ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN FUNDING

PRIMARY EDUCATION IN KADUNA STATE

By

GAMALIEL Shearjashab

ADM. NO: 19210408002

A Dissertation Submitted for Proposal Defence to the Department of Adult

Education and Extension Services, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto,
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Degree of
Master of Education (M.Ed) in Primary Education Management

Supervisory Team

Major Supervisor: Dr. Muhammad Alkali

Co-Supervisor I: Dr. M.A. Yusuf

Co-Supervisor Ii: Dr. Haliima Sarkifada

JANUARY, 2024

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Education, academic achievement and the wellbeing of children at school are a major

concern of parents, teachers and stakeholders in the education industry. Globally, education

remains the most effective instrument for social and economic transformation as well as for

national building and development. Primary education is the first level of education and the

primary school as an institution of learning is the primary agent of socialization for children

outside the home (Kombe, 2019). The primary education as the foundation level of education

is vital to children’s education and it provides the structural framework upon which every

other level of education is anchored (Bello & Yusuf, 2017).

Education has been stated to be the sum total of all the process through which

children are encouraged to develop their abilities attitude and other forms of behavior which

are beneficial to the society in which the children live (Fafunwa, as cited in Wunti 2006).

According to Fagbemi, as cited in Wunti (2006), it is a systematic acquisition of knowledge,

skills and desirable qualities of behaviors which are also necessary for the survival,

development and welfare of both individual and the society.

The Christian Missionaries introduced western education in Nigeria in the year 1842

(Bakwai, 2017). The management of education in those days did pose any problem neither to

parents nor to government because the Voluntary Agencies and the Native Authorities were

fully involved in the management of education (Bakwai, 2017). Management of schools

started to take shape with the introduction of Education Ordinances of 1882, 1887, 1908 and

1916. These ordinances were considered first and most effective move by the government to

manage schools and education in general. By then, it was not every child that had access to

Western education, but only the sons or servants of the Chiefs and Emirs or those that were

2
fortunate to be sponsored by their community through scholarship that were the initial

beneficiaries of the system (Nwagwu, 2002). It was this limited access that lead to the first

attempt at implementing a universal education scheme which occurred in the 1950's in the

then Western and Eastern regions. By 1966, the Federal Government took over the Mission

Schools and funded all the schools. This period marked the origin of School Boards with first

School Boards for West, East and Lagos taking off in 1968 (Nnabuo, Okorie & Agabi, 2004).

The main idea behind the creation of the School Boards was the effective management of

schools that were taken over from the missions or those newly established by the

government. Some of the School Boards were decentralized to Zones headed by Directors

(Okendu, 2012).

Universal Primary Education (UPE) was introduced which brought about the

introduction of the Local Governments Education Authorities (LGEAs) in 1976 (Alani,

2002). Even with the introduction of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme, lack of

provisions for facilities persisted (Adeyemi, 2011: 2009; Alani, 2002; Fafunwa, 1974 &

Nwagwu, 2002). Later, the 6-3-3-4 system was introduced. In 1988, the National Primary

Education Commission (NPEC) was established because of public out-cry on the

deteriorating conditions of the education system (Okendu, 2006). According to Nwagwu

(2002), the Commission and its structure vis-a-vis the Primary School Management Board

(PSMB), Local Government Education Authority (LGEA), District Education Committee

(DEC) and Village Education Committee (VEC) were short lived as the decree that

established them was abrogated on 1st January, 1991. Between 1991 and 1993, the

management of primary schools was transferred to the Local Government Councils (LGCs).

The National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) was re-established followed by the

establishment of States Primary Education Boards (SPEBs). Even with these efforts in

Nigeria, primary education needed the inputs of community members especially in

3
determining the education curricula, because the products of the schools were being groomed

to become leaders and assets to the community itself. With the rapid increase in number of

schools, communities cannot detach themselves from matters concerning those schools

(Bakwai, 2017).

Community refers to a group of people from a common geographical area(s), with

shared use of an educational institution, and at least de facto agreement on the form and

function of education. The culture, language, tradition, law, geography, class, and race, which

a particular people share, define their community. As Russell (2009) argues, some

communities are homogeneous while others are heterogeneous; and some united while others

conflictive. Some communities are governed and managed by leaders chosen democratically

who act relatively autonomously from other levels of government, and some are governed by

leaders imposed from above and represent central authorities (Uemura, 1999). Although it is

assumed that communities to be homogenous, harmonious and static, whose resources can

collectively be mobilized for a perceived collective community good, Dunne, Akyeampong

and Humphreys (2007) believed that they are multi-layered, with their own hierarchies,

determined to an extent by age, gender, ethnicity, caste, function within the community etc.,

and dynamic, as power relations are played out on a daily basis in accommodation and

resistance. The composition of communities too is always changing, with people dying or

being born into them and migrating in and out of them (Chen, 2011).

The community has contributive and distributive purposes; there are individual

responsibilities to the community and community responsibilities to the individual. However,

differences in ethnicity, race, religion, socio-economic status, and power fuel divisions which

are replicated in and by education systems (Rose, 2003; Watt, 2001; Bray, 2000). This

contributes to the marginalization of some groups and, in some places, community conflicts.

A human rights-based approach can allow schools and other social institutions to focus on the

4
shared humanity of a group and ensure that institutions do not further violate the rights of

members. In so doing, it can increase the chances of inclusion regardless of economic, social

and cultural differences. As Willie (2006) suggests, community members are inter-dependent

though this is often not recognized or optimized. A rights-based approach could help

community members better understand their connectedness and empower them to act to claim

their rights.

Community participation has received greater attention in international and national

policy in recent years. The forms of community support needed for school development

recently became more formalized in SBMC policy, with new forms of community

participation emerging (Rusell; Aref & Redzuan; Mnaranara, in Ajayi, 2021). Community

participation has been used as panacea to solve complex problems related to school and

education in general. It is not something that suddenly appears in education delivery. In fact,

not all communities were passive in the education of their children. Until in the last century,

communities were the most responsible for managing schools. Even presently, there are

places in Nigeria where communities organize themselves to provide and manage schools for

their children. Although, the participation of community in school administration have not

been extended to a wider practice (Ajayi, 2021).

The term “participation” can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the context.

Njunwa (2010) understand participation to be involvement of members through the

contribution (or extraction) of money, materials, and labor.

Community participation in, even control of, education pre-dates public compulsory

schooling given that education was historically family and community- based. Governmental

responsibility for education started in the 19th century and became the norm in the mid-20th

century – this was often done by taking control of or building on a system that was run by

non-state actors (Bray, 2000). While Bray correctly identifies this practice as an illustration

5
of the long history of partnership in education, it also illustrates decentralized origin of

education systems in many countries.

With increased government control, community participation decreased. This was

further compounded in many developing countries by colonial rule that not only failed to

develop mechanisms for the participation of parents and communities, but excluded the

majority of these populations from accessing an education. In fact, in most of these countries

real control rested with the colonizing government oceans away - this in part gave rise to

some of the initial protests and agitation for rights, long before the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights (UDHR). Additionally, in some countries the school communities disconnect

was a bi-product of the ‘professionalization’ of education: teachers, as professionals, viewed

communities as inadequately prepared to contribute productively and so separated themselves

from communities. Hence, while professionalization was geared towards providing ‘a better

education’ it exempted input from the people for whom education was being provided.

Over the last two and half decades, efforts to improve access, governance and

outcomes of educational systems have given renewed focus to educational decentralization -

transfer of some form of authority from a central body to local levels (Naidoo and Kong,

2003). Distinctions can be made in terms of the form, functional activities, geographic level

(national to sub-national to local) and the type and amount of power that is transferred.

Decentralization facilitates community participation most directly when decision making is

devolved to the school level. This is referred to as site- or school- based management (SBM),

and is a form of decentralization that identifies the individual school as the primary unit of

improvement and relies on the redistribution of decision-making authority as the primary

means through which improvement might be stimulated and maintained" (World Bank,

2007a, 2). The amount of power that is devolved to schools under SBM varies but ranges

from a single area of autonomy to complete control at school level. The typical areas of

6
decision-making that are devolved to school control include budget allocation, personnel

management (including the hiring and firing of school staff), pedagogy, school maintenance,

and the monitoring and evaluation of teacher performance and student learning (see

UNESCO 2009; World Bank, 2007a; di Gropello, 2006). If truly empowered to influence and

guide decisions on these issues, communities would not only fulfill their participation rights

but reshape their education systems.

Community participation is crucial for the success of community development

programs. Development projects and programs with strong participation can enhance

ownership and sustainability in development (Kumar, 2000) and the projects are more likely

to succeed in developing the community. Likewise, the participation of communities in

education can enhance education and children’s’ learning. Research has shown that the

participation of families and communities in education has positive impacts on children’s

learning and can also increase children’s learning potential which results in long-term

impacts on children’s lifelong learning (Epstein, 1992, 1995, 2006)

Wunti (2006), the essence of the community in the participation of education

management is therefore of paramount importance. It is assumed that that such community

effort will bring about changes. Historically the Nigerian government has formulated policies

(2005) program so as to encourage community participation but this has not been fully

realized as certain reluctance remains among some parents which frustrate the entire systems

on the whole. Education in public schools has been left to government with the limited

parental involvement in public schools has given rise to the call for community involvement

that has created a platform for discussion of this issue and how it can be resolved. The entire

concept of community participation based on the notion that community involvement exist as

democratic concern of individual rights as well as a methodical approach to formulating an

educational system that is self-governing and developing which provide increased power to

7
the local level. This will allow for greater measures of accountability by schools to the

society. The study was promoted to also address the growing call for improvement in primary

schools management and how this could be achieved. It has been revealed that community

involvement is an important factor not only the role of motivation but also transforming the

traditional beliefs of education being the responsibility educators.

In Nigeria today, the government has stated that it could not single-handedly afford to

finance and provide educational facilities in all its school. This therefore, made the

community participation in primary aspect of education necessary so as to join hands with

government for improving the quality of primary education (Wunti 2006). Western education

was introduced in Nigeria by the Christian Missionary in the year 1842 (Fafunwa, in

Nwagwu, 2002). The funding and other aspects of schools management were later taken over

by government. For effective management of these schools, School boards, Education

Committees, Education Authorities and Education Commissions were all introduced by

government at different points in time (Adesina & Ogunsaju, 1984; Adesina, 1990; Alani,

2002; Nwagwu, 2002). These all-together have led the course unto which schools were able

to record a great achievement in the past (Adeyemi, 2011). The essence of all the boards,

committees, authorities and commissions in Nigeria education systems was to promote

financial accountability and improve local community participation in school funding among

others (Adesina, 1990; Nwagwu, 2002).

Community participation had received increased attention in international and

national policy in recent years. The forms of community support needed for school

development recently became more formalized in SBMC policy, with new forms of

community participation emerging (Rusell, 2009; Aref & Redzuan, 2009; Mnaranara, 2010).

Community participation had been used as panacea to solve complex problems related to

school and education in general. It is not something that suddenly appears in education

8
delivery. In fact, not all communities were passive in the education of their children. Until in

the last century, communities were the most responsible in managing schools.

Since government’s efforts in education alone could not be enough in meeting the

needs and aspirations of Nigeria’s educational system in terms of infrastructure and other

school development projects and programmes, it was the responsibility of SBMCs to ensure

full participation of all stakeholders in school development and in any decision concerning

their schools. As studies and experiences strongly indicated (Cuyvers, Weerd, Dupont, Mols,

& Nuytten, 2011; Branham, 2004), achievement was greater in above-standard schools than

in substandard schools, it was therefore the obligation of any reasonable community to

improve infrastructure in its schools. It was necessary for SBMCs to develop necessary

strategies for promoting this community participation in all aspects of school processes.

According to Tshabalala (2006) community participation is one of the key factors to

determine school effectiveness. It helps increase the accountability of schools by reducing

teacher absenteeism, increasing teacher effort and these generally seem to contribute to

improved students’ conduct. It also helps develop true democratic processes in school

development process. Large number of primary schools suffered an immense deprivation of

infrastructural facilities that support teaching and learning (Aluede, 2006). In a study

conducted by Adepoju and Fabiyi (2007), it revealed the following: 12% of pupils sat on the

floor; 38% of the classrooms have had no ceilings; while 87% of the classrooms were

overcrowded. With poor funding, the few classrooms built on some of the primary school

grounds decay faster because of poor maintenance (Lunenburg, 2010).

Funding refers to the amount of money available for particular project or purpose.

According to Egberibin (2014) despite the preeminence of primary education as the

foundation stone of education, the Nigerian primary schools and education are poorly funded.

According to Ekundayo (2019) the most chastising obstacle confronting the education sector

9
in Nigeria is funding and lamented that 7.04% of the nation’s budget allocated to education in

2018 is grossly inadequate in comparison to UNESCO’s recommended 15 – 25%. It has been

near impossibility for the governments of Nigeria to fund primary schools adequately. Amoo

(2019) lamented that the inability of the government to fund primary education has left

parents and community members with the task of funding primary schools within their

capacities.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Evidence from the background revealed that education funding is fundamental with a

series of contributions including community participation. The community participation in

funding of the schools is constrained by the limited degree of knowledge by the communities

in school management, lack of a direct policy compelling the community involvement in the

school management and low degree of sensitization of the communities especially in the

schools funding. The government of Kaduna state had tried to satisfy the yearning of its

citizens by providing funds needed for the management of primary education with some

assistance from the federal government of Nigeria. Such assistance seems to be inadequate

for the continued growth of primary schools in the state (Abbas & Babajo, 2019).

Many factors gave rise to the formation of parent/teachers association in schools in

Kaduna Central Educational Zone, it is likely that there is lack of school facilities and could

be due to shortage of manpower which may involve parent teachers association (PTA)

negotiation, and again it may be as a result of inadequate provision school materials to pupils.

All these problems attracts the intervention of the (PTA) it is probably weather (PTA) are

acting to assist school in matters relating to day to day activities.

Funding is the bedrock of education, and the paucity of government funding of education

in general and primary education in particular seems glaring. This is evident as most primary

schools in Kaduna State have administrative issues, such problems range from personnel to

10
funding. Some schools need funds to employ teachers to supplement the government

teachers, construct classrooms and office blocks, and provide learning and instructional

resources. In many primary schools in Kaduna state, most of the buildings are dilapidated

and at the verge of collapse. The schools need funds to put all these in place and it is obvious

that the government and the school authority alone do not have the capacity to provide the

needed funds.

Effective school funding is almost an impossible task without community involvement.

Therefore, there is need to have a systematic assessment of community involvement in

funding primary education in Kaduna state, Nigeria with a view to underscoring possible

ways of strengthening school-community collaboration, and assessing the means of

improving community funding of primary schools for efficient service delivery and general

improvement of the schools. Thus, primary schools may not achieve their objectives without

community participation even though it is clear such can contribute to their success. It is

against this background that the researcher is interested in assessing the level of community

participation in the funding primary education in Kaduna state.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The following formulated objectives guided the study;

1. Examine the level of community participation in funding teachers development

activities in primary schools in Kaduna state

2. Determine the level of community participation in funding school infrastructure in

primary schools in Kaduna state.

3. Find out the level of community participation in funding school instructional facilities

in primary schools in Kaduna state.

4. To identify the challenges of community participation in funding primary education in

Kaduna state.

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1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1. What is the level of community participation in funding teachers’ development

activities in primary schools in Kaduna state?

2. What is the level of community participation in funding school infrastructure in

primary schools in Kaduna state?

3. What is the level of community participation in funding school instructional facilities

in primary schools in Kaduna state?

4. What are the challenges of community in funding primary education in Kaduna state?

1.5 Significant of the study

The findings of this study will be of great importance to the following education

stakeholders, the head teachers, teachers, parents and guardians, learners, Ministry of

Education, Parent Teachers Association, School Base Management Committee (SBMC),

Government and the community in general.

The study will help to draw the attention of the head teachers to realize the

importance of mutual understanding between the school and the community in funding the

schools. It will help them to solicit assistance and active role of the community in various

school programmes. The teachers will also benefit from the study as they enjoy good working

relationship from their host community.

The community which is made up of the parents and guardians of the learners will

also find this study significant because it will aid them to understand and appreciate their

responsibilities towards the provision and maintenance of school plant in order to facilitate

learning by the appreciation and rewards received from the school. The learners will benefit

from the information generated by this study as it will expose them to the roles community

has to play in funding their education in the society such as provision of well-equipped

12
school library, provision of instructional materials like chalk board, chalk, textbooks, etc.

which will aid them to learn effectively.

The Ministry of Education will utilize the result for effective planning and

implementation of various educational policies and programmes. The study will also facilitate

or promote effective school community relationship and be useful to the Board of Governors

and SBMC. The findings of this study will also provide information to the state government

on the extent to which communities are involved in funding the school through their effective

participation. Finally, the findings of this study will also serve as a source of information for

future researchers in the area.

To the Community, the study will be beneficial to community members because it

will encourage the community to fully participate in funding the primary education to

enhance the quality of education in the study area.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation

This study focuses on the assessment on community participation in funding of education

in Kaduna Central Educational Zone. The study specifically covers all primary schools,

school management board, communities, head masters, parents and village heads, in the

entire 7 Local Government Area, these areas are Birnin Gwari, Chikun, Giwa, Igabi, Kaduna

North, Kaduna South and Kajuru Local Government Area, due to the insecurity in the area,

only four LGAs will be used, they are Chikun, Igabi, Kaduna North and Kaduna South, Local

Government Areas of Kaduna central educational zone. It will be conducted in 28 selected

primary schools, the respondents were Headmasters, Teachers, parents, community leaders

and NGO officials, who are the main stakeholders of the public primary schools, and were

more informed on the challenges they may encounter by the community in their participation

in primary education management. The study is delimited to the assessment of the roles of

13
community in funding primary education in Kaduna Central Educational Zone. The study is

delimited to five local government areas that make up Kaduna Central Educational Zone.

14
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

The major key variables under study were operationally defined in the context of this study.

Funding: In this study, it refers to the amount of money available for the management of

primary schools in the study area.

Community: A community refers to the group of individuals who are connected by their

involvement with a particular educational institution. This community typically includes

students, teachers, administrative staff, parents, and sometimes even alumni. The

relationships within primary school located in kaduna State are based on shared goals and

interests related to education.

Community participation: In this study, Community participation is the involvement of

community members in the primary school project within the study area.

Teacher Development: This refers to the process of enhancing the knowledge, skills, and

competencies of teachers to effectively engage with and contribute to community-based

initiatives related to the financial support of primary education

School Infrastructure refers to the physical and organizational elements that constitute the

educational facilities within the primary schools.

Instructional Facilities refer to the resources and tools within a school that are specifically

designed to support and enhance the teaching and learning process.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents related literature to the research topic; the review of related

literature is done under the following sub-heading:

2.2 Conceptual Frame Work

2.2.1 Concept of Community

2.2.2 Community Participation

2.2.3 Funding Primary Education

2.2.4 Philosophy of Nigerian Education as it relates to community participation

2.2.5 Reasons for Community participation in Finding Primary Education

2.2.6 Community Participation and Education Reform

2.2.7 Expected roles of Members of Community

2.2.8 Expected role of Teachers/Head Teachers

2.2.9 Barriers to Community participation in Primary School Management

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies

2.4.1 Studies on level of community participation in funding teachers development Activities

2.4.2 Studies on level of community participation in funding infrastructure in primary schools

2.4.3 Studies on level of community participation in funding school instructional facilities

2.4.4 Studies on Community Challenges in Funding Primary School

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2.5 Summary and Uniqueness of the Study

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The sustenance of human race since creation has been made possible through the

relationship which exists between one another. This understanding two people enhanced, to a

great extent their cohabitation in the locality. This is why people try to live together for a very

long time while joining hands to meet their social, emotional, political and educational needs.

Hornsby (2000) defined community as a “group of people who share the same religion, race,

job, or interest… the feeling of sharing things and belonging to a group in the place where

you live”. This is why we have “polish community in London’, “Muslim or Christian

community” in most countries, “Hausa or Igbo” community in Nigeria, and Yoruba

community in Ghana.

Community is a social system which deals with conflict and competition, in order to

give the different interest groups an opportunity to exchange inputs and outputs and continue

functioning. Community also is a group of individuals who live in interrelated centers which

are connected by their pooling of information. According to Hillery in Ajayi (2021) proposes

a list of ninety five (94) definitions of community and concluded that the most agreeable

definition is a group of people in social interaction who live in a certain geographic location

and who have one or more additional ties. Herbert et al (1976) also believe that community

can be defined in another different way as “groups of people who are not neighbours”. This is

the case in racial or dispersed community where people do not necessarily live together as

close neighbors but show strong ethnic, cultural or religious ties and choose to identify with

the communities to which they belong in terms of these ties rather than geographical

neighborhood. Shared language, church or mosque affiliation of place or origin may provide

a stronger feeling of community than residential proximity; and separate institutions like

schools may be a means of expressing and sustaining this community sentiment.

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 Finally, it is they believe of Herbert et al (1976) that community could be

legitimately looked at conventionally by viewing it in a wide sense” as when one refers to

“service to the community”. Along this line, it was said that:

“All citizens of a country from the national community in this sense and the creation of a

consciousness of community at this level is one of the foremost concerns of African

government

Summarily, the unifying factor that makes a community as can be seen from the above school

of thoughts is a common language, beliefs, religion, culture, interest or all of the above. The

absence of any or all them may affect the very foundation upon which a community is built.

However, when any or all of the above mentioned factors bring people together, it is not

unlikely that they soon discover that there are other individual and collective desires and

aspiration that needs to be met. Prominent among these needs is provision of education for

their children. It is a common knowledge that communities in the past have raised up their

voice to agitate for government’s presence in their community through the provision of

drinkable water, electricity supply, and establishment of primary and secondary schools.

Government has risen up to grant this request because of government recognition of

such community. At the same time, there are occasions when some communities will take

upon themselves to satisfy their needs through communal efforts geared towards providing

these amenities without waiting for the government to provide such. In terms of educational

support, some communities prefer to support those schools established in their community by

government, while other communities may decide to establish a school for themselves and

name it after their community. Schools like these are common in the south west part of

Nigeria. In the first example where the school is established by the government, community

participation may be in terms of provision of local securities to guard the infrastructure and to

ensure that they make their wards/ children available for the school while the government

18
takes charge of technical aspect of the school vis-a –vis provision of infrastructure, teachers;

salaries, and inspectorate services. In the second example where the community establishes

its own school, the community provides the infrastructure, teachers, salaries and form the

management term, while government only provides in most cases, only inspectoral service to

ensure maintenance of standard and as Olomola (2002) observes “schools owned and

managed by individual/ groups of individuals do perform better than schools owned and

managed solely by government.

He further opined that this may be largely due to the feelings of “Our school”, or “our

own” which exists in the consciousness of the community or individuals that are owners of

such schools. Of course, they have a stake in the school. Each one of them may probably

have contributed fortune in making the school to be and might not want it go down the drain

jut like that. It’s equally important to note that because the school is partly or wholly owned

or financed by the community, the school is likely to propagate the norms and values of such

community. The influence of the community will be felt on the school’s circular activity and

contents including the school’s modus operandi.

2.2.1 Community Participation

Several views of community participation have been expressed by different schools of

thought. Besides, the more widely known aspect of participation, which is participation in

political process, two areas of participation are frequently mentioned and used as basis for

illustration. These are participation in the global planning process and participation in the

provision of basic needs (Farrant, 2018). The International Labor Organization (ILO) defined

community participation to operationally mean “collective effort by the people concerned.

According to Neufeldt and Guralnik in Ajayi, (2021), participation has a variety of

meanings, focused on sharing in activities by entitlement or right, which derive from basic

contrasts of democratic theory. This is in line with the submission of some writers, that even

19
though popular participation and community participation may be distinguished, they are

interlinked. Both concepts are inspired by similar ideas and imply similar processes. Midgley

and Rifkin concludes that community participation has been considered to be a major

importance in education programs in developing countries (Midgley, and Rifkin, in Ajayi

2021). To Roy and Sharma community participation is an educational and empowering

process in which the people, in partnership with those who can assist them, identify the

problems and the needs to increasingly assumes responsibilities themselves to plan, manage,

control, and assess the collective actions that are proved necessary (Roy & Sharma, in Ajayi

2021).

Ideally, true or active participation means that people should be acknowledgeable

their educational problems and they should identify the needs for their solution or reduction,

draw out targets of actions based on the available resources. However, to consolidate the

theory of community involvement in to promotion of education leads to positive outcomes,

such as empowerment for education partnership, action and public policies. Initially, the

involvement may be passive, and this can gradually be increased by more active participation

Stimulated by their own deliberations, within the following framework: free and independent

organization, voluntary pooling of efforts; sharing of risks and responsibilities as well as

resources and benefits to attain objectives set by the people themselves; and having a say in

decisions which affects them. According to Cohen et al (2019) identify four distinct areas of

community participation as:

1. Participation in “decision making” with a view to identifying problems, formulating

alternatives, planning activities, allocating resources etc.

2. Participation in “Implementation” in carrying out activities, managing and operating

programmes, partaking of services.

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 3. Participation in “Economic” social, political, cultural or other benefit individually or

collectively; and

4. Participation in evaluation of the activity and its outcomes which should feedback into

1, 2, and 3 above.

Available evidence strongly suggests that policy makers and bureaucrats often tend to

regard participation in the implementation process as the most important element. This partly

explains why the top down approach to planning for both basic needs and other socio-

economic activities at the local level is often emphasized. Bureaucrats are generally

contemptuous of not only local knowledge but also organizational abilities of local people.

For any policy on community participation to be successful, it must accept the fact that local

communities possess the basic knowledge to contribute meaningfully not only to decision

making on matters affecting their socio-economic well-being, but also the basic organization

structure and abilities to participate in the implementation of these decision as well as in

evaluating their efficacy. In instituting a programme of community participation, certain

organizational and institutional issues ought to be addressed. In this regard, Cohen et al

(2019) recommended a check list where he incorporated the major issues and questions

which have to be properly addressed.

These are:

a. At whose initiative does participation occur?

b. What are the incentives involved?

c. What are the channels of participation?

d. What is the duration of participation?

e. What is the scope of participation?

f. How empowered is the participation?

21
The above are no doubt pertinent questions that require answers if the programme community

participation in education is to be articulately dealt with. Answers to some of these questions

will be found in the reason for community participation education below.

22
2.2.2 Funding Primary Education

Inadequate funding is one of the major problems confronting primary education

today. The local government depends on Federal and State government’s subventions for the

management of the primary schools in addition to their other responsibilities. This is not only

inadequate but is further worsened by mismanagement. While efforts are made to check the

latter communities could contribute to an increase in the level of funding through:

1. Prompt payment of dues, taxes and levies e.g. development levies education levies.

These are usually cloned to the local government authority.

2. Special levies, donations by individual or groups

3. Organizing fund raising activities

4. Income from cooperative ventures e.g. Community Banks.

Apart from funds, local communities or individual could also assist primary schools by

providing basic infrastructures and amenities like free land for building or expanding existing

schools; constructing or renovating classrooms, toilets, libraries, clinics, boreholes, access

roads, teachers’ quarters (Farrant, 2018).

Communities, when sufficiently mobilized and organized could provide useful inputs

in the curriculum of the primary school either as extra-curricular learning as part of the

regular curriculum. For example, riverine communities may need fishing and its associated

values included in the curriculum much as nomadic community may require the curriculum

to feature activities associated with cattle rearing. This brings the school closer to the

community. Communities could provide scholarship to brilliant pupils as a form of

encouragement to others but more importantly to the less privileged by the elites in those

communities

A positive attitude towards education among members of the community is the first step

in the success of primary schools in any community. It makes it possible for;

23
 a. a good enrolment and low dropout rate to be maintained

b. the maintenance of proper discipline in the school

c. the teachers to do their work without hindrance and distractions

The community should be supportive rather than being hostile or indifferent to

primary education in their community. Communities could also assist primary education

through the exertion of political pressure on the government as organized community is able

to draw government attention to its needs.

2.2.3 Philosophy of Nigerian Education as it relates to community participation.

The philosophy of Nigeria education has been an issue of debate by many scholars not

because Nigeria does not have one, but because many people are of the opinion that such

philosophy should guide the delivery of primary educational contents for maximum result. It

is government’s believe along this line, that made her assembled a group of experts in the

seventies to brainstorm on what Nigeria’s philosophy of education should be. At the end of

their deliberations, the following were identified as the mainframe of Nigeria’s philosophy of

education, that is, education should make Nigeria:

a. A free and democratic society

b. A just and egalitarian society

c. A united, strong and self-reliant nation

d. A great and dynamic economic

e. A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens

In order to achieve these objectives, the policy linked the aims and objectives of the

philosophy to among other things “the inculcation of nation and community consciousness

and their unit; the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and

physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to development of the

society” In sect ion 1, No7 (6) of the National Policy on Education, it says that: “the

24
government will take various means to implement the policy accordingly.” One of those steps

to be taken; according to this policy is that, “effort will be made to relate education to overall

community needs”. This is the contact point, if Education is to be made to relate to the

overall needs of the community, its delivery must have a community face. This means that

complete involvement of the community in an educational process meant for them cannot be

ruled out. This will enable them identify with the belief, values and norms of the community

they live in and be better in projecting these values and by extension projecting national

values or recognized this need which is why it recommends in the policy (Willie, 2006)

2.2.4 Reasons for Community participation in Finding Primary Education

According to the World Bank (2017a), quality and timeliness in the delivery of

services will be enhanced where clients can hold providers accountable. This principle

undergirds a lot of the thinking around the benefits of community involvement in schools.

Watt (2001) argues that accommodating “the concerns, needs and interests of communities in

Primary education planning and management can help to generate strong demand for Primary

education, and improve enrolment, attainment and achievement”. The positive correlation

between community participation in Primary education and outcomes for learners, schools,

and communities is confirmed by research from diverse settings including Latin America

(DeSteffanno, 2006; Vegas, 2005), North America (Henderson & Mapp 2002; Epstein,

1997), Sub-saharan Africa (Watt, 2001), and south-east Asia (Mozumder & Halim, 2006).

The relationships forged as part of community and parental involvement also go a

long way in determining the culture, pedagogy and overall perception of students (Epstein,

1997; Noguera, 2001). These findings are supported by Henderson and Mapp (2002), who

found, in the USA, “a positive and convincing relationship between family involvement and

benefits for students, including improved academic achievement” (24) which hold regardless

of student age or family background. Bray (2000) and Rugh & Bossert (1998) report

25
increased community interest in education, and increased equity in access to education for

marginalized groups as benefits of community participation in schools. Another benefit

which Colley (2005) observed in rural Gambia is “few disciplinary problems” – a finding of

the parent involvement research from the US as well (see Henderson and Mapp, 2002). In

Ethiopa, Edo, Ali & Perez (2002) report improved relevance of learning material, improved

capacity of local NGOs, and improved access for women and persons with disabilities.

However, probably of greatest interest to resource constrained developing countries is the

potential of community participation to lower costs to the state of providing education by

diversifying the funding base and shifting some costs to the communities.

The participation of communities seems to hold the potential to fulfill rights to

education. However, Anderson (1998) suggests that access to governance structures which

community participation provides might not affect decision making but results in contrived

collegiality, reinforced privilege and greater control of participants. Bacharch & Botwinick

(1992) even question whether participation isn’t antithetical to equality arguing that “Any

system that call for more than minimal participation will favor the active over the apathetic

and the rich over the poor participation is in egalitarian,” (in Anderson 1998, 23). This is

consistent with one of the perennial concerns about community participation, elite capture:

local notables dominate to the disadvantage of other members of the community (Chapman,

Barcikowski et al. 2002). This is a grave concern. However, participation is not by its nature

‘in egalitarian’; the problem rests with the distribution of social resources based on level of

participation in contexts where participatory mechanisms do not allow for equity in access.

The potential benefit of a HRBA is to frame failure to access social resources as rights

violations and demand the systematic building of mechanisms for empowered participation.

a. Fostering community values in the pupils

26
 The norms and values of the community could be said to be synonymous to its

culture. Every society hold in high esteem, its cultural values and therefore guide it jealously

from extinction, one of the best ways a culture of norms could be preserved is through

education. The federal government is also aware of this when it prescribes in Section 3 (12)

of its policy on education that “the study of norms and values of the local community…” be

included in curricular activities of the primary schools. The inclusion of such norms and

values in the curriculum will be possible if the community develop interest in what the school

does through their active participation. Some communities have, due to their own

understanding of the relationship that should exist between school and the host community

gone ahead to even establish community school. This is what Michael, (1974) terms

“breaking the barriers between school and the community around it”. He further opined that:

“The community school also requires community control through its managing or governing

body. The community school does not consist of just letting the community into the school.

But it is equally concerned with making the education of the children relevant to the

community

The children’s education must be relevant not only to their experience, and thereby

engage their interest, but also to the life they will lead. To achieve this Erick Midwinter, in

Michael, I. (1974) suggested four ground rules for a community curriculum.

a) It should be social rather than academic with reality-based theme.

b) It should have a basis in the locality in centering on study of the immediate environment. It

should concentrate on skills rather than information

d) It should evolve a recognized curriculum which should be reformative and that it children

should be forewarned and forearmed for the struggle ahead.

b. Enhanced community economy

27
 The issue of education and the community has been one that created a lot of interest to

observers. It has often been observed that community that has an educational institution

located in it enjoys rapid economic growth. The institution usually attracts people of different

race, background and needs. These needs are to be met by those who are conscious of them

and ever ready to exploit these opportunities. By the attraction the flow of currencies in such

community is enhanced and the standard of living of its people is improved. Furthermore,

community participation in education helps in self- sufficiency. They can rely more on

themselves for the satisfaction of their economic needs than on government. Totten, (1970)

once said that “community education gives people the opportunity to help themselves”. This

is possible, as the community not only participate in education by sending their wards or

financing the school, but also offering them to be educated. He further identified “the

reshaping of life of unskilled people, reduction of poverty: and development of cottage

industries” as some of the benefits a people could enjoy when they participate in the

education programme of their community

b. Government’s inability to solely finance education

The deplorable state of most schools in the country today is a testimony of

government inability to handle education matters in Nigeria. So many research works have

been carried out revealing the state of hopelessness these schools are. Government on its part

has continually been allocating a lot of funds into the educational sector on yearly basis with

little to show for it. The task of financing education is no doubt a hug one, especially in the

face of competing demand from other sectors of the economy, but ignorance could be more

expensive. The fact still remains that education supplies the needed tool which makes all

other sectors functional. This tool is manpower. It takes an educated individual to be a

Lawyer, a Doctor, and Engineer, a Pilot, Banker, Businessman, or even to be in government.

The Federal Government in its

28
 National policy on education admitted that; “Education is an expensive social service

and requires adequate financial provision from all tiers of government for a successful

implementation of the educational programme [section 12 (105)] In Section 12 (106) it

further stated that: Government’s ultimate objective is to make education free at all levels.

The financing of education is a joint responsibility of the federal, state and local government.

In this connection, government welcomes and encourages the participation of local

communities’ individual and other organization.” The above statement is a clear declaration

of government inability to solely fiancé education and has therefore e solicited the support of

the community to join hands with it. This report in Journal for Adult Education and

Development, [1993] also stated that in response to the solicitation of funds for the projects

the following assistance was granted.

a. The German Adult Education Association $520.000.00

b. Municipal Administration $410,000.00

c. Contribution from the Community $4,992,000.00 a cursory look at the

above donors well show that the benefiting community contributed more

towards government effort to get them educated. The report also stated

that;

“The project and particularly its tasks, were executed in a process at mutual help marked by

solidarity and community spirit towards the work that was being developed”

If education is to take its rightful place in our body polity, individuals and community

participation should not only be stressed but should also be put to practice in Niger is in

general and Kaduna State in particular.

2.2.5 Community Participation and Education Reform

Community participation in, even control of, education pre-dates public compulsory

schooling given that education was historically families and community- based.

29
Governmental responsibility for education started in the 19th century and became the norm in

the mid-20th century – this was often done by taking control of or building on a system that

was run by non-state actors (Bray, 2000). While Bray correctly identifies this practice as an

illustration of the long history of partnership in education, it also illustrates decentralized

origin of education systems in many countries. With increased government control,

community participation decreased. This was further compounded in many developing

countries by colonial rule that not only failed to develop mechanisms for the participation of

parents and communities, but excluded the majority of these populations from accessing an

education. In fact, in most of these countries real control rested with the colonizing

government oceans away - this in part gave rise to some of the initial protests and agitation

for rights, long before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

Additionally, in some countries the school/community disconnects was a bi-product

of the ‘professionalization’ of education: teachers, as professionals, viewed communities as

inadequately prepared to contribute productively and so separated themselves from

communities. Hence, while professionalization was geared towards providing ‘a better

education’ it exempted input from the people for whom education was being provided.

Over the last two and half decades, efforts to improve access, governance and outcomes of

educational systems have given renewed focus to educational decentralization - transfer of

some form of authority from a central body to local levels (Naidoo and Kong, 2003).

Distinctions can be made in terms of the form, functional activities, geographic level

(national to sub-national to local) and the type and amount of power that is transferred.

Decentralization facilitates community participation most directly when decision making is

devolved to the school level. This is referred to as site or school-based management (SBM),

and is "a form of decentralization that identifies the individual school as the primary unit of

improvement and relies on the redistribution of decision-making authority as the primary

30
means through which improvement might be stimulated and maintained" (World Bank,

2007a, 2). The amount of power that is devolved to schools under SBM varies but ranges

from a single area of autonomy to complete control at school level. The typical areas of

decision-making that are devolved to school control include budget allocation, personnel

management (including the hiring and firing of school staff), pedagogy, school maintenance,

and the monitoring and evaluation of teacher performance and student learning (see

UNESCO 2009; World Bank, 2007a; di Gropello, 2006). If truly empowered to influence and

guide decisions on these issues, communities would not only fulfill their participation rights

but reshape their education systems.

While formal decentralization through SBM occurred primarily in formal school

systems, a growing number of organizations are establishing and managing “community

schools.” Community schools are usually created with the community to fill needs that are

not met by the formal system (Watt, 2001; Miller-Grandvaux & Yoder, 2002). Communities

control most aspects of the school including recruiting and paying teachers, approving

curriculum, financing, and procuring materials. These schools are mostly in rural areas of

developing countries that are not served by the formal education system. Usually they are

absorbed into the formal school system after a period of operation.

SBMC and community schools represent the primary ways through which

communities participate in schools. While community schools are concentrated in areas

where the right to access education is not being met, their larger purposes, in addition to

providing access to education, are consistent with the goals of increased efficiency and

accountability, broadened democratization and community participation, power

redistribution, resource mobilization, and increased responsiveness to local needs that SBM

aims to foster (McGinn & Welsh, 1999, in Naidoo & Kong, 2003). These aims are also

consistent with some of the principles of HRBA and show a congruence of purpose between

31
educational decentralization reforms and HRBA to development. However, while goals are

similar, the extent to which the implementation of SBM and community schools actually

includes meaningful community participation remains contested.

2.2.6 Expected roles of Members of Community

Community members also have a crucial role to play in this regard. According to

Gojeh (2018), the community should assume the under listed roles: Building / renovation of

schools, discipline and supervision of teaching and learning, fund raising, assist in

formulating school routine, mediate between school and government, tree planting and

schools, and provision of textbooks/curriculum development. Baikie (2000) thinks

community role should include: involving community leaders in policy matters, ensure

children of such leaders attend school regularly and such leaders be given specific function

during school speech and prize giving ceremonies J.S. Farrant (2018) believes community

should recruit its teachers and be involved in teaching subjects like Music, craft, history and

government.

2.2.7 Expected role of Teachers/Head Teachers

For effective execution of his function, the head teach/teachers is expected to

familiarize himself with the language policy in education, policy statement on promotion,

education services as contained in education laws and matters on code of conduct for pupils

and teachers curriculum development (Lodiaga, Waithaka, Satima, Masiga et al in Aliyu

2006). High moral discipline is the expected role of he teacher through assisting the child to

realize himself and enabling him relate with other in a cordial atmosphere, promoting

effective citizenship, socio-political awakening via civic responsibilities and creating

scientific and technological awareness (Adaralagbe 1969).

The role of the head teacher a supervisory through delegation of authority to

subordinate, preparation of annual budget, coordinating PTA. Maintaining high level of

32
discipline, handling pupils welfare programme and personal initiative. Their observed

(actual) role s would include among others: maintenance of discipline among teachers and

pupils, organize education trips, PTA meetings and creation of scientific and technological

awareness (Musaazi, 2019 and Aliyu, 2016). According to Bajo (1983) the teachers and head

teachers are servant of the community whose duties are the most sacred that a citizen can be

called upon to discharge.

33
Observed roles of SPEB/ Ministry Officials

The ministry of Education in role among others include: building more schools,

recruiting teachers in specialized fields (agric, music, PHE, computer science and creative

art), free education at primary level, guidance and counseling services, encouraging parents

to send female children to school and host of other.

Observed (Actual Role of Members of Community

Gojeh (1996) state clearly these roles to encompass, enrolling their children in schools

execution of important projects such as classroom renovation, repair of school furniture, toilet

facilities, provision of educational materials and fencing of school walls, donation of land for

school building, Bibles, Qur’an and mats, prompt payment of school levies and employing

security guards. These among others have contributed to efficient management of school.

2.2.8 Barriers to Community participation in Primary School Management

Until recently, most schools in Africa tended to isolate themselves from the

community with the result that schools and community preceded along separate course of

development with rarely any point of contact apart from the pupils. The unfortunate

consequence of this was that the children became increasingly alienated from their

communities and ill prepared for playing any useful roles in them. Today, the pendulum is

swinging back and schools are now seen as instruments of development for the community,

both local and national, and as centers for the education and training of members of the

community. These concepts provide schools with two objectives:

1) To incorporate the community in the curriculum in such a way that children learn

about their community from members of the community.

34
 2) To open their doors to the community in such a way that the schools become local

centers for the cultural and educational activities of the community.

In Kaduna state in particular, and Northern part of Nigeria in general however, this unique

linkage between the schools and he community is still far from being achieved.

This aspect of this study is aimed at examining the barriers to this harmonious working

relationship. Barriers have always been a hindrance to progress. Hornby (2000) defined

barrier as “wall, rail, or fence that prevents, hinders of controls progress or movement”.

With this clarification, it is good to approach this hindrance with calculated effort geared

towards summonsing them.

In education management, diversities of barrier abound making it almost impossible

to achieve intended goals in the delivery of education package, and by implication, making it

difficult to achieve both national, state and community educational objectives. The idea of

community participation in education management in itself is one geared towards making

education easily accessible to the citizen, making children learn about the community from

members themselves; and making the school cultural and educational centers of activities of

the community; but we see barriers obstructing these noble objectives. Baike (2000) in an

attempt to identify why communities are not performing some of their functions in relations

to school management, identified “government isolation of the community, non-challant

attitude of the community themselves, and present structure of school Administration” as

some of the factors militating against community participation in school management.

Earlier, king (1976) had maintained that “although Nigeria educators are trying their best,

most of the innovation has been merely to substitute local of African materials without

significantly changing the structure of the curriculum as a whole”. He therefore suggested

that “a truly community- oriented curriculum implies a change over one which is structured

around the various disciplines of knowledge to one based upon an analysis of community

35
learning needs, and this may imply the use of short module of instruction based upon

practical activities”.

Moreover, King (1976) believed that another barrier could be seen in the area of

“introduction of modern methodologies into our curriculum development”, which now see us

moving away from rote learning which the community is already familiar with, to activity

and discovery and child-centered method. He therefore suggested that: “for our schools to be

meaningful to the community, and to improve the curriculum, direct involvement of the

community resources personnel such as craftsmen, historians and technicians will be of

immense advantage”. Thompson (1983) also suggested that devolution of responsibilities as

it was earlier practiced during the colonial period between the government and the

community so as to overcome the barriers hindering community participation in the

management of educational programme.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

For the purpose of the study two theories will be reviewed, the theoretical frame work by

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1968) and collaboration theory by steimer (1992).

2.3.1 Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1968) System Theory

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1968), developed a theory known as System Theory.

According to this theory, a system can be said to consist of four things. First, a system

includes objects –elements or variables within the system. Second, a system consists of

attributes the qualities or properties of the system and its objects. Third a system has internal

relationships among its objects. Fourth, system exist in an environment, a system then , is a

set of things that affect one another within on environment and from a larger pattern that is

different from any of the parts (infant Rancer and Wommack, 1997).

36
 This study is guided by the system theory because education constitute an open

system operating within environment where the teaching learning process is looked at as a

process used to transform inputs (pupils) into output (graduates). Meadow & Wright (2008)

posits that system theory consist of more than just the sum of its parts and are made of three

parts which are elements, interconnection and purpose. Hanson (2008) says, a school system

is made of subsystems such as pupils, teachers, principals, central office administrators,

parents and community. Every educational institution whether public or private, may be

regarded as a social subsystem existing and related to a larger social system that can be called

the community.

The Bertallanffy (2018) tried to explain the existence of different interrelated parts

such that the interaction of any part affects the whole system. The performance of a system

depends on how the various elements in the system work together. The System Theory

emphasizes the interdependency of various units that make up a System. The non- interaction

of one unit might result to non- performance of the whole system. Based on this, System

Theory is relevance to this study because this study is interested ascertaining weather

community participation will positively influence the effective management of primary

schools. The child is the bridge between the school and the community because he belongs to

both. Therefore both the school and the community should work hand in hand to educate the

child. This helps to promote school community relationships as a necessary basis for

providing good quality education.

In primary schools, Parent Teachers Association (PTAs) bring community and school

administrators together to look at more than just teaching and learning, but also how schools

are managed, teachers are selected and monitored then quality education can be ensured. So

school being an open system, all people in the community have to contribute to the success

and safety of the children, more especially, parents should get involved in their children’s

37
education and should work in partnership closely with the school because they have a

remarkable impact on the achievement of their pupils. Effective school management, in turn

required well developed intermediary organizations that provide leadership and resources for

schools need to translate policies into action (World Bank, 1997:194). A key indicator of an

effectively managed school is the management of the community with the life of the school.

2.3.2 Collaboration Theory by Steiner (1992)

Collaboration is a promising mode of human engagement but to become more than a

fad, it is a theoretical “structure and framework needed to guide individuals and group

towards successful collaboration” (Steiner, 1992). Conceptually, the collaboration is a

recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together in an intersection

of a common goal by sharing knowledge, learning, and building consensus. Most

collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a

decentralized and egalitarian group. In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain

greater resources, recognition, and reward when facing competition for finite resources.

Collaboration these days has assumed increased attention following the advocacy by

many donor agencies as a means of solving many global challenges such as poverty, job

creation rural development, diseases, and conflicts. Indeed, it was point out the need in

society to think and work together on issues of crucial concern has increased (Austin, Noami,

in Ajayi, 2021). The theory of collaboration can be used to predict and influenced member

behaviors, analyze a member's perception of equity and provide insight into reasons for the

cooperative spirit and improve member participation in activities that will benefit citizens

generally. This theory is relevant to this study and as such, the theory can be used here to

explain the role and contributions of the Community or SBMC in promoting basic education

as collaborating effort to complement government effort on basic education in Kaduna State

and Nigeria as a whole.

38
2.4 Reviewed of Related Empirical Studies

This section reviewed empirical studies that are related to the study.

2.4.1 Studies on level of community participation in funding teachers development

Activities

Baba (2007) conducted a study on assessment of community participation in the

management of primary education in Kaduna State. The study, entitled “An Assessment of

Community Participation in the Management of Primary Education in Kaduna State” is an

exploration of the role of the local community in the management of primary schools and

how such roles are carried out to achieve results. This involved the formulation of

hypotheses, at the end of which four were rejected and one was retained. Four data gathering

questionnaires were designed and administered to respondents who included community

members, teachers, head teachers, officials of the state primary Education board (SPEB) and

the Ministry of Education. The sample size was randomly selected from 12 out of the 23

Local government Areas (LGA), consisting of 180 community members, 180 teachers and

head teachers, and 50 officials of the SPEB and the ministry of Education giving a total of

410. Applying the one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test the hypotheses and

scheffes test to ascertain the extent of the differences in the opinions of the respondents, the

study concluded that, there was significant difference among the stakeholders in their

perceptions of the management of primary schools in Kaduna State. They, however,

identified the factors that militate against community participation as illiteracy, poverty,

political differences, location, and attitude of teachers towards the community, ethnic and

religious differences. These factors are, however, expected to increase awareness of the

community on the importance of participation in the education of their children, rather than

discourage them, the study recommended that religious leaders should be involved; in the

participation. Teachers and the head teachers should enlighten the community members on

39
the importance of their participation in primary education management. There should be

better coordination between state primary Education Board officials and the Ministry of

Education personnel in Kaduna state to improve the management of primary schools.

The study conducted by Baba is related to the present studies as they are both concern with

community participation in school management however, they are different in scope and

location.

Esien-Cobham, Bassey, & Virginia (2023) carried out a study on the relationship

between community participation in the provision of educational facilities in public schools

and community development, using the Central Senatorial District of Cross River State as a

case study. The ex-post facto research design was employed for the study. A sample size of

600 respondents was randomly selected from the six local government areas that make up the

Senatorial district. 575 questionnaires were properly filled and returned. Pearson moment

correlation coefficient was used for analysis. The result from the analysis shows that there

exists a significant relationship between community participation in the provision of

educational facilities and community development in Cross River State. The study therefore

recommends the need for the community, nongovernment organizations and individuals to

support the development of education and other sectors in the State.

Izuehie & Ofojebe (2019) conducted a study on the extent of community participation

in the provision of facilities in public secondary schools in Enugu State. Three research

questions guided the study. Descriptive survey design was employed as a method of

investigation in the study. The population of the study comprised 287 principals and 1,050

School Based Management Committee (SBMC) members. The sample size of the study

comprised 402 respondents (made up of 87 principals and 315 SBMC) drawn through

proportionate stratified random sampling technique. A self-developed questionnaire

containing 50 items was used for data collection. The instrument was validated by three

40
experts. The reliability of the instrument was determined using test method and data collected

analysed using Cronbach’s alpha to obtain reliability coefficient of 0.70, which was

considered adequate for the study Mean and standard deviation were used in answering the

research questions. The major findings of the study indicated that the extent communities

participate in the provision of building facilities, basic amenities, and teaching resources in

public secondary schools in Enugu State was low. It was recommended among others that,

the government, through the State Ministry of Education, and the Post Primary School

Management Board (PPSMB) should strategize on the need for effective community

participation through constant meeting with the School Based Management Committee

members in the State.

Olajide (2021) study Role of Community Participation in Promoting Basic Education

Services Delivery in Sabon Gari Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The paper

assesses the role of community participation in promoting Basic education service delivery in

Sabon Gari local government area of Kaduna State. The study highlights the significant

problems facing community participation, such as inadequate functioning of SBMCs,

inadequate clarity of roles of SBMCs. An objective had been set to determine the role of

SBMC in promoting basic education service delivery in Sabon Gari local government area.

The study adopted collaboration theory, which helped in explaining the role of community

participation on basic education in Sabon Gari local government area of Kaduna State. The

researcher has employed primary method in collecting data for the study; the primary data

has been gathered through questionnaire and oral interview, mainly with simple percentage

and chi-square statistical analysis. The study reveals that the SBMCs plays significant role in

promoting basic education service delivery. The study recommends that any program/project

to be executed should be identified by the community based on the felt need of the

41
community. Boosting the level of community participation through engagement to raise

awareness on basic education.

42
2.4.2 Studies on level of community participation in funding infrastructure in primary

schools

Bakwai, Oduwaiye, & Muhammad (2016) conducted a study on Community

Participation and the Financing of Infrastructural Development of Basic Schools in North-

west Zone. The study was designed to examine community participation in financing

infrastructural development in North-west Zone basic schools, Nigeria. The study used

descriptive survey research design. The population for this study comprised all the 21,230

UBE schools and their SBMCs. Simple random sampling technique was used to select four

states (Jigawa, Katsina, Sokoto and Zamfara States). A sample of 370 basic schools were

selected from the four states using proportionate, stratified, systematic and random sampling

techniques at different stages. Validated Community Participation Questionnaire (CPQ) was

used in this study. Pilot test was conducted and test-retest method was used to determine the

reliability indices of .79 for the CPQ. The descriptive statistics of frequency count, tables, and

percentages were used to analyze the research questions. The level of community

participation in North-west Zone basic schools was high. It was also found that cash

donation, labour supply and material supply were the areas of community contribution in the

financing of the infrastructural projects. The federal and state government should create a

platform to develop a whole-community economic empowerment programmes to boost the

economic power of local people, and also that the school administrators should continue to

strive hard and maximize their efforts in trying to make their SBMC more organized,

enlighten its members and mobilize them to continue with the good work for the benefit of

their children. The study conducted by Bakwai, Oduwaiye, & Muhammad is related to the

present study as both are concern with community participation in funding infrastructures in

primary schools. However the two studies are different in scope and location of the study.

43
 Hauwau (2021) conducted a research on community participation in provision of

instructional materials and infrastructural facilities in public senior secondary schools in

Katsina state, Nigeria. Two research questions were raised as well as two null formulated

hypotheses in line with the stated objectives. The study adopted descriptive research using

survey design. The population for the study comprised 1218 public senior secondary schools'

teachers, 250 SBMC and 30 ZEQA officials in Zonal Education Quality Assurance, Katsina.

A stratified simple random sampling technique was used where 236 teachers, 50 SBMC and

20ZEQA officials were sampled as the respondents for the study. A self-designed (structured)

questionnaire was used as instrument for data collection. The instrument was structured on a

four (4) point rating scale. The instrument was validated and pilot tested where the reliability

index of 0.83 and 0.79 was obtained using Cronbach Alpha technique. Descriptive statistics

involving frequency counts, percentage, mean and standard deviations as well as inferential

statistic of ANOVA were employed for data analyses, which were processed with the aid of

SPSS version 23.0. The findings revealed that although there was active participation of

community in providing the schools with relevant instructional materials, the study found out

that there was little or no active participation of community in supporting (providing) the

schools with infrastructural facilities in Public Senior Secondary Schools in Zonal Education

Quality Assurance, Katsina, Katsina state. Therefore, the study recommended that; the school

authorities should liaise with the school-based management teams such as PTA and SBMC to

reawaken the community on the frantic needs to support public secondary schools with

instructional materials to augment the existing ones for easy facilitation of learning; and the

school authorities during their PTA, SBMC meetings, Speech and Prize given days should

sensitize and encourage the community to contribute meaningfully in amelioration of

infrastructural decay prevalent in public secondary schools for the improvement of teaching

and learning activities in the zone.

44
 Stephen, Charles, and John (2021) conducted a research on Influences of Community

Participation on School Infrastructure Policy Implementation and Performance of

Construction Projects. The study was conducted in Somaliland a state in the horn of Africa

that is in the process or rebuilding schools and reestablishing education after the wanton

destruction of the education infrastructure during the Somali civil war. With a school

infrastructure regulatory policy having been established to set standards for school

infrastructure, the study examined how community participation influenced the effect of

school infrastructure policy implementation on the performance of construction projects in

public primary schools. The study was set in Somaliland and targeted all public primary

school head teachers in all the administrative regions and District Education Officers (DEO)

in all the Districts. A cross-sectional survey guided by pragmatism, the study collected data

from 20 DEOs and 247 head teachers. Head teachers filled questionnaires while DEOs were

interviewed.

Primary schools that reported low levels of community participation also realized a

positive influence of school infrastructure policy implementation on the performance of

construction projects, while schools that reported moderate and high levels of community

participation did not. Community participation doesn’t only bring positive influences to

projects but negative influences as well. Community participation has a significant low and

negative partial moderation effect on the relationship between school infrastructure policy

implementation and performance of construction projects. A linear model exists among the

three variables.

The study conducted by Hauwau is related to the present study as both are concern with

community participation in funding infrastructures in primary schools. However the two

studies are different in scope and location of the study.

45
 Uremadu (2017) conducted a study on school and community relations in Nigeria: an

exploratory review of literature approach. The paper therefore surveyed theoretical and

conceptual issues about school community relations. In particular, it reviewed previous

studies in relevant past literature to underscore the inseparability of the school from its host

community due to attendant benefits to be derived. Discoveries from past studies profoundly

established that: (1) existence of good community relations by schools aids in securing what

the school needs from the community be it financial assistance, technical services, and

otherwise. Thus, it is recommended that school administrators can, on the basis of this type of

association, evolve a working relationship with the community targeted at discovering and

optimizing areas of interactions and benefits geared towards achieving a high quality

education performance; (2) that broad areas of cooperation exist between school and

community which covered basic and central areas of physical facilities, economic and

financial contributions, general service and help, research knowledge and cultural records,

teaching, curriculum, management, roles of international, regional and bilateral organizations.

School administrators should therefore endeavor to profit from these expanded cooperative

and beneficial roles of school environment towards effective and efficient management of

their schools in a bid to raise school standards and quality of the Nigerian educational system

to desired levels in this 21st century world.

The study conducted by Uremadu is related to the present study as both are concern with

community participation in funding infrastructures in primary schools. However the two

studies are different in scope and location of the study.

2.4.3 Studies on level of community participation in funding school instructional

facilities

Izuehie, Ijeoma and Ofojebe (2019), carried out a study on the extent of community

participation in the provision of facilities in public secondary schools in Enugu state, Nigeria.

46
The study examined the extent of community participation in the provision of facilities in

public secondary schools in Enugu State. Three research questions guided the study.

Descriptive survey design was employed as a method of investigation in the study. The

population of the study comprised 287 principals and 1,050 School Based Management

Committee (SBMC) members. The sample size of the study comprised 402 respondents

(made up of 87 principals and 315 SBMC) drawn through proportionate stratified random

sampling technique. A self-developed questionnaire containing 50 items was used for data

collection. The instrument was validated by three experts. The reliability of the instrument

was determined using test method and data collected analysed using Cronbach’s alpha to

obtain reliability coefficient of 0.70, which was considered adequate for the study Mean and

standard deviation were used in answering the research questions. The major findings of the

study indicated that the extent communities participate in the provision of building facilities,

basic amenities, and teaching resources in public secondary schools in Enugu State was low.

It was recommended among others that, the government, through the State Ministry of

Education, and the Post Primary School Management Board (PPSMB) should strategize on

the need for effective community participation through constant meeting with the School

Based Management Committee members in the State.

The study conducted by Izuehie, Ijeoma & Ofojebe is related to the present study as both are

concern with community participation in funding instructional facilities in primary schools.

However the two studies are different in scope and location of the study.

Ibrahim and Daniel (2023) embarked on a study on the Contribution of the Community to

the Development of School Projects among Ward Secondary Schools in Magu District,

Tanzania

The study was guided by Social System Theory. The study adopted a mixed research

design. The target population of the study was 1061, consisting of 1 District Education

47
Officer, 20 heads of secondary schools, 20 Ward Education Officers and 20 Ward Executive

Officers. Simple random sampling was used to select a sample of 276 community members

while 5 school heads, 4 Ward Education Officers, 4 ward Executive Officers and one District

Education Officer were purposively selected. Questionnaires and interview guides were used

to collect data. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics in terms of

frequencies and percentages while Narrative Analysis was used to analyze qualitative data.

The findings indicated that despite Fee Free education policy still community members

contributed to the development of school projects in Magu District mostly in the form of

finances. Secondly, it was found that the method of resource mobilization that exists is

mainly contributions from parents. The study recommended that the community should be

educated on other forms of contribution to foster school development projects. And once the

funds are available they should be used prudently so as to motivate community participation.

The study conducted by Ibrahim although different from the current study in both scope and

location, however they are related as both concern with community funding education.

2.4.4 Studies on Community Challenges in Funding Primary School

Haika and Demetria (2021) conducted a study on Challenges Facing Community

Involvement in Ensuring Quality Education in Public Secondary Schools in Meru District,

Arusha Region-Tanzania. The study used a sample size of 89 participants which were

solicited using both probability and none probability sampling techniques. Quantitative and

qualitative data were collected through questionnaires and interviews respectively.

Descriptive statistics used to analyze the quantitative data through SPSS version 20 and

Microsoft excel Packages, the data were presented through frequency, percentage, charts, and

tables. Qualitative data were recorded using field note book, and audio recorder device and

were analyzed using thematic analysis. The instrument for quantitative was validated using

content validity while Cronbach coefficient of 0.7 was obtained. Qualitative instrument was

48
validated using peer review. The findings revealed that, ignorance, poor school leadership,

poverty, political interference, poor beliefs and customs and lack of communication between

the school and the community are the major challenges facing communities in participating in

schools. Finally, the study recommends that for improving and inhibiting the highlighted

challenges, deliberate strategies should be laid down and the government should sensitize

educational partnership so as to improve the community participation in schools.

The study conducted by Haika and Demetria is related with the present study as both are

concern with the challenges faced by community in primary schools affairs. However, they

are different in scope and location. The present study focus on challenges of community in

funding primary education in Kaduna state, while the past study focuses on challenges

community facing in providing quality secondary education. Most of the challenges are the

same as both the secondary and the primary schools are located in the sane community which

makes the present and past study related.

Sango (2016) study Challenges Impacting Community Participation and Their Effect

on Teaching and Learning the study sought to investigate challenges impacting community

participation in schools and their effect on quality of education. The study was carried out in

a qualitative paradigm in which a case study facilitated access to in-depth feelings, views, and

opinions of community members and educators regarding their participation in providing

education. Data were generated through focus group discussions with parents of children in

the schools, community members without children in the schools, School Development

Committee (SDC) members, and the teachers. In addition, data were generated through in-

depth interviews with community leaders and school heads, observation as well as analysis of

school documents such as minutes of SDC meetings, staff meetings, financial records, and

children’s progress records. Data were transcribed and analysed manually through the cut and

paste technique. The study found out that communities were involved in providing primary

49
education through preparing children for school by providing food, school uniforms and

stationery. Parents were also involved in children’s homework, as well as monitoring teacher

and children’s attendance.

In addition, parents were involved in preparing schools for children through providing

labour and materials for constructing classrooms. Further, parents financed school budgets,

and were involved in school governance. Challenges impacting community participation

were centered on parents’ low standard of living, community attitude towards education,

family income level, and school-community relations. Impact of community participation on

teaching and learning included the following: hungry learners, narrow curriculum,

unmotivated teachers, high rate of absenteeism and drop out, as well as ineffective school

administration. The study recommended development and implementation of strategies for

uplifting community standard of living through increasing family income levels and

availability of food. The study, further recommends government policy on parent orientation

on school processes and school based study sessions for parents and school children

respectively. Government policies that prohibits the practice of sending away of children

from school for nonpayment of levies should be reinforced.

The study conducted by Sango is quite different from the present study in both scope and

location, however they are related. Sango findings reveals that parents low standard of living

affect their participation in providing quality primary education. Community is made up of

this same parent and if their low standard of living affects education, it will also be a

challenge to the community in funding primary education which makes Sango studies related

to the present study.

Maijinya (2004) conduct a study on assessment of community participation in the

management of primary education in Kaduna state. The study, entitled “An Assessment of

Community Participation in the Management of Primary Education in Kaduna State” is an

50
exploration of the role of the local community in the management of primary schools and

how such roles are carried out to achieve results. This involved the formulation of

hypotheses, at the end of which four were rejected and one was retained. Four data gathering

questionnaires were designed and administered to respondents who included community

members, teachers, head teachers, officials of the state primary Education board (SPEB) and

the Ministry of Education. The sample size was randomly selected from 12 out of the 23

Local government Areas (LGA), consisting of 180 community members, 180 teachers and

head teachers, and 50 officials of the SPEB and the ministry of Education giving a total of

410. Applying the one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test the hypotheses and

scheffes test to ascertain the extent of the differences in the opinions of the respondents, the

study concluded that, there was significant difference among the stakeholders in their

perceptions of the management of primary schools in Kaduna State.

They, however, identified the factors that militate against community participation as

illiteracy, poverty, political differences, location, and attitude of teachers towards the

community, ethnic and religious differences. These factors are, however, expected to increase

awareness of the community on the importance of participation in the education of their

children, rather than discourage them, the study recommended that religious leaders should

be involved; in the participation. Teachers and the head teachers should enlighten the

community members on the importance of their participation in primary education

management. There should be better coordination between state primary Education Board

officials and the Ministry of Education personnel in Kaduna state to improve the management

of primary schools. The study conducted by Maijinya is different from the present in scope

but they are related in location and findings. The study identified the factors that militate

against community participation as illiteracy, poverty, political differences, location, and

attitude of teachers towards the community, ethnic and religious differences. These factors

51
will also present challenges for the community to fund primary schools which makes the

study related to the present one.

Haika (2021) conducted a study on the challenges facing community involvement in

ensuring quality education in public secondary schools in Meru District in Tanzania. The

study employed mixed research approach and convergent parallel design. The study used a

sample size of 89 participants which were solicited using both probability and none

probability sampling techniques. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through

questionnaires and interviews respectively. Descriptive statistics used to analyze the

quantitative data through SPSS version 20 and Microsoft excel Packages, the data were

presented through frequency, percentage, charts, and tables. Qualitative data were recorded

using field note book, and audio recorder device and were analyzed using thematic analysis.

The instrument for quantitative was validated using content validity while Cronbach

coefficient of 0.7 was obtained. Qualitative instrument was validated using peer review. The

findings revealed that, ignorance, poor school leadership, poverty, political interference, poor

beliefs and customs and lack of communication between the school and the community are

the major challenges facing communities in participating in schools. Finally, the study

recommends that for improving and inhibiting the highlighted challenges, deliberate

strategies should be laid down and the government should sensitize educational partnership

so as to improve the community participation in schools.

Igbaji (2017) conduct a study on the Challenges of Funding Primary Education in a

Depressed Economy. This review presented as its main focus an alternative ways of financing

primary education vis-àvis means of funding. The main source of data was the secondary

source. The study revealed that one of the major factors that have contributed to the problems

in the education sector is the escalating cost of financing education which has placed the

government serious dilemma. Consequently, government as a matter of urgency should

52
implement the suggested 26 percent allocation to education. The study is related to the

present study in findings. The cost of financing education will be a challenge to the

community in funding primary schools in their communities. Igoaji study is different from

the present study in both scope and location.

53
2.5 Summary and Uniqueness of the Study

Assessment of community participation in funding primary education in Kaduna state

is the focus of this study. The researcher adopted a descriptive survey research design to

achieve the objectives of the study. The five public primary school and their community from

each local government the made up southern Kaduna state was used by the researcher as the

population of the study. The study is set to improve and encourage community participation

in funding primary schools for quality and standard education. It seeks to improve

community participation in primary schools affairs.

Eje (2016) indicated that community participation is inevitable and that communities

participate in funding secondary education in Nigeria, nevertheless, Eje was silence on the

extent of community participation in funding primary education. In a similar study,

Kwashabawa and Oduwaiye (2016) indicated that there is a high level of community

participation in financing infrastructural development in Basic Schools in North-West,

Nigeria. But quickly pointed out that labour and material supply were the areas of community

contribution in financing of infrastructural projects.

Further empirical evidence by Loeurt (2019) indicated that community participation

in primary education is more in provision of resource materials than funding. In a related

study, Amoo (2019) revealed that in addition to federal, state and local governments’ funding

of basic education in Nigeria, community members and non-governmental organizations

assist the government in funding basic education. According to Amoo, there are no available

data to quantify the extent of community participation in funding basic education in Nigeria.

Furthermore, Chidinma et al. (2020) pointed out that there is a well-orchestrated strategy for

community involvement in funding secondary schools in Nigeria while no attention is being

directed to basic education in terms of community assistance through funding. Unfortunately,

54
there seems to be little or no studies on the extent of community participation in funding

primary education in Nigeria.

This study “An Assessment of Community Participation in funding of Primary

Education in Kaduna State” is an exploration of the role of the local community in the

management of primary schools and how such roles are carried out to achieve results.

Community participation operationally means “collective effort by the people concerned.

This research is very unique as it tends to analyze the roles of community in funding primary

education in state. It sensitized the community on the need to participate in primary affairs

and give reasons why community need to participate in funding primary schools in their

society.

55
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter highlights the following: research design, area of the study, population of

the study, sample and sampling techniques, instrument, method of data collection and method

of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The study will employ survey research design. This is because the design allows the

researcher a vivid access community participation in funding primary education in Kaduna

state. The design is supported by the position of Zubairu (2014) who described survey as

procedure which allows the researcher to gather information about a target population

without undertaking a complete enumeration. This research method is good for both small

and large population and is a common research method in education and social science.

3.2 Area of the Study

Kaduna State is a state in the northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The state capital

is its namesake, the city of Kaduna which happened to be the 8 th largest city in the country as

at 2006. Created in 1967 as North-Central State, which also encompassed the modern Katsina

State, Kaduna State achieved its current borders in 1987. Kaduna State is the fourth largest

and third most populous state in the country, Kaduna State is nicknamed the Centre of

Learning, owing to the presence of numerous educational institutions of importance within

the state such as Ahmadu Bello University. The state is located at the Northern part of

Nigeria’s high plains. The vegetation cover is Sudan Savannah type, characterized by

56
scattered short trees, shrubs and grasses. The soil is mostly loamy to sandy. A substantial

amount of clay is found also.

Its northern half became Katsina state in 1987. The state is bordered by seven states.

The Kaduna state is located between latitude 10°38’58” N and 10°25’36” N and to longitude

7°22’14” E and 7°32’00” E The state was ranked number four by total area of land and

number three by population. The Kaduna River, a tributary of the Niger River, flows through

the state. There are rocky stones in Zaria and Kogoro Hill. Many communities are prone to

seasonal flooding during the rainy season. The rainy season in Kaduna is hot, humid, and

cloudy, while the dry season is hot and partly cloudy. Throughout the year, the temperature

rarely falls below 50 °F or rises above 102 °F, usually ranging between 55 °F and 95 °F.

The Kaduna State economy was ranked 15 th largest state in Nigerian economy from 2002 to

2008, and it made up 3.3% of Nigerian GDP. While agriculture contributed 30% of SGDP in

Kaduna. Kaduna state cultivates cotton and peanuts (groundnuts) for exporting and domestic

extraction of Peanut oil. In the state there is National Institute of Leather and Technology, to

improve modern technology and traditional method.

Kaduna State is populated by about 59 to 63 different ethnic groups, if not more, with

the exactitude of the number requiring further verification through field work.

The main religions in Kaduna State are Christianity and Islam. Some minority ethnic groups

practice traditional worshiping, mostly in the southern area of the state. Kaduna is one of the

largest centres of education in Nigeria. The slogan of the state is Center of Learning because

of the presence of many institutions like Ahmadu Bello University (established 1962). There

are many government schools, include primary schools and secondary schools. All secondary

schools in Kaduna are owned by the state government, federal government or private

organizations. There are many tertiary institutions in the state. The state also has colleges for

transportation and agriculture.

57
 3.3 Population of the Study

The population of this study consists of head teachers, teachers, and community

leaders from Kaduna Central Educational Zone. We have 1,099 primary schools, Four

primary schools from each local government form the population of the study. The number

of head teachers, teachers and community leaders is put at 8,063.

Table 1.1 Population of the study

S/N Local No. of No. of Head Community No. of Teachers Total

Government
Schools Teachers Leaders

1 Kaduna north 53 53 3 1,729

2 Kaduna south 39 39 2 1,483

3 Igabi 310 310 5 2,469

4 Chikun 252 252 3 1,715

Total 654 654 13 7,396 8,063

Source: Kaduna state Ministry of Education

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The researcher will use different number of sampling techniques. First, stratified

sampling will be used to select primary schools from four local governments that constitute

Kaduna Central Educational Zone. Secondly, random sampling will be used to select head

teachers, teachers and community leaders. Thereafter, research advisor table would use to

obtain a sample size of 370 from the total population of 8,063.

58
Table 1.2 Sample size for the study

S/N Local No. of No. of Head Community Sample of Sample

Government School Teachers Leaders Teachers Size

1 Kaduna North 15 15 2 5 73

2 Kaduna South 12 12 1 5 67

3 Igabi 16 16 3 5 78

4 Chikun 11 11 2 5 65

Total 54 54 8 25 283

Source: Kaduna State Ministry of Education

3.5 Instruments for Data Collection

Instrumentation involves the process of selection, adoption and utilization of an

appropriate tool(s) which is administered in order to collect relevant data concerning the

study (Yabo, 2007). For this study, therefore, self-structured questionnaire will be used. The

instrument that will be used is questionnaire tagged “Questionnaire on access of community

participation in funding primary education.” and it will be divided into 2 sections comprising

the descriptive part (bio data) of the respondents and the analytic part (a question on

community participation in funding primary education in Kaduna state).

3.6 Validity of the Instrument

The questionnaire was given to the project supervisor, an expert in primary education

and two other experts from the department of Adult Education and Extension Services who

59
scrutinized and make corrections on the items and the necessary corrections were effected,

which make it adequate and valid for the study.

60
3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

Questionnaire on Community participation in funding primary education was pilot

tested on 50 respondents who do not form part of the population. Data gathered from the pilot

study was subjected to Cronbach Alpha reliability test to check for internal consistency. The

reliability coefficient of 0.76 was obtained.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

The researcher will visit the sample schools to distribute questionnaires by hand with

the help of a research assistant (someone who has experience on research work). Three

hundred and sixty five (365) questionnaires will be administered and three hundred and sixty

five (365) questionnaires will be expected at the end of the exercise.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Data gathered from the field will be coded and computed with the use of Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) in order to obtain frequencies and distributions needed

for effective analysis. On the whole, simple descriptive tools such as percentages and

standard deviation mean will be used in presenting and analyzing the data collected from the

field.

61
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