OH3 Phosphine 0
NCS isothiocyano I
-
-

not be in equimolar prob.

-
They are ionic compound and
may CHyC00- Acetato ->
I
Exp Tibheny bhosbhine O

they
mayimpact
H- Hydrido -I
Thio Quec
any co-ordinate
0
do contain
not 02- OXO -
2 INCSNH2 -

bond 022- bezoxo

Pyridine
always contain coordinate bond SOy2- sulblito - Ent
C

SOy2- sulbuato
The probesties of the double
· 2
methel
-

The D
proberties of the coordin- Coy2
-

Carbonato -
2
CH3
salts are the same as those ration compounds are
its constituent compounds. Bidentate
of differentfrom its constituent
- Bidentate
gly glycenato
In the double salt metal ions. In a coordination company
ox-oxalato ethaneamine
·

en o
their normal valency the metal ion
show satisfy its
two tube of valencies called
brimary and secondary valency. Chelating ligands: -

·
A double salt loses its ·
A coordination compounds It is closed ring type compound formed
identity in the solution by polydentate
retain its in its
identity ligand (chelating ligand) on binding
solution.
to
e.g KSOy. ACSOnly. 244,0 e.g kn [fe((N)s]
central metal alom
Importance

-> Types of coordination compounds

e.g M24-CH2 · itforms more stable

-
complex, called
cationic complex Anionic complex Neutral Complex
chelating effect

combe "are complex ion

-
ve charge
cany complex
cany
doesn't

any
use, in softening & Hard water
Detection metal ion
·

[Co[N43),] 2+ e.g [Fe((r)674- charge of

e.g [NiCCO), I
·
separation of t-block elements.

co-ordination entity
the
Ligands the atoms, ions or molecules which can donate
central
metal atom and the ligands
which to it are enclosed in
are
directly attached square
the lonepairsee
tocentralmetalatom becoordinate
badthe
bracket and called coordination sphere or coordination

eg [Fe(CN)]4- is called coordination sphere. entity

centicity of ligands: The counter Ion
numberof donor atoms present
ionisable
in the ligand is called denticity. On the basis of
its the groups written outside the square
bracket and are called counterion. eg k-[Fe((N)s]
ligands
denticity are
of different forms as:
called counterion
monodentate, bidentate, pridentate, tetracetate, polydentals
where ky ions are

hexidentale etc. Co-ordination Polyhedron

The spatial arrangement of the
Monumentate ligand hen ligands around the central metal
atom is called coordination
ligand is a bound to a metalion
polyhedron eg
through a
single donor alom
e.g C, Bu CN-

H2: NH, CO
Bidentate ligands co-ordination Number
When a
ligand can bird
through two donor
The total number of co-ordinate
atoms.
bond formed by
oxalato ligands with central metal atom

400ethane,
eg Glycinato (G1)
diamine, Co-ordination Number:$(Number
of ligand x
Denticity)
-

CH2-NH2
HN-CH-C00- e.g kn [Fe((N)0] [CoU,(en)23't
CH,-NH2 C.N 2 x1 2x2 6
C.N 6X1 6
= =
= = +

Polydentate ligands oxidation Number

whena have than two
ligand more
the charge presento n thecentral
donating sites. metal atom in a coordination compound is called
e.g EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate Ion) oxidation number. It is always positive.
eg kn [Fe((N)o]

c ii-CH2CH-CH2C00-
OOC
-

-OOCH CHC00- 40 + +

6(-1) 0
=
x 2
=

Donor Atoms -> 6

Nexcidentate ligands.
 ON

Homoleptic
THEBASIS OF LIGANDS
in which only one type of ligands are present
·
[NiCly]2-
28NiC++ [Ar)'8 30845
⑪
eg kn Ife (CN10]
Heteroleptic in which different type - " + k4/11 X XIIX
of ligands are present
45 UP
e.g [COC, (en1234 3d

hybridisation- sb3 Geometry- tetrahedral

Nomenclature of Coordination compounds
It is paramagneticin nature
e.g. Ky[Fe((N)s] - potassium hexacyanideferrate (I)
x2 -5 B.M
-

u Yn(n+2)
=
=

2) +

· [Cr U. (2014] NOs -tetraaquadichloride chromium (III) nitrate

·
[COU (NO2) (NHyly] NOs Tetraammne chloridonitro N-cobalt (1H)
- -
⑧
[Ni((N),72-
nitrate
·

Ky[fe((204)]-potassium fewale trioxalato (1) Ni2+- [Ar)183dGS

28
K, [C0([NI, (NO) Jepotassiumpentacyanido nitrosy cobalate (I
**
·

[C(en)]SOy-dichloride bi Cethane-1,2-diamine) cobalt

·

3d
(1) sulphate
·
[COU(OND (en123 chlovido bis ethane-1,2-diamine) vitito -o
CN is a
strong ligand so pairing of
totalace
I
cobalt (H) ion
***X
·

·
Ni(CO)1]-tetracarbonysnickel (0)
· Li [AlHy]- lithium tetrahydrido aluminate (I) 3d
hybridisation edSp2
Werner Theory · Metals possess two types a valencies, Geometry -
square planar
called primary ionisable valency coxidation number
diamagnetic in
or

and
It is nature.
secondary or non-ionisable valency (Co-ordinals"
·the
primary valencies are non-directional.
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY:
complex show proberty
·
The compound do not any
and Metal-ligand bond is ionic in nature. So, there
central metal atom ligands present
-

I the the
in it. is electrostatic force of attraction blw metal and

eigands
Valence Bond Theory:
-

The
ligands are treated as
negative centres and
these negative centres are So arranged around
Acc. to this
due to the donation
theory, metal-ligand bond arises
central metal atom that here is minimum repulsion
election
of pair from ligands blu them.
to central metal atom
the ion under the In a free transition metal ion, all the five d
metal atom
-

or
influenceof ligands can use (n-1)d, us, up, and
orbitals have equal energies (degenerate orbitals (
orbitals
for hybridisation
but when takes part in complex formation
it
these drorbitals split
in two parts.
Hybridisation (N Geometry Example
it is calleddid transition or crystal
Sp 2 linear
[Ag((N), 3 field splitting.

562 3 Trigonal planar [H9137- For Octahedral Conexfor Tetrahedral complex

Sp3 4 Tetrahedral [NiCO)u] z.
square planar >Ni(CN)-]
dSp2 4
square pyramidal Fe((0)5
dSb3 5

dsp3 6 Octahedral(inner) [Cr (NH3),73+

Spid 6 Octahedral (outer) (fej73-
e.g [(o(NHs),]3+ of d-orbitals
shape

3
[Ar318366
+(03+ -> At
10
=

2 Co3 *A 11 I
3d 4S 4P
↳ NHS is a
strong ligand so
pairing ges
takes place

↑41"XIX x XIXX
spectrochemical Series:
3d US 4p - it b arrangement of all ligands
diamagnetic of increasing
in order CFSE value is called
hybridisation d2sp3 ->
spectrochemical series. The
u 114+
ligands with
small value
Geometry Octahedral 2) ligands
=

- ICESE are called weak and the

ligand,
=0 B.M higher
with value of CESE
a re called strong ligand
inner complex
orbital
I <Bu-<S2-<SN-<C-<F-COH-10X
-

<H20 [NCS- [MH, >en <NO,<(N-<CO

 ISOMERISM Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism
-

coordination compounds
which
Two or more
square
*

formula buthave different planar complexes formula [Mycha] (X and L

have same molecular
of

central are unidentate

ways of attachmentof their ligands to the ligands) show geometrical isomerism. The
two
metal atom and have differentproperties. These are called X
ligands may be arranged adjacentto each
isomers. The phenomenon is known as isomerism. other in a cis-isomer or to each other in a
obbosite
trans isomer
SOMERISM
I
⑫
-

I
↓ ↓

Nine je
Nh-
structural Isomers Stereo Isomers

arises due to the difference arises due to the different

in the str. of coordination spatial arrangement of
compounds ligands around the metal ion
↳

cis Trans
↳
Ionisation
Geometrical isomerism
-

↳
Hydrate
↳
->

optical isomerism. Octahedral complexes with C.N-6

coordination
Type MYcLy
[CoCNsY,45]
↳
Linkage e.g
-

1.) IONISATION ISOMERISM ...........I -X X

is
mi
isomerism arises
...
.
This due to :
x
exchange ionisable
...

of anion with anionic

ligands. e.g L
e.g [Co BU (H2O)5]+c- and [CoU(,0)5] +
Br- is X
Trans
5 c0
(NHsI5SOx]Br and
[Co(MHs)sBu)SO, Type -

MX2Az (X-unidentate
A- Bidentate
2.) HYDRATEISOMERISM OU SOLATE ISOMERIS
In this X
ligands
X
ligands)
isomerism, water is taken as solvent. It has different
of water in the
I hit
........
no. molecule coordination sphere and
C
outside it
e.g M a
A i -

[CoCH0),743, [COCH,0, 4,34.240,

.......

/
- A cis X Trans
[C0CH20l, 4y]. 34
- In Octahedral complexes of the formula [MA,Xs]
CO.ORDINATION ISOMERISM eg [co(NHs)(NOcs]
type of isomerism
occurs when
This
is interchange blu cationic and
anionic
there
ligands
of NOn
complexes of differentmetal ion present in a complex.

........
NHy ↳ NY
its -
>........
......

nee -
-

:i
! Now
2

.
28 [Cr(CN) c3 -
- -
-
ICO(NH3)]
. . . .

and - CO
[Cr (NHs)c] [Co (CN), ~
X CO i ·-
-
-
-
NOL NO
-

a
LINKAGE ISOMESISM I
isomerism is shown by the Non
is type of
coordination compounds NO2
having ambidentate ligands fac-facial
mer-meridional.
eg [C0
(NH),(NO,) JU and [COCNHs)s (ON0l]4
same
ligands occupy same ligands are in
one face of
STEREO ISOMERISM an octahedron one plane

Geometrical Hi
OPTICAL ISOMERS
opticsomerism
-

I somerism optical isomerism is common

- in
These the comb lexes
are Octahedral complexes
This isomerism is common
which have chiral Str. The ->
The
involving
bidentate ligands
in with equimolar mixture of 'd'and'l'isomer is termed
complexes CN426. pair of stereisomers are the
as the
Geometrical isomers mirror racemic mixture
are of images of each other
two tybe but
superimposed Trans isomer optical isomes
*

may not be can'tshow

Dis On the stereoisomers. These ⑧

e.g ↳ U

e
mirror a

i
same ligands are images are called -4 .....

-
I -en
presentat adjacent
position
enantiomers. The enantiomers P i.......
--
Ot !
& O which rotate the plane (en-
8. bolarised lig It in a clockwise mirror

direction is called dextrovotatory 0

a ①
To (d) or (4)
0
e.g
enN4)24(e -*its
same
ligands are andthe enantiomer which rotate Ie
present atopposite position the plane polarised in anti
light

i
clockwise direction is laexorotatory
⑨ ⑳
(1) OU +
-Yien CO a
......
- in
Co

ad in
minor
 eg [M(AA), X, 3"+
C
DIAZONIUM SALT-
Diazonium salts are written
⑯
cis--cocen 423+ 7t
I
as RN,X-where

i are
c
B aryl group

↳ 1,4
=

...

minor
X-ion can be C1, Br HSO and BE
-
-

. /
Co
2
Not group is called diazonium salt
Len ......

N HSOG
2.6 I- /

METAL CARBONYLS Hit

/
Hi
complexcompounds that
contain ↳ benzene diazonium ↳ benzene diazonium
carbonys ligands only are termed as metal carbonyl chloride hydrogen sulbhate
eg NiC (0) 1 Fe(CO)5 (r[CO)6 STABILITY OF DIAZONIUM SALT
CO CO Arenediazonium salts

ste Dore
I
are stable than the alkyldiazonium salts. This can
more
Ni -
co
be accounted on the basis to effect
coco CO

Tetrahedral Trigonal
Bibyramidal octahedral

BONDING IN METAL CARBONYLS

↳
metal
In
carbonyls, the metal-carbon bond has both
5- and
b-character, co ligand attach itself to metal atom
from the carbon atom to form metal-carbon bond. It is
a
weak donor
m ->

on
c

the
bond is formed by donation of lone pair geo
the
Preparation (Diazotization Ry-)
carbonyl carbon to the vacantorbital of metal N N-D
=

↳
M-c i bond is formed by the donation of a pair of ea -NMe NaNO2 +244 F I4 +Na4 +CHD
from the filled d-orbital of the metal to vacant Lis
antibouding * orbital of 10. This property
of back
bonding Diazonium salts
which stabilise the are prepared and used only in
metal-ligand bond is termed as
solution because in solid state
Synergic effect
an
aqueous
they explode
emD+(E0:-MIN1 ( E0: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Benzene diazonium chloride is a
-overlap colourless crystalline solid and is readily soluble
Donation of lone pair of to from carbon in water. It is stable in cold water but reacts
alow into a vacant orbital of the metal. with water when warmed. It also decomposes easily &

in the dry state.

&m I
&
sof ->
2.
&
is 0.
=
·
Benzene diazonium
and
fluoroborate is water insoluble
000
t
-

- I W t
stable at room temperature.

M
CHEMICAL REACTION-
overlap cut, HPOLIMY, [oT
-

+N,4 +HyDUs +ne

I
Donation of to from a filled metal darbital
into a vacant CHICHOH
antibonding I-orbital of co. Y
-
101 Na+HC
+
+ CHyCHO

Greg
-

Curl HBV>

cucurette I
/
sandmeyer
Reaction
↑

u
Factors
Affecting stability , I
of a complex Nath- But Ne Gatttermann
Rx Y
charge central metal atom central metal
-a IBUx
·

on as charge on
+ Ne
>
10,1
-

alom increases, stability of complexincreases X CN

KCN/CUCN,
I
·
Nature - +Ne
·
of
metalion-stability order's 3d<7d45d series
tybenzonitile)
Nature of 5
ligands-strong field ligands form more KI
stable complex
> Tot
-
+ Nat KC

de
·

Presence N2CBF)-
of chelate Ring:more the chelation, more
stability HBFA

·
-
He Balz-Schiemann 1/
·
Effectof multidentate ligands:
If the ligands are
H28,/ H2SO4
multidentate, the stability of complexincreases X
AIO D YE TEST
Co-ordination compounds Boiling
Significance of
-

NU+nT on Non
·In
Biological System b-hydroxyazobenzene
corange)
↳ In Medicinal chemistry NeC +4-Y-NH- YNaXYNe
In Analytical p-aminobenzene
 AMINES
Amines are considered as amino
Preparation Amines &
of

of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives Reduction of Alkyl Nitrile

ofammonia Li A1 H4

Aliphatic amino compounds

:
R-CH, NH2
are called amino alkanes and arom. R- C =
N
-
atic amines are called amino Na
avenes
>
RCH, NHE
eg
CHyNMa, CH5NHa, Ntc Ethanol
Rxx is used for ascent of amine

R-NH2 Primary Amines (19 -Reduction ofNitro alkane:

Raney Ni
R-NH-R Secondary amines (2% --NO2 Y
--
re/ne -
NH2
10 1 H2/P+
Y
101
R-N-R tertiary Amines (30 -/ x -
i Sn/ACI X

Reduction with Fence is preferred

STRUCTURE OF AMINES: Reduction of Amides:
0

" R. -NH2 LiAIHa; RCHNNc +H2O

N Pyramidal
-
shake of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
= with same number of carbons.
↳ Hofmann Ammonolysis method:
NOMENCLATURE
NH3
RX > R NIH, RX; RNH
393K
CH5-CH-CHNH2 Propan-1-amine (i) (2:
RX
CHy-CH-CH3
nitz Propan-2-amine > Rynix (RaN4 X-
(3)
N,N-Dieth
CH-CHy-H C449 butan.1-amine order of reactivity -> RI> RB5> RC

Prob-2-en-lamine
2I' amine is obtained major
CH2 CH-CH-NH,
=
as

NH2 N product when excess of NHy is taken

,
, --
-
I II Aniline ↳d b-Brome
I
A HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION:
Bi aniline
,43 +4NaOH =
CHy -N-CHy RCONHc +BU RNH, NaBs
+

N,N-Dimethyl Na, C03

- +

↓ benzenamine
+

2H,0
↳ Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than thatpresent in

N1 -

(42)-NMc the amide.

Hexane-1,6-diamine
GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDESYN. ·

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than NH3

⑮
&
Basic nature of aliphatic amines increases
i
·

-
or NH,TTC Nik
--

O
-

**
with increase
i.e
in the number
effect of alkyl
of
alkyl
X -
groups +I group
-"
-

- P
increases their basicity.
ONG order of basicity in gaseous phase...

↳ha
·

NaOH (aa) ---

/-
-> 101 Rit
+

3 amine> 2' amine) amine > NH3

ON
-

In
aqueous phase, solvation effect and
Only 1 amines
Es can be synthesized steric hindrance, besides inductive
by this method effectof alkyl group decide the basic
G Aromatic 10 amines can not be strength of alkyl amines.
prepared by this method as aryl ↳ When is ethyl group
alkyl group
halide do not undergo nucleophilic (C2HsNH) (2HstyN> GHsNHc> NHy
sub. Ryn with potassium phthalimide
↳ When alkyl group is methyl group
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: (CH31, NM < CH,NM2) (CH3),N> NHS

PHYSICAL STATE
The
* BASIC NATURE
of aniline or
any
lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour, 1 ofammonia.

amines with three or more carbon of aniline
↳ less basicity as compared to

atoms are liquid

and ones
higher NIs is attributed to-I effect of
are solid benzene
ring and delocalisation of
love pair of N.
COLOUR - Pure amines are colourless
like-Oct,, CH, increase
Note ERG
but develop colour on
keeping basic strength whereas
in air for long time
E.N.G like NOC, SOgH decrease
SOLUBILITY => amines basic strength.
lower are readily
soluble in water, which
decreases in water and increases in
&
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
&

organic solvents with an increase in

molecular weight. FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOILING POINT: ALKYLATION

I Camines are
and

engaged in intermolecular association R-X+R'NAc R-NHR+RX

x
(20
while
due to
thydrogen bonding /
(IC
RNR' +
R-X-> RNR'X
3 amines do not have intermol-
-
ecular association (due to absence (3 Quaternary
ammonium sast
8 H-atoms
order of Botoisomeric amines. It yields a mixture of 112 and 30
1972 3 amines and also quaternary ammonium
salt.
BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES: ·

major product is obtained when

larger the value

o ky or smaller the acsine is taken in excess.
value of ply, stronger is the base
 D
ACYLATION ↳Y-NHz (CH3 (0)20 2 NH-c-CH
Aniline Ouridine
R/AW--grcts
CHSCOM or
Acetanilide
RAU-N-H Y

in [CHyC0l,
0
O

Base
BROMINATION 26
2 Bu -- NHz Br
H1
- -

The reaction is presence of

carried out in ↳+ 3B, I 3HBU
Bu
+

a base stronger than

leg
pyridines
which removes He so formed and
↳ To
shifts equilibrium to
rightside. get monosubstituted desivative
I ch MHz
C ,
NH
BENZOYLATION --
I BV2 30H- --

10, > 1 0 I
CHyCOOH
ExcOU
R-Na+ -> R-NHCO-E) + Hi
Br -
CARBYLAMINE REACTION:

*,R-NC+3K4 NITRATION
R-NAc +CHC, +3 KOH
N2 ↑He
34,0
I no
+

HNOs, HISOy - -
11
secondary and tertiary amines do not
->
288k - +
Le
No
show this reaction. aira (47%)
(2%)
(51%)
is
It used as a test for 1 AMINES
To get mour substituted bara desirative

to
NH2
REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID: NHCOCH3
S↳
I
HNO), HuSOY
, >

R-NHc +HONO-R-OH +H4 + HC

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SULPHONATION:
CHLORIDE HINSBERE
EYSOLU
REAGENT wit
-- H2SO4 -
15 HsOy 753 473K
-

18
↳d -
Lo, ->

RNA2 +E-SUcH in x-SU, NH-R

soluble alkali
in
He
/-
MH,
S-
29 101
/
-
-

- I O I
I-
RNH+GYSOH T YSO,NR2 sogt so,
3 Zwitter Ion

RyN+1SO4 No Reaction
is
->
p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid
Reaction is used to distinguish blu the major product because distance
three classes of amines 1, 2 and Jamines. blu-NH2 and sigh is maximum.
↳ sulbhanilic acid in
exist
AROMATIC AMINES
ZWITTER ION FORM.
-

NH group is ortho and bare directing

and powerful activating group. For Help

Activating effectg-NH2 group in aniline you can donate

-

can be controlled by protecting the

with
Ne group by acetylation
-

acetic anhydride and then carrying

out the desired substitution Rx ALDEHYDE, KETONE AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
-
 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
In organic compounds containing carbon- AND KETONES:

oxygen double bond(Ic 0) =

called
carbonyl
is CutanO
group. Their general
I
formula 1) By oxidation of alcohols:
D.C. C
⑰
R-CH2-OH >
R. CHO

mc-n
11
C-
I alcohol Aldehyde
R
-
R CrOs
R-CH-R' R
R-?
x -

Aldehyde ketone
di 2 alcohol Ketone
The carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. By Dehydrogenation of Alcohols

atom of hydroxyl group (-OU) Oare Cu/573K;R-CHO
known as
caboxylic acid - R-CH2-OH, alcohol aldehyde
R - 0H
C15731
setone
R-CH R-
-
R'
Nomenclature of Aldehyde
dr 2. alcohol

O
⑧
11
Il 3. By Ozonolysis of Alkenes:
1 methanal CH-4 ethanol

"O
H H CHS =P
P Y HCHO
↓

O 11 (ii) zu. 4,0 ChI

11 bentanal H
I ice 4. By Hydration of Alkynes Of
2 -
chloropentanal dil. He SOn
↳
->I
0
CHECH CH=CH
I I
P
Il
dil. Mgsoy"
H H
Tautomerism
butanas Butanal
>CHI-CHO
3-Methyl
All other alkynes give ketones.

a R-C=
Nomenclature of Ketones
R-CE
CH ketone
D
11
D
p
- -I Tantomerism, R-c-CH3
CH] CH3 10
-
MCH3
Propanone Acetobhenoue
cacetonel <methyl phenyl ketone)
By Heating a salt
o Acid
O

--
11
/-
0
11 ROOC,ca =>R-CO-R + CaCOs
10 I 101 ROOC
- -
2- pentan one By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophen one
0 Aromatic Acids
11 0

CHO+R0+CO,
11
I YCOOH +HCOON
A
3-hexanone
3-methyl-2-butanone
M COCH3 +H0+CO,
->
-COOH +Hooe-CH,
STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

120:
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
↓
1. C-sp" hybridization
C 0
=

2. Bond angle is 120.

->
ROSENMUND REDUCTION:
0
3. Su bond, 1 bond 0
H2, Pd/BaSOY R*x
4. Carbon. Oxygen R "a > HU
+

IT Acid Chloride aldchyce

double bond consist 20 &
I Hi, OdlBaSOn - CHO
- -
⑰
2 -
0
⑦
3. Carbon, oxygen bond
14
2%
7
↳Benzaldehyd
is polar in Nature -> STEPHEN REDUCTION
6) In carbonyl gt ctiselectrophilic
R - C N
=
SUCI/NC!R-CH NH =
IR-CHO
- is Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 ETARD REACTION: and others due to dipole-dipole interactions but
their butare lower than alcohols. ⑱
CYCHs + crOCI orand SOLUBILITY: Lower members
of aldehyde and
comblex
H30+ -CHO kelones are soluble in water because of H-Bond.
> io I Benzaldehyde
-
The solubility of aldehyde and ketones decreases
By side Chain Chlorination of Methylbenzene rapidly on increasing the length of alloy chain.
followed All aldehyde and beloves are fairly soluble in
by Hydrolysis:
organic solvent.

-CHS
CIIU,YYCHCl H,0
-- CHP
---
101 -
I o I CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- A
-/

Tomene Benzal Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature of Carbonyl Group=>
commercial method to manufacture of benzaldehyde
The polarity of Carbonyl grown arise due to high
GATTERMAN-KOCH REACTION:
electronegativity
of 0-atom.

Ic*-
-- CO, H4 --CHO
1 101
-Benzaldehyde
# Nucleophile center
Anhy AICl /CUCI
I Lewis Base)
electrophile center
PREPARATION OF
KETONES <Lewis Acid)
·

From Acid Chloride

Acidity of <-Hydrogen Atom:
2
R-Mg-X +
CdCk -> R2Cd + 2 Mg !Y election withdrawing effect
The strong
2B - of carbonys group and
4- 4 Ryd
2R1-4-R+cl
+
- > resonance

stabilisation of conjugate base

2.) From Nitriles: are responsible for the acidity of

a-hydrogen alom.
Ether

[a
O
D-CH (EN
[MgBr O
-
- +

-
-
D- -- ->
-> -k k-
& ⑧
=

Cty-CH-C
I
= N
i s
↳'MgBu
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
-O Hy0t
thereactivity of aldehyde is than that
Calts--- of kelones, due to
more

1- Phenyl probanone
↳ Steric Reason 4 Electronic Reason

3) Friedal Craft Acylation The

The attack of nucleophile presence of two
0 c-AvIR is
carbonyl carbon allay group in
=

ketones

-c
I on
- --
hindered by the presence
Lo ArsR-
+

-
the electrophilicity of
of large substituenton
carbonyl carbon more
Ketones
effectively than aldehyde.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE REDUCTION
AND KETONE

I
NaH4 or
Alcohol
LiAIH4
·
lower member of aldehyde and ketones
upto 10 are colourless, volatile liquid Aldehyde In-Hg/HC
while formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary and
-

Clemmensen
>CH
temp. Higher members of both are solids Ketones Reduction
with odour.
fruity
NHc-NH /OH-
higher C
·
Bot g carbonyl compounds are than
woll-Kishner
those of non-polar compounds, hydrocarbons Reduction
 (-4-0 ⑲
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
CARBOXYLIC ACID

I
MINION,IC - cyanohedin The consistof
carboxyl group, a carbonylgb
NAHSO] attached to a hydroxyl group.
SsNa Bisulphite addition
I
-

product
Aliphatic (R-COOH) or Aromatic (COOH)
ROH ROH

< -> IC Acetal Their is

Dry te Dry ne general formula CuttanOz

- I
--
OCH
H-COOH
> - 10 CH. Kefal CH3-COOH
Methanoic Acid Ethanoic Acid
HN -2 (Formic Acid) Acid)
i
1c N =
-

2 (Acetic
2 OH-NHc,
=

COO4
CHy-CH2-COOH cook oxalic Acid
MHe
propanoic Zeid <Ethaue-12-dioic acid
COOl
OXIDATION REACTION -
I
coot
101 1 I
-
KCrOz /Ht; R-COOH
-

I
Benzoic Acid
2 Methyl cycle pentanc
-

2 [Ag(NH3),] + (Benzene Carboxylic

2 Agl + RC00- GOnly
Aldehydes] Acid)
-I-carboxylic Acid.
Tollen's test

GCu2+ 50H-
METHODS OF PREPARATION:
[Onydehydes'
+

RC00-
Fehling's testC40x
X +

from alcohol by oxidation:

NaOX methyl ketone

Haloform
> CHXs+RCOoNat [and ethanal
CHICHON to
allKMnOn
CHCHO G CHSCOOH
give this testy OOA
CH, OH 0 --
-
↳ ->
REACTION DUE TO X-HYDROGEN

C-(CH).OH , -(Ctzs-cOOn

OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

=>

kMnOy
CHy-CHO
- >

CH-COOH
[O]
O

kMnOu
CH --CHa-CH3 ,
<OS
CHCOOH +CHyCOOH

Oxidation of ketones is done with

difficulty acc. to POPOFF'S RULEi.e

Kelovic group remain with smaller group.

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

CH3 coon
-- kMnOY -
↳-
(O( 101 -
Benzoic Acid

COOU

- ch kMnOY
I
-
10pcoon pathalic
I I > - /
-
0
acid

HCH3 Oon
, - Benzoic
kMnOy
-
101
↳ ->
- acid
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity
of Carboxylic
ING
Acid ⑬
- >
GRCOONa +HeY
R-CN+ H0 RCONH HR-COOH Acid
Carboxylic R-COOH NaOH
H
- - > RLOONA +HO
CH-CH-CN +40 CH3-CH-CONAC
->

CHy-CH2COOH NaHCOs, RCOPNa + HaO+(Ve

FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT
·
Carboxylic acicb are stronger acid
than
alcohols and many simple phenols but weal
0 c0 CH-MgBr
ingr
0,
=
+
=

er the mineral acids.

with
·
Electron drawing group stabilises
the carboxylate anion and strengthen
H20
the acid,
CHCOOH+MyTBY whereas to
donating
group
destabilises the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakens the acid.

R-coU RCOOH + HC
->
Rx
involving cleavage of c-on bond

L CHCOOH ↳ Formation
CHICOL
+H4
of anhydride O 0
-

FROM ACID DERIVATIVE

2R-COOH
NT, A
S R -
- -R
or P205 A

↳
R-1OZ -
dilHD
R-COOH Esterification:
or dil N90H
R.COOH RON
+
* RCOOR' +

H0
Ease of Hydrolysis ↳ Rx
with and sock:
PCs, P4,
RCOSe> RRCOKU) RCOOH > RIONAC
RICOOH
> RCOC +POU, the
-3 RCO4 HyPOs
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
+

SOCI
> RCOG +SO2 +HC
·
Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto wine carbon
↳ Rx" with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid atroom temp

unpleasantodour. The
with higher grids are RCOOH +

Ny -RCOUNMYT T RCONHe
like solich.
wax Rxx involving -
Cool group
·
Reduction his LiAty/ether
RCH,OH
·
Due to presence of intermolecular forces the lower RLOOH orB246
X
(ii) Hy0+
carboxyl acids are freely missible with water
Butthe solubility in water decreases
·
Decarboxylation
RLOO-Nat a0 R-H+NacCOs
gradually due to increase in size of alkyl gl. A
↳ H.Y.2Rx (Hell Volhard Zelinsky Rxn)
Stronger intermolecular forces increases
· is X2 /RedP

the
CHy-COOH
(XS-COOH
bipt of monocarboxylic acids as
compared to the alcohols
of comparable
↳
Electrophilic Ring substitution
molecular masses. carboxyl group acts as a
deactivating
and meta directing group
H-0c- R
---

R- xD COOH
BU2/FeBUs
X cook
-
-- ↓-IBu
-0-H---o
A

101 -

conc.
coon
HN3
- -
R
Aud 1NO2
Hydrogen Bonding in Carboxylic conc. H2SO4

... ... ....

They do undergo
not friedal craft reaction because
-
n
carboxyl group deactivating group
is and

in CatalystAll, gets bonded to carboxyl

Alcohols group.
Hydrogen Bonding
 configuration of x-amino acids
⑪
·

Biomolecules COOH
COOH

Introduction:
Biomolecules are the organic compound 4,N H I NH2
which from the basis of life in they build up
a (L-amino acid) R D-amino acid)
the
living system and responsible for their growth
and maintence CNH on 1.4.SI CNH on R.HS)
that relates biomolecule to living organism is amino acids L-amino acids
occuringoccur
The sequence -> Naturally are
Biomolecules ->
organells-cells - Tissues -
organs-living D-amino acids in some antibiotics and
organism bacterial cell walls.
living
->
systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like carbohydrate, proteins, nucleic acids, Twitterion: when a proton is migrated from carboxyl
lipids etc. amino group, a dual
to ion is formed
proteins and carbohydrates are essential group
constituents our food. and this dual ion is called zwitter ion.
of
In
->
addition, some simple molecules
like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the
function of organism.
-

Amino Acids & Proteins it

The compounds containing amino group (-NH) and

carboxylicgroup (-cool are called amino acids. Iso electric Point (P)
R H,
zwitter ion, which is
where =

alkyl or
electrically neutral only
can specific exist at a

any group pt,that pH is called isoelectric point

which is differentfor all amino acids.

leucine pH
eg pF g
6.0
=

-> except
active
glycine
in
(nN-I-coon), others are optically
pF of Arginine pH=10.8.
nature.

classification of amino acids->

structure amino acids:
*

of
R
<,B,y-amino
=>
acids depending upon the position of OH

Ns with respect to-cool

group. R
riz-cH-c00-(higher pr
-

=>

I
Neutral, having one-NM, and one-cook group. f

I
as anion
-

H,N-CH-100-
-coon (glycinel
-

e.g. Nt R
Zwitter ion
I

-> Acidic,
having one-NH, and two-cool
group.
sisoelectric point) AN-cH-coonslow as cation pH
Hs
e8,00c-c-P-COOH (Aspartic Acid) ·

ide=>peptides are condensation products of

two or more L-amino acids.
Basic, having more-NH, and one-cool

N-cincoon
two or
->
group. R

e.8
Mc
Clysine) TN-CH-COOH
I

+kN-c-cOON
HN-Kray-cOOn " dipeptide.

Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids:

- -NH - is known as peptide linkage orpeptide bond.
*

those amino acids which can be synthesized by - a molecules of amino acid form dipeptide.
non-essential amino acids
our body are known as
3 molecules of <-amino acid form tripeptide.
while which can't be synthesized
by our body so must be supplied
through our
->

Dipeptide has only peptide bond.

one
amino acids.
dist are called essential ripeptide has only two peptide bond.
Polypeptide: condensation products
of many amino acid
(* 10000) is known as poly peptide and those
polypeptide which have molecular mass above
than 10000 u are called proteins.

reins they are linear polymers of camino

acid.
 Str. of Proteins: in this lostr.
Any change i.e the sequence

⑫
of amino acid creats different protein
2.) Primary structure:
It simply reveals the sequence
a

of amino acids.

2) Secondary structure:x-helixstr. maintained by H-Bond

or pleated sheet str. When Ris small
growls.
secondary structure of Proteins:
3)Tertiary structure: the secondary str.
The folding and superimposition of proteins the shape in which
refers to a
long
I polypeptide chains
forms a compactglobular shape. polypeptide chain can exist.
termed as tertiary str.
They are found to exist in two different
Itis stabilised by covalent, ionic, H-Bond
and disulphide bonds. types of str.

4) Quaternary structure:the precise arrangement of a -helix

sto. B-bleated sheet str
constituents. most common ways In this str. all peptide
in which stretched
chambaube chain
are
the Basis ptide
Classification on ofHydrolysis to
·

t
-

near
all possible H-Bond maximum extension
simple Protein: into and then laid side
which give only x-amino acid upon by twisting held
handed by side are
hydrolysis
a
right
e.g albumin together by intermolecular
Conjugated Protein:
These proteins give camino acid and Screwhelpgroup
t H-Bond.
non protein part, called prosthetic group d each amino acid residue

Tertiary Str. Proteins:

Protein Prosthetic Group of the tertiary str. of proteins
represents folding of boypeptide
overall chains i.e

further folding of the secondary structure

Itgives wise to a major molecular

shapes i.e fibrous and Globular

The main forces which stabilize
the 21 and 30 str. of proteins are H-Bonds,
Derived Proteins disulphide linkage, van der Waal and electrostatic
These obtained by partial hydrolysis forces attraction.
are
of
I simple or conjugated Proteins.
Polypeptides]
<Proteins
g Proteins
Proteoses Pebtones str.
quaternary
-> -> ->

On the Basis of Molecular shape some

of the proteins are

compo sed o two or more

I
polypeptide chains referred
Fibrous Protein Globular Protein to as sub, units
The spatial arrange -

-ment
of these subunits
with respect to each

other is known as
quaternary structure

Denaturation of Proteins
The process that changes the
native protein is
Str.g
3-D
called denaturation of proteins.
It can be caused
by change in pH, change in temp.
addition of electrolyte, addition
solvent like water, alcohol, acetone.
I

Primary str. of Proteins: Nucleic Acids:These are the polymers which are
Proteins may
have one or
prepared by Nucleotide also known as polynucleotide
more polypeptide chains
polypeptide in a protein has amino acids nucleotide
->
each a contain....
each other in a
linked with specific sequence and *Penlose sugar x) Nitrogeneous *) Phosphate
is this
it
sequence of amino acids that is said Base group.
to be 1st of that
the
·
Protein Pentose Sugar:
5 Carbon sugar either ribose or

ribose
For Help deoxy
you can donate (not contain

oxygen at t

and position)
 Nitrogeneous Base Vitamins
I

Pyrimidine
the organic compounds other than carbohydrates,
purine proteinsand fats which are required in the diet in

Adenine thymine small amount to perform specific biological functions,

->
->

uraci maintain
guanine health, growth and nutritition are
↑

normal
->
->

cytosine
⑬
->
called Vitamins
Two H-Bonds presentbetween A&T CA= T) basis of
solubility
are
classification on the
while three
hydrogen bonds are present between
(24(( h) = Fat Soluble Vitamins
and oils but insoluble vitaminatesaresobeam at &

liver and adipose (fat

storing tissues.
Water soluble Vitamins
group vitamins
-

i and I are
soluble in water. Water soluble vitamins must be
supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted urine
M and can not be stored in
our body (except Vitamin B12)
Vitamin K is responsible for coagulation of blood.

structure Of D.N.A
Itconsist ofchain
two
polynucleotide
chains, each form a
righthanded helical spiral
with tell bases one turn
in of
the spiral
The two chains coil
to double in
helixand run

opposite
direction. These are
held together by
H-bonding.

Types of RNA
2.) Messanger RNA (m-RNA)
is produced in the
It
nucleus and carries information for the synthesis
8 protein.

2.) Transfer RNA

is found in cytoplasm. Its
It function
is to collect amino acid from cytoplasm for ENZYMES
protein synthesis. Enzymes are biocatalyst, almost all the enzymes

3.) Ribosomal RNAC5-RNA)

are
globular proteins. They are generally named after the
provide site for compound class of compound upon which
This or
they work
protein synthesis
eg the enzyme that catalyse hydrolysis of maltose
into
functions of Nucleic Acid glucose is named as maltase
Maltase
CI2HaaOn +HaO -> 2CH206
Direct the synthesis of protein
·

Maltose Glucose
·
transfer the genetic informations. some common examble
->
cation: -
Product
It is a process in which a molecule can substrate Name

duplicate. Urec Urease CO2 +NHy

-mate it means battern, in the process of replication Mallose Maltase Glucose
o DNA, the parent strand serves as template. sucrose Glucose + fructose
nvertase
I

Gene information Stauch Amylase maltose

the portion of DNAcarrying about
Proteins Amino Acids
specific protein is
a called gene. Trypsin
Genetic code:The relation between the amino acid Mechanism of Enzyme action-
and the the nucleotide tripletis called
genetic code.
codons the nucleotide bases in RNA function
amino
group of
in three (piblet) in coding
acid.
These bases triblets are called codons.

characteristic feature of Enzyme:

·
Rate of Reaction:
They increase the rate of reaction
up to 100 to 107 times.
·
Specific Nature -

crease catalyse the hydrolysis of urea

Str.g Glucose ⑭
and not methyl urea, so these are specific in nature.
·
Optimum temperature -

It is active at 20-30°
·

ph of medium -

it is about 7, for bebsin 1.8-2.2,

for trypsin 7.5-8.3
·
Concenteration -
Dilute solutions are more effective
·
Amount of enzyme.Very small amount can accelerate
the reaction

toaware manmy
a
Enzyme Inhibitors These compound inhibitthe enzyme str. of fructose:State
· -

action, with the help such

of
compounds, the reaction can be controlled.

HARMONES
These are the chemical substance which are
produced by endocrine (ductless) in the
glands body.
Harmones acts as chemical messengers.

some examples of ductless (endocrinel glands are

thyroid, pitutary, advenal, pancreas, testes and ovaries.

Harmones are divided into three types:
is steroids (ii) Proteins (ii;Amines six membered cyclic
ring
five membered cyclicing
G as

Reducing Sugar Non Reducing Sugar

Free Do not have any free
Aldehydic or
·
·

aldehydic or ketonic group.

kefonic group
Do not reduce tollens
felling solh
·

Reduce
sol
or Tollen's Reagent Reagent and
Fehling
Carbohydrates These active bolyhydro-
·

e.g
Maltose a fructose
e.g sucrose
are
optically
-

xy aldehydes/kelones or the substance which

Chemical Properties of Glucose
these hydrolysis are called carbohydrates.
give on
CHO
General formula ((Hc0)y - CHO

Icn-o-"-cy)
C CHON)4
Acetic
classification on the basis
of Hydrolysis A
Anhydride
·
Monosaccharides-can not be hydrolysed further e.gactose con CH,-o-"-CHS
·

oligosaccharides-give 2-10 molecules Glucose Penta acetate

of monosaccharides
e.g Glucose, fructose CHO COOH
Polysaccharides-give large no. If monosaccharides CHON)
70] CHON
·

·
I
cellulose. 1
+

Gluconic
e.g starch,
·
Preparation of Glucose:
con CHOH and

from Sucrose CHO COOH

HNO3
-icHasOn +HEO
#,CHO6 +(HIcO6
· Con *
Y /CHON 1 Saccharic
acid
fructose
from Starch
glucose
con CHON
#s CH1cOb glucose -N-OH
(H100s) n+UHc0 n
CHO CHO CH

·HOM s
structure ·
aldehyde group CCMOM
MF, CCH, 'I H-0H
Hor
N
CHO - one
* Y

CHON)
A

+5 four
calcohol
con cits don 'Ha0
Glucoxine
·non alcohol n-Hexane
one le

Str. HO.
D-Glucevaldehyde L-Glycevaldehyde - CHO -CN
Glucose
C CHOH)1
HCN
240 CHO
> (CHOH) cano hydriu
fol not H
con
A

con
It

CH,01 CHOH
Mutavotation when either the two forms
D
means iRHS
of L means of in 1.H.s of of glucose
is dissolved in water, there is a spontaneous
change in specific rotation till the equilibrium
value 8 52.5%.
+

This is known as mutarotation.

x-D(+) Glucose - Eq,uilibrium E B-DH) Gluose The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
mixture
↳

fo (11.50 19.50
↑

oxide linkage formed by loss

of a water molecule
This is is called
actually an ether
group and

Importance of Carbohydrate
carbohydrates are essential for life both
in plants and
glycosidis linkage.
⑬
----
·

·
they are major portion of our food.
animals -

Kano? --

carbohydrates are used as storage molecule as starch

SUCROSE
plants and in animals.
in
glycogen
cell wall
of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose
·

x-D-Glucose
·

Honey has been used for a

long time as an instant I
source of energy. B-D-Glucose
spiners monosaccharides in configuration
·

differing at

a carbon other than anomeric carbon are called epiners

eg glucose and galactose differ in configuration at 11,
hence called epiners. MALTOSE

B-D- Galactose
I

B- D Glucose

Sugars and
Non-Sugars LACTOSE
monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet
·

taste, soluble in water are known as

sugars
water and B-D. Galactose
·

Polysacchides which are insoluble in not

I
sweetin taste
are known as
non-sugars B-D-Glucose
°@·
h|hhhhhhBharat Panchal
Ben
Sir

Gurujic.o
Bharat Panchal-Chemistry
⑧
INVERSION OF SUCROSE-
DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES -

but on hydrolysis either witha start

CARBONYDRATES Hydrolysis Linkage Reducing enzyme invertase, the solution is changed into
product Property
laevo-rotatory solution.
is changed
sucrose -D Glucose & C-1(Glucose) 2 Non- As dextrorotatory sucrose
Disaccharide) B-D Fructose
(-2 (Fructose) Reducing to laevo rotatory solution after hydrolysis
Maltose is called "invert
Disacchavide)
2-D.Glicose (-1 Glucose a
Reducing The sucrose sugar"
C-4 Glucose
Lactose
(Disaccharide) &
B-D-Galactose
B-D-glucose
J-1CGalactose) a
(-1 (Clucose)
Reducing CizHacOn +H0CoH2O6 +CoHzOs
DC). Glucose DC) Fructose
·

66.50
cellulose
+

B-D-Glucose (-1(Glucose) & Non- +

52.5° -
92.4
Crolysaccharide) Reducing
-+(Glucose) Since the laevo rotation of fructose (-92.4%) is
Glycogen 4-D-Glucose (-1 CGlucosel&
(Polysaccharide) Non- more than dextro rotation of glucose (+52.5%), the
C-1 (Glucose) Reducing is laevo
mixture rotatory.
MUTAROTATION
When
glucose
is dissolved in water, Polysaccharides
then itsspecificrotationchangein equilibrium
into an
is units and it consist
specific rotationof the
starch it a
polymer g x-glucose
an
optically active substance to an equilibrium value
two components -

Amylose and Amylobectin

is called mutarotation
Amylose Amylopectin
The two anomers
of glucose
i.e <.D glucose &

B-D Glucose in solution changes their specific rotation

to an equilibrium value which is the rotation of a

straightchain str.
x-D Glucose
Obenain-
-
=>B-D-Glucose
Ep. rotation Stoc Especific
=+ 110°) C sp. rotation rotation
52.59
= + =+ 19.2.
DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis with dilute acids or with
enzyme give two molecules of either same or

differentmonosaccharides