2nd Final NEW

THE GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY OF GALADIMAWA AND ITS
ENVIRONS PART OF KABO SHEET 80 NE, KANO STATE NORTHWESTERN

NIGERIA
BY
IBRAHIM ABBA
1810317010
A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, USMANU

DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN GEOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY
SOKOTO-NIGERIA
i
TITLE PAGE
FEBRUARY, 2024
DECLARATION
I (IBRAHIM ABBA) declare that this project work titled “THE GEOLOGY AND
HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY OF GALADIMAWA AND ITS ENVIRONS PART OF
KABO SHEET 80 NE, KANO STATE NORTHWESTERN NIGERIA) has been prepared
by me and is a record of my own research work. It has not been presented in any form for the
award of any degree in any other institution of higher learning.
All quotations and the sources of information are indicated and duly acknowledged by means of
references.
_____________________ _____________________
Ibrahim Abba Date
ii
DEDICATION
This is dedicated to the Almighty ALLAH who gave me the strength to carry out this work
successfully.
iii
iv
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this work titled “THE GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY
OF GALADIMAWA AND ITS ENVIRONS PARTS OF KABO SHEET 80 NE, KANO
STATE NORTHWESTERN NIGERIA” was written by IBRAHIM ABBA and submitted to
the Department of Geology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
B. Sc. Geology (Hons) in Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
15th March 2024
Dr. Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa Date

(Project supervisor)
Dr. Mutari Lawal Date
(Project Coordinator)
Malam Dauda Mohammed Date
(Head of Department
v
Prof. Abdullahi Suleiman Arabi Date
(External Supervisor)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise and honor belong to Almighty Allah, the sustainer, the cherisher, and the Ahaddus-
Samad, who enabled my endeavor and provided me with the fortitude and resilience to withstand
all of the adversity and difficulty that came with it. Thank you, Allah.
My sincere gratitude goes out to my supervisor, Dr. Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa, who made sure
we were well-groomed throughout the project. and my gratitude for all of the department's
lectures in general. I would like to say how much I appreciate my parents and friends for their
unwavering support. I also want to express my gratitude to everyone who helped make this work
a success, no matter how small or large. Regretfully, it is impossible to list everyone. But I did
say "thank you" to each of you.
I would like to express my gratitude to my late father, M. Ibrahim Hassan, for his support,
guidance, and inspiration. May Allah Ta'ala bless and grant him Jannatul-Firdaus. Ameen.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE..................................................................................................................................i
DECLARATION...........................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................iii
CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF PLATES......................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................x
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................1
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INFORMATION................................1
1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION.................................................................................................1
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................2
1.3 LOCATION EXTEND AND ACCESSIBILITY..................................................................2
1.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE....................................................................................................3
Fig 1.0: Drainage map of the study area..........................................................................................4
1.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION..........................................................................................4
1.5.1 CLIMATE.............................................................................................................................4
1.5.2 VEGETATION.....................................................................................................................4
vii
1.6 SETTLEMENT AND LAND USED......................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................5
2.0 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF NIGERIA...............................................................................5
2.1 Review of the General Geology of the Nigerian Basement Complex..................................5
2.1.1 Migmatite-Gneiss Complex..................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Schist Belts (Metasedimentary Series)................................................................................6
2.1.3 Older Granites......................................................................................................................7
2.1.4 Regional Setting of the Nigerian Basement Complex......................................................8
Fig 2.0: Geological map of Nigeria showing the major geological components (Modified after
Obaje et al. 2009).............................................................................................................................9
2.2 GEOLOGY OF KABO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.................................................9
2.2.1 GRANITES...........................................................................................................................9
2.2.2 GNEISS................................................................................................................................10
2.2.3 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSIT.................................................................................................10
2.6 GEOCHRONOLOGY...........................................................................................................10
Table 2.1: Summary of the geological history of the Basement Complex of Nigeria. After
Grant (1970, 1971), Harper et al. (1973), McCurry (1973),..................................................11
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................12
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD.................................................12
3.1 OVERVIEW...........................................................................................................................12
3.2 FIELD INVESTIGATION...................................................................................................12
3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSES..............................................................................................13
3.3.1 PETROGRAPHY...............................................................................................................13
3.4 ANALYSING WATER.........................................................................................................13
3.4.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR HEAVY METALS.....................................................14

viii
Fig 3.1: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS).........................................................................14
3.4.2 Major Cation Analysis.......................................................................................................14
3.4.2.1 Calcium and Magnesium Analysis.................................................................................14
3.4.2.2. Calcium (Ca2+).................................................................................................................14
3.4.2.3 Magnesium ion (Mg2+).....................................................................................................15
3.4.2.4 Sodium and potassium Analysis.....................................................................................15
3.4.2.5 Phosphate ion (P04)..........................................................................................................15
3.2.3 Major anions Analysis........................................................................................................15
3.2.3.1 Sulphate ion (SO4)............................................................................................................15
3.2.3.2. Nitrate and ammonium..................................................................................................15
3.2.3.3 Bicarbonate, Carbonate and Chloride...........................................................................16
3.5 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES.........................................................................16
3.5.1 COMPASS CLINOMETER..............................................................................................16
Fig 3.2: Compass clinometer can be used to measure slope angle, elevation, and vertical
distance. It's often used in forestry, surveying, and mountaineering.........................................17
3.5.2 TAPE MEASUREMENT...................................................................................................17
3.5.3 PH METER.........................................................................................................................17
Fig 3.4: A Ph meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It's a crucial tool for
food and beverage industries, as well as chemical and environmental industries.........................18
3.5.4 GPS.......................................................................................................................................18
3.5.5 GEOLOGICAL HAMMER..............................................................................................19
Fig 3.6: Geological hammer used by geologists to break rocks for identification and sampling. It
has a flat, square head for breaking rocks, and a pointed end for prying and digging..................19
3.5.6 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID (T D S).............................................................................19
ix
Fig 3.7: A total dissolved solids (TDS) meter is used to measure the total concentration of
dissolved minerals and salts in a solution. It's used in water quality testing, aquarium
maintenance, and pool and spa management.............................................................................19
CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................20
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION..............................................20
Fig 4.0: Geological map of the study area showing Porphyritic Granite......................................20
4.1 PETROGRAPHY..................................................................................................................21
4.1.1 COARSE PORPHYRITIC GRANITE.............................................................................21
4.1.2.1 Minerology........................................................................................................................21
4.2 IUGS CLASSIFICATION....................................................................................................22
TABLE 4.0: modal proportion of QAP (quartz, alkali-feldspar and plagioclase).........................23
Fig 4.1: Mineralogical composition of coarse porphyritic granite using QAP diagram...............23
4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS...................................................................................24
Table 4.1: physico-chemical parameters of the study area............................................................24
4.2.1. pH........................................................................................................................................25
4.2.2 TOTAL DISSOLVE SOLID (TDS)..................................................................................25
4.2.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC)..........................................................................25
4.2.4 TEMPERATURE...............................................................................................................25
4.3 HEAVY METALS.................................................................................................................25
Table 4.2: Concentration of heavy metals of water samples collected within the study area......26
4.3.1 CADMIUM..........................................................................................................................27
4.3.2 COBALT.............................................................................................................................28
Fig 4.3: Cobalt concentration graph showing the concentration of cobalt....................................28
4.3.3 NICKEL...............................................................................................................................28
Fig 4.4: Nickel concentration graph showing the concentration of nickel over time or space......29
4.3.4 LEAD...................................................................................................................................29
x
4.4 CATIONS AND ANIONS ANALYSIS................................................................................30
Table 4.3: Cations and Anions.......................................................................................................30
4.4.1. Sodium and potassium Analysis.......................................................................................31
SODIUM (Na)...............................................................................................................................31
Na concentration graph
250
200
150
100
50
0
Kafin Agur Galadimawa B.Galadimawa Kwankwaso Burji Kebe
Series1 Series2
......................................31
Fig 4.6: sodium concentration graph showing trends in sodium levels, and it can be helpful in
monitoring the health of a person or an ecosystem.......................................................................31
POTASSIUM (K)..........................................................................................................................31
Fig 4.7: Potassium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as well as the
average and range of potassium levels..........................................................................................32
4.4.2 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM.........................................................................................32
Fig 4.8: Calcium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as well as the
average and range of Calcium levels.............................................................................................33
MAGNESIUM (Mg).....................................................................................................................33
Fig 4.9: Magnesium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as well as
the average and range of Calcium levels.......................................................................................34
4.4.3 Phosphate ion (P04):..............................................................................................................34
Fig 4.10: phosphate ion concentrations graph showing the main things they show are trends are
trends and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level...................35
xi
4.4.4 CHLORIDE (Cl).................................................................................................................35
Fig 4.12: Chloride concentration graph showing the main things they show are trends are trends
and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level.............................36
4.4.5 NITRATE............................................................................................................................36
Fig 4.13: Nitrate concentration graph showing trends are trends and fluctuations over time, and
the average and range of nitrate level............................................................................................37
4.4.6 AMMONIA.........................................................................................................................37
4.4.7 SULPHATE ION................................................................................................................38
4.5 POLLUTION INDICES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY.....................................38
4.5.1 CONTAMINATION FACTOR (CF)................................................................................38
Cf= Cmatal/C background value...................................................................................................39
TABLE 4.4: Concentration Based on Contamination Factor........................................................39
Table 4.5: Contamination factor distribution of cadmium............................................................39
Table 4.6: Contamination factor distribution of chromium..........................................................40
Table 4.7: Contamination factor distribution of ion.....................................................................40
Table 4.8: Contamination factor distribution of Nickel.................................................................41
Table 4.9: Contamination factor distribution of lead.....................................................................41
4.5.2 THE CONTAMINATION DEGREEE................................................................................42
Table 4.10: CONTAMINATION DEGREEE INTERPRETATION............................................42
Table 4.11: Calculated value of contaminated factor and contaminated degree of water sample in
the study area.................................................................................................................................43
4.6 PIPER DIAGRAM..................................................................................................................43
Fig 4.16. piper diagram of the water samples............................................................................44
CHAPTER FIVE.........................................................................................................................45
5.0 SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..........................45
5.1 SUMMARY............................................................................................................................45
xii
5.2 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................45
5.3 RECOMMENDATION.........................................................................................................46
REFRENCES...............................................................................................................................47
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.0: Drainage map of the study area
…………………………………………………………...4
Fig 2.0: Geological map of Nigeria showing the major geological components………………….9
Fig 3.1: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS)
………………………………………………..14
Fig 3.2: Compass clinometer can be used to measure slope angle, elevation, and vertical distance.
It's often used in forestry, surveying, and
mountaineering……………………………………….17
Fig 3.3: Measuring tape is used to measure length, width, and height…………………………..17
Fig 3.4: A Ph meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It's a crucial tool for
food and beverage industries, as well as chemical and environmental industries. ………………
18
Fig 3.5: GPS used for navigation, mapping, surveying, tracking, and more…………………….18
Fig 3.6: Geological hammer used by geologists to break rocks for identification and sampling. It
has a flat, square head for breaking rocks, and a pointed end for prying and digging……………
19
xiv
maintenance, and pool and spa
management……………………………………………………………………19
Fig 4.0: Geological map of the study area showing Porphyritic Granite…………………………
20
Fig 4.1: Mineralogical composition of coarse porphyritic granite using QAP diagram …………
23
Fig 4.2: Cadmium concentration graph showing concentration of cadmium over time or space…
27
Fig 4.3: Cobalt concentration graph showing the concentration of
cobalt……………………….28
Fig 4.4: Nickel concentration graph showing the concentration of nickel over time or space……
29
Fig 4.5: Lead concentration graph showing the concentration of lead over time………………..29
xv
monitoring the health of a person or an
ecosystem………………………………………………..31
average and range of potassium levels……………………………………………………………
33
average and range of Calcium
levels……………………………………………………………..33
the average and range of Calcium
levels……………………………………………………………..34
trends and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level……………
35
and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level………………….36
and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level………………….36
Fig 4.13: Nitrate concentration graph showing trends are trends and fluctuations over time, and
the average and range of nitrate
level………………………………………………………………...37
xvi
Fig 4.14: Ammonia Concentration the main things they showed are trends and fluctuations over
time, and the average and range of ammonium
level……………………………………………..37
Fig 15: Sulphate ion concentrations graph the main things they show are trends are trends and
fluctuations over time, and the average and range of sulphate ion
level………………………….38
Fig 4.16. piper diagram of the water
samples…………………………………………………….44
xvii
LIST OF PLATE
Plate i: Photomicrograph of rock sample, under plane polarized light A (PPL) and crossed
polarized light B (XPL) Qtz= quartz Plg= plagioclase, Bio= biotite, and Alk= alkali feldspar in a
diameter of view= 40mm=4.0 Mag.
=x40………………………………………………………..21
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Summary of the geological history of the Basement Complex of Nigeria. After Grant
(1970, 1971), Harper et al. (1973), McCurry (1973)…………………………………………….11
TABLE 4.0: modal proportion of QAP (quartz, alkali-feldspar and plagioclase)……………….23
Table 4.1: physico-chemical parameters of the study area………………………………………24
Table 4.2: Concentration of heavy metals of water samples collected within the study area ….26
Table 4.3: Cations and Anions…………………………………………………………………...30
TABLE 4.4: Concentration Based on Contamination Factor …………………………………...39
Table 4.5: Contamination factor distribution of cadmium……………………………………….39
Table 4.6: Contamination factor distribution of chromium……………………………………..40
Table 4.7: Contamination factor distribution of ion…………………………………………….40
Table 4.8: Contamination factor distribution of Nickel …………………………………………41
Table 4.9: Contamination factor distribution of lead…………………………………………….41
Table 4.10: Contamination Degree Interpretation…………………………………………….…42
the study area…………………………………………………………………………………….43
xix
ABSTRACT
The study area is located in Kabo Local Government Area, Southwest, Kano State, Nigeria, and
is made up of rocks from the basement complex that date from the Proterozoic to the Lower
Paleozoic. These rocks include marble, schist, quartzite, gneiss, gabbro, and intermediate
plutonic rocks. Most of the rocks that have been mapped are granites. The study of the petrology,
hydrogeology, geological structure, and mineral resources as depicted on a map of a particular
area at a specific scale comprises the mapping exercise. The majority of the minerals in the Kano
region are rich in these elements and are schist minerals, including quartz, muscovite, fuchsite,
biotite, and chlorite. Additionally, while in trace amounts mean values of 0.15 and 0.03 ppm,
respectively—gold and silver were found. The Pan-African Mobile Belt contains the Nigerian
Basement Complex. It is located south of the Tuareg shield and is bounded to the west and east
by the Congo and West African cratons, respectively (Black, 1980). In Nigeria, the older granites
are acknowledged as the only undeniable artifacts from Pan-African activities. They split the
belts of schist as well as the migmatite-gneiss complex. These rocks range in age from 750–450
Ma and are composed of granitic to charnokitic rocks with smaller masses of gabbro and syenite.
The Pan-African shield is divided into two parts. the Nigerian belts of Tuareg and Togo-Benin.
There are thick, superficial deposits made of clay material, autochthonic eluvia, diluvia, or
alluvial origin in rivers, streams, and places with deep weathering. For drinking water quality,
the date measured physico-chemical parameters, heavy metals, cation, and anion. In the research
region, the majority of the water is drinkable. The description of the representative rock samples
taken from the study area is provided by the petrographic study.
xx
TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................iii
CERTIFICATION................................................................................................... ..............iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................vi
LIST
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................xxiiii
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................................................xiixvi
CHAPTER ONE......................................................................................................................11
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INFORMATION...................................................11
1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION............................................................................................11
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES................................................................................................22
1.3 LOCATION EXTEND AND ACCESSIBILITY..............................................................22
1.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE...............................................................................................33
1.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION......................................................................................44
1.5.1 CLIMATE.......................................................................................................................44
1.5.2 VEGETATION...............................................................................................................54
1.6 SETTLEMENT AND LAND USED.................................................................................54
CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................................................65
LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................65
2.0 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF NIGERIA.........................................................................657
2.1 Review of the General Geology of the Nigerian Basement Complex.............................657
2.1.1 Migmatite-Gneiss Complex............................................................................................76
2.1.2 Schist Belts (Metasedimentary Series)..........................................................................768
2.1.3 Older Granites...............................................................................................................879
2.1.4 Regional Setting of the Nigerian Basement Complex..................................................98
1
2.2 GEOLOGY OF KABO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.............................................109
2.2.1 GRANITES...............................................................................................................10911
2.2.2 GNEISS.........................................................................................................................119
2.2.3 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSIT........................................................................................11912
2.6 GEOCHRONOLOGY..................................................................................................11912
CHAPTER THREE..............................................................................................................1311
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD.......................................................................................1311
3.1 OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................1311
3.2 FIELD INVESTIGATION.............................................................................................1311
3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSES.......................................................................................1412
3.3.1 PETROGRAPHY........................................................................................................1412
3.4 ANALYSING WATER.................................................................................................1412
3.4.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR HEAVY METALS................................................1512
3.4.2 Major Cation Analysis................................................................................................1513
3.4.2.1 Calcium and Magnesium Analysis...........................................................................1513
3.4.2.2. Calcium (Ca2+).........................................................................................................1513
3.4.2.3 Magnesium ion (Mg2+).............................................................................................1613
3.4.2.4 Sodium and potassium Analysis..............................................................................1614
3.4.2.5 Phosphate ion (P04)..................................................................................................1614
3.2.3 Major anions Analysis.................................................................................................1714
3.2.3.1 Sulphate ion (SO4)....................................................................................................1714
3.2.3.2. Nitrate and ammonium............................................................................................1714
3.2.3.3 Bicarbonate, Carbonate and Chloride......................................................................1715
3.5 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES...................................................................1815
3.5.1 COMPASS CLINOMETER.......................................................................................1815
3.5.2 TAPE MEASUREMENT...........................................................................................1916
Fig 3.3: Measuring tape is used to measure length, width, and height................................1916
3.5.3 PH METER.................................................................................................................1916
3.5.4 GPS.............................................................................................................................2017
3.5.5 GEOLOGICAL HAMMER........................................................................................2017
3.5.6 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID (T D S)......................................................................2118
2
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................2219
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION......................................................................................2219
4.1 PETROGRAPHY...........................................................................................................2320
4.1.1 COARSE PORPHYRITIC GRANITE.......................................................................2320
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.The minerals are usually colourless but it can also be
yellow pink or grey.it has two direction cleavage, which means it breaks into two pieces that are
flat and parallel. It has a distinct twinning, which means it forms crystals that are mirror image of
each other. It constitutes about 20%........................................................................................21
4.2 IUGS CLASSIFICATION.............................................................................................2521
4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS.........................................................................2722
4.2.1. pH...............................................................................................................................2823
4.2.2 TOTAL DISSOLVE SOLID (TDS)...........................................................................2824
4.2.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC)....................................................................2824
4.2.4 TEMPERATURE........................................................................................................2924
4.3 HEAVY METALS.........................................................................................................2924
4.3.1 CADMIUM.................................................................................................................3026
4.3.2 COBALT.....................................................................................................................3126
4.3.4 LEAD..........................................................................................................................3328
4.4 CATIONS AND ANIONS ANALYSIS........................................................................3328
4.4.1. Sodium and potassium Analysis................................................................................3529
SODIUM (Na)......................................................................................................................3530
POTASSIUM (K).................................................................................................................3630
4.4.2 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM...............................................................................3731
MAGNESIUM (Mg)............................................................................................................3832
4.4.3 Phosphate ion (P04):....................................................................................................3833
4.4.4 CHLORIDE (Cl).........................................................................................................3934
4.4.5 NITRATE....................................................................................................................4035
4.4.6 AMMONIA.................................................................................................................4136
4.4.7 SULPHATE ION........................................................................................................4236
4.5 POLLUTION INDICES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY.................................4337
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.Heavy metal contamination indices, such as the
Contamination Factor (Cf) and Contamination degree (Cd), were used to assess the quality of the
3
drinking water for each water sample. The surface water sample had a significant contamination
factor, computed from the data, while all of the groundwater samples had substantial levels of
heavy metal contamination......................................................................................................37
4.5.1 CONTAMINATION FACTOR (CF).........................................................................4337
4.5.2 THE CONTAMINATION DEGREEE.......................................................................4942
4.6 PIPER DIAGRAM.........................................................................................................5043
CHAPTER FIVE..................................................................................................................5245
5.0 SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................5245
5.1 SUMMARY...................................................................................................................5245
5.2 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................5245
5.3 RECOMMENDATION.................................................................................................5245
REFRENCES.......................................................................................................................5447
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.0: Drainage map of the study area..................................................................................16

Fig 2.0: Geological map of Nigeria showing the major geological components.....................21
Fig 3.1: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS)...................................................................26
Fig 3.2: Campass clinometer....................................................................................................29
Fig 3.4: A Ph meter is..............................................................................................................30
Fig 3.5: GPS used for navigation, mapping, surveying, tracking, and more...........................30
Fig 3.6: Geological hammer.....................................................................................................31
Fig 3.7: A total dissolved solids (TDS)...................................................................................31
Fig 4.0: Geological map of the study area not clear................................................................32
4.1.2.1 Minerology...................................................................................................................33
Fig 4.1: Mineralogical composition of coarse porphyritic granite using QAP diagram..........35
Fig 4.3: Cadmium concentration graph....................................................................................39
Fig 4.4: Cobalt concentration graph.........................................................................................40
Fig 4.5: Nickel concentration graph.........................................................................................40
Fig 4.6: Lead concentration graph...........................................................................................41
monitoring the health of a person or an ecosystem..................................................................43
4
average and range of potassium levels.....................................................................................44
average and range of Calcium levels.......................................................................................45
the average and range of Calcium levels..................................................................................46
trends and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level.............47
Fig 12: Chloride concentration graph showing the main things they show are trends are trends
and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level........................48
Fig 13: Nitrate concentration graph showing trends are trends and fluctuations over time, and the
avarage and range of nitrate level...........................................................................................48
Fig 4.14: Ammonia Concentration the main things they showed are trends and fluctuations over
time, and the avarage and range of ammonium level...............................................................49
Fig 15: Sulphate ion concentrations graph the main things they show are trends are trends and
fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of sulphate ion level.................................50
Fig 4.16. piper diagram of the water samples..........................................................................57
5
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Summary of the geological history of the Basement Complex of Nigeria.........2424
Table 4.0: modal proportion of QAP (quartz, alkali-feldspar and plagioclase)...................3735
Table 4.1: physico-chemical parameters of the study area..................................................3937
Table 4.2: Concentration of heavy metals of water samples collected within the study area4139
Table 4.3: Cations and Anions.............................................................................................4643
The research area's water quality was assessed using the contamination factor (Cf), which
Cf= Cmatal/C background value..........................................................................................5551
TABLE 4.5: Concentration Based on Contamination Factor..............................................5552
Table 4.6: Contamination factor distribution of cadmium...................................................5652
Table 4.7: Contamination factor distribution of chromium................................................5653
Table 4.8: Contamination factor distribution of ion............................................................5854
Table 4.9: Contamination factor distribution of Nickel.......................................................5955
Table 4.10: Contamination factor distribution of lead.........................................................6056
Table 4.11 Contamination degree interpretation..................................................................6157
the study area........................................................................................................................6157
6
LIST OF PLATES
Plate i: Photomicrograph of rock sample,..............34Plate i: Photomicrograph of rock sample,
..................................................................................................................................................37
7
8
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION
The study area falls within Kabo Local Government Area, Southwest, Kano State, Nigeria,
consisting of Proterozoic to Lower Paleozoic rocks of the basement complex and comprises of
rocks like Migmatite, Gneiss, schist, Quartzite, Marble, and a series of basic rocks like gabbro,
basalt and intermediate plutonic rocks (Rahaman 1988) . It lies between latitude 11 0 51’ 24.24”
N and 110 51’ 27.6” N and longitude 0080 23’ 17.46” E and 0080 21’ 45.6” E. The areas
Observed include Kafin Agur, Agalawa, Galadimawa, Buzaye Galadimawa, Kwankwaso, Kebe,
and Burji. The area is underlain by Gneiss and Migmatite which were metamorphosed by the
intrusion of Older Granites associated with Pan African Orogeny, causing the North-South
trending of most of the structures associated with the lithological units.
The rocks mapped are predominantly granites. Age determination from different parts of the
basement complex shows that it has witnessed at least three orogenic events from the Achaean to
the Pan-African. Hence, it is polycyclic in nature. The Pan-African Orogeny resulted in the
emplacement of the granites in the basement complex. Therefore, indicates that the material for
the formation in the study area might have resulted from the partial melting of crustal rocks. The
Granites in the study area vary in texture and composition and comprise of three textural
variants, namely fine-grained, medium-grained and coarse-grained Granite.
The mapping exercise consists of the study of the petrology, hydrogeology, geological structure,
and mineral resources as represented on a map of some selected area on a certain scale.
Geological mapping finds its expression in a systematic and general study of the natural and
artificial exposure (outcrops) of rocks with the aim of determining their compositions, origin,
age, and form of bedding and the application of their occurrence on the topographic map. It is
accompanied by the quest for mineral raw materials and the exposition of geological factors
conditioning the distribution of mineral resources for a more complete study of the properties of
rocks and their bedding on the geological surface.
Most of the minerals found in the Kano area are muscovite, fuchsite, biotite, chlorite, and quartz,
which are schist minerals rich in these elements. Gold and silver were also discovered, although
in small quantities, with mean values of 0.15 and 0.03 ppm, respectively. basement and
1
crystalline basement are crystalline rocks lying above the mantle and beneath all other rocks and
sediments. They are sometimes exposed at the surface, but often they are buried under miles of
rock and sediment. The basement rocks lie below a sedimentary platform or cover, or more
generally, any rock below sedimentary rocks or sedimentary basins that are metamorphic or
igneous in origin. Basement rock is the thick foundation of ancient and oldest metamorphic and
igneous rock that forms the crust of continents, often in the form of granite. They are sometimes
exposed at the surface, but often they are buried under miles of rock and sediment. The basement
rocks lie below a sedimentary platform or cover, or more generally, any rock below sedimentary
rocks or sedimentary basins that are metamorphic or igneous in origin. Basement rock is the
thick foundation of ancient and oldest metamorphic and igneous rock that forms the crust of
continents, often in the form of granite.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
i. The aim of the geological field mapping is to study rocks in the study area in terms of their
mode of occurrence, texture, mineralogical composition, morphology, the structural features
associated with the rocks and their petrography also with the ground water quality, occurrence
and assessment.
ii. To imbibe in students, the scientific attributes of keen observation and making necessary
inferences."
iii. To train students to be able to recognize the various structural, textural and other geological
features existing in rock.
iv. To further demonstrate to students, what had been studied in the classroom?
V. To train students on how to use the various geological structures and features seen in the field
to interpret the geological history of a rock formation, bearing in mind, the various geological
principles.
Vi. To train students in the act of logging and production of geological maps.
Vii. To develop team work among students."
1.3 LOCATION EXTEND AND ACCESSIBILITY
Gwarzo and Kabo Local Government Area are connected by road, providing access to the
region. The research area's eastern and western regions can be reached by a paved road. In
addition, it can be reached by river channels that link some of the locations or by a network of
trails that link the majority of the villages and are also used as bike and motorbike routes.
2
1.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE
The area lies within the highest elevation is in a village called Husure at eastern part of the area
of about 564 meters above sea level, and a minimum elevation of 488 meters down south of the
area and with an average height of 526 meters above sea level. Depressions are found along the
water courses where streams occur. There are several outcrop exposures in the study area which
are concentrated in the western part of the mapped area, with some of the exposures along the
stream and river channels and the Eastern part of the study area having fewer exposures
3
Fig 1.0: Drainage map of the study area
1.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

1.5.1 CLIMATE
The area is part of the northern Nigeria within the tropical wet and dry climate, coded Aw
according to Koppen’s classification with an annual temperature of 250°C (Stevenson screen
temperature of Kano Airport) and mean minimum of 16-210°C in the coolest month of
December and January, and mean maximum of 300°C in the months of April and May,
Rainfall is 800-1000mm per annum, on average is 900mm. This arises when southwest wind
prevails over the area. Onset of rainy season begins May (early May) and ceases in October.
Rainfall duration (wet season) has average of 153 days and dry season of 212 days, i.e. early
October to late April characterized by hot days and cool nights.
1.5.2 VEGETATION
The normal vegetation of the region was originally defined as undisturbed Sudan Savanna and
Guinea Savanna (Ibrahim, 2015). It has always been the dry Guinea Savanna in the southern
fringe and the Sudan Savanna in the larger part of the region. The normal vegetation has now
been subjected to destruction through fuel wood extraction, urban encroachment and population
pressure. These leads to the formation of four vegetation zones in the region namely: i) Sudano
Sahelian savanna, ii) Sudan Savanna; iii) Guinea Savanna; and iv) protected Guinea Savanna
(Ibrahim, 2015).
1.6 SETTLEMENT AND LAND USED
The settlement pattern is more of a linear one with most of the inhabitants building their houses
along the roads, although in some parts, a disperse form of settlement is observed. The area is
dominated mainly by the Hausa community with a few minorities of immigrant from various
ethnic groups. Farming activities is the major occupation of the inhabitants in this study area and
this include irrigation farming. The land is used intensively for cultivation of food crops such as
guinea corn, millet, and maize.
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Several works have been done on the Basement Complex of Northern Nigeria by various
workers including Falconer (1911), Fargher (1961), Truswell (1962), Truswell and Cope (1963)
and Oyawoye (1972).
The earliest study was carried out by Falconer (1911), during which the Younger Granites and
the Older Granites of Nigeria were distinguished. Farger (1961) and Truswell (1962) studied the
geology of the Crystalline Basement of the north-western Nigeria and gave a review of the
petrography and distribution of the various rock types in the area.
McCurry (1971) carried out a reconnaissance survey and mapped a part of the Basement
Complex of Nigeria on a scale of 1:100,000 based mainly on photo geological interpretation,
supported by selected ground traverses. She postulated that the rocks in the area belong to the
Basement Complex of Nigeria and are Precambrian to early Palaeozoic in age. She classified the
rocks into three groups, namely: gneiss, considered to have been metamorphosed more than
2,000 million years ago; metasediments, mainly schist and quartzite, laid down and
metamorphosed during the Pan-African orogeny between 850 and 650 million years ago and
which now occupy linear north-south belts; and older granites, intruded from 580 to 650 million
years ago. Oyawoye (1972) described the coarse porphyritic granite as the most abundant and
typical member of the Older Granite suite as a porphyroblastic granite.
2.0 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF NIGERIA
2.1 Review of the General Geology of the Nigerian Basement Complex
The Nigerian Basement Complex lies within the Pan - African mobile belt. It is bordered on the
west and east by the West African and Congo cratons, respectively, and lies south of the Tuareg
shield (Black, 1980).
The rocks of the basement complex in Nigeria are composed predominantly of migmatitic and
granitic gneisses, quartzite and schist, and meta-igneous rocks that are Precambrian to Lower
5
Paleozoic in age (Mc Curry, 1970; Rahaman 1976). In addition to the three lithologies,
Rahaman, (1984) and Ajibade (1984) also recognized volcanic and hypabyssal rocks. The
Nigerian Basement Complex can thus be grouped into four main lithologic units:
i. The basement complex comprises the poly-metamorphic migmatite-gneiss complex.,
ii. Younger meta-sediments, which comprise the low-grade meta-sediment that dominated the
schist belts,
iii. Older granites cut both the migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex and the schist belt.
iv. Volcanic and hypabyssal rocks that belong to a post - Older Granite episode of high - level
magmatic activity
The Basement Complex rock structures are N-S trending foliations, joints, folds, and faults that
evolved between 2000 ± 44 Ma and 873 ± 44 Ma (Oyawoye, 1964; Trustwell and Cope, 1963).
2.1.1 Migmatite-Gneiss Complex
This is also referred to as an older metasediment of Barremian to Eburnean age (Long, 1989).
The conversion of large areas of basement into migmatite and granite-gneiss has led to changes
in many features of the original gneisses. Sediments have been metamorphosed and granitized to
form gneisses, which incorporate the rocks that resisted granitization, basically schist, quartzite,
and calcareous rocks. These provide evidence of early sedimentary deposition (Long, 1989).
These relics are widely distributed, thus suggesting their belonging to extensive supracrustal
coves that have been modified into the migmatite-gneiss complex (McCurry, 1976).
2.1.2 Schist Belts (Metasedimentary Series)
The Schist belts occupy generally N-S trending synformal troughs infolded into the migmatite-
gnesis complex and are best developed in the western part of the country. Seventeen main belts
have so far been identified (Turner, 1983). They define the structural grain of the basement. They
are largely sediment-dominated, and the most important lithologies are pelites, semipelites, and
quartzite. In some belts, chemical sediments are now present as marbles and banded iron
formations (BIF). Mafic to ultramafic rocks are present as amphibolite. Minor felsic to
intermediate metavolcanic rocks and greywackes have also been described. The Schist belts are
about the best studied group of rocks in Nigeria (Russ 1957; Truswell and Cope 1963) because
of the known mineralization such as gold, BIF, marble, manganese associated with them. Yet
fundamental questions pertaining to the age and geodynamic setting of the belts remain
unresolved.
6
The geochemistry of the schist belts confirms the sedimentary nature of most of them, but the
geochemistry of the mafic to ultramafic rocks within them has led to great controversy.
Klemmet et al. (1984) identified metapyroxenites in the Ife IIesha schist belt as Komatiites and
showed that the metabasalts possess a primitive geochemical signature typical of or similar to
rocks formed early in the earth’s history. Similar conclusions were reached by Annor (1996) and
Olobaniyi (1997) from rocks in the Egbe-Isanlu area, 65km east of the Ife-IIesha schist belt.
Based on these results, the author stated that the metavolcano-sedimentary sequences in these
belts show a close similarity to metavolcanic sedimentary sequences in Archaean -greenstone
terrains such as the Baberton Mountains in South Africa, the Pilbara Belt in Australia, and the
Yellow Knife District in Canada. These sequences are known to host important precious metal
mineral deposits. They concluded that these schist belts are thus Archaean.
Grant (1978), Holt (1982), and Turner (1983), based on structural and lithological association,
suggest that some of the schist belts are of Kibaran (1100 ± 200 Ma) and older age, while others
are of Pan-African age (600 Ma). Ajibade et al. (1979) disagreed with the structural evidence and
proposed a Pan-African age for the schist belts. Rahaman (1988) has argued that the available
geochronological data preclude an Archaean age for the schist belts. Thus, the age of the schist
belt remains largely unknown, as dates varying from the Archaean to the late Proterozoic have
been proposed. There is also no agreement on whether or not individual belts represent different
depositional basins (Truner, 1983) or relics of a single supracrustal cover (McCurry, 1975;
Oyawoye, 1972). The geodynamic setting of the schist belts is also controversial. Olade and
Elueze (1979) and Ogezi (1977) have largely used ensialic processes in the evolution of the
schist belts, while Rahaman (1981) and Egbuniwe (1982) have stressed the importance of
ensimatic processes in the evolution of the belt.
2.1.3 Older Granites
The Older Granites are accepted as the only undisputed products of Pan-African events in
Nigeria. They cut both the migmatite-gneiss complex and the schist belts. They include rocks of
granitic to charnokitic composition with smaller bodies of syenite and gabbro and range in age
from 750–450 Ma (Ajibade, 1987). This shows that the Older Granites are high-level intrusions
emplaced by stoping and diapiric processes. McCurry described and grouped older granites into
three types according to their petrographic affinities: porphyritic granites, which are the most
typical and coarse-grained, and very coarse-grained granites with a white or pink prismatic
7
phenocryst of microcline. Fine- to medium-grained granites and granodiorites are generally
unfoliated and rich in xenoliths with lenses of light material and magmatic segregation (McCurry
and Wright, 1971). Syenites, which are of minor occurrence, are uniformly textured, fine to
medium-grained, and vary in colour from pale grey-pink to dark grey. They are either partly or
wholly intrusive into the bodies of the older granites. They occur in many places in the north-
western and north-eastern parts of Nigeria. These rocks are believed to have been emplaced
during epi-orogenic uplift and regional cooling. Rocks belonging to this group include andesite,
basalts, and granite porphyries.
2.1.4 Regional Setting of the Nigerian Basement Complex
The Pan-African shield consists of two sectors: The Tuareg and Togo-Benin Nigerian belts. The
belts are believed to occur in north-eastern Brazil, where they are referred to as the Brazilian belt
(Ajibade, 1987). The Nigerian Basement Complex witnessed at least two cycles of orogenesis
(Long, 1987). This has been supported by geochronological studies of the Nigerian basement.
The first tectonic metamorphic cycle took place between the Birimian and Eburnean ages, with
orogenesis resulting in the folding and intrusion of Eburnean granites. The metamorphism of
sediments deposited on the Precambrian crystalline complex, or gneiss and migmatite,
corresponds to Eburnean orogeny (McCurry, 1970). The second tectonic metamorphic cycle is
known as the Pan-African orogeny, characterized by the intrusion of the Older Granites. In
general, these orogenic episodes have resulted in the metamorphism, migmatization, folding, and
remobilization of pre-existing basements to produce suites of granitic rocks (Long, 1989). North-
western Nigeria has been regarded as the most interesting area of basement geology in Nigeria
since major rocks are present and relatively well developed (McCurry, 1972). In general,
Nigerian basement complexes can be classified into four lithologic units: migmatite-gneiss
complex, schist belt, Older Granites, and volcanic hypabyssal rocks.
8
Fig 2.0: Geological map of Nigeria showing the major geological components (Modified
after Obaje et al. 2009).
2.2 GEOLOGY OF KABO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA

The study area is underlain by the Precambrian crystalline rocks, which are:
 The Migmatite Gneiss
 The Metasediments (consisting of quartzite and schists)
 The Older Granite

2.2.1 GRANITES
The area can be divided into two lithological units.
a). Coarse-grained porphyritic granites,
b). Medium-grained granites the porphyritic granites are found mainly in the SW part of the area,
extending to about 25 km down the area, and the granites are coarse-grained with large or pink
prismatic pheneocrysts (Aroh, 1998). In some places, this occurs as whalebacks trending NNE-
SSW up to about 7 metres in radius. Metasediments Schists outcrop mainly in the northern and
central parts of the area and are exposed along streams and road cutting. They are mostly fine to
9
medium-grained, with a general greyish color. (Akor, 1998; Amade, 1998). The quartzite has the
fewest occurrences, are mostly found with schists, and are whitish in colour with a medium-
grained equiangular texture Orhoevwri, 1998). They can as well be observed along Dederi-
Unguwar Dabai village, occurring as elongated hills about 400–150 metres in length and 130
metres in width.
2.2.2 GNEISS
Gneiss is the most abundant of all the rock types present in the area, as 50% of the area is
gneissic rocks, in most places hosting schist and quartzite. It is almost foliated with alternating
bands of light and dark minerals (Ogunmola, 1998).
2.2.3 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSIT
In rivers, streams, and areas with deep weathering, there are thick, superficial deposits consisting
of clay material, autochthonic eluvia, diluvia, or alluvial origin. On watersheds, there are
discontinuous layers of duricrust concretionary and vesicular, reddish-brown color, and, on
average, 1 m thick.
2.6 GEOCHRONOLOGY
The northern region of Nigeria is underlain by gneisses, migmatites, and metasediments of the
Precambrian age, which have been intruded by a series of granitic rocks of the late Precambrian
to lower Paleozoic ages. The oldest rocks are represented by a series of older metasediments and
gneisses believed to be of Barremian age and older (Table 1).
10
Table 2.1: Summary of the geological history of the Basement Complex of Nigeria. After
Grant (1970, 1971), Harper et al. (1973), McCurry (1973),
AGE/PERIOD GEOLOGICAL HISTORY ROCK TYPES
Mid-Cambrian Uplifts, cooling, fracturing, faulting, high level Older Granite
580 ± 40Ma magmatic activity.
Lower Cambrian Granitic intrusions, pegmatite aplite Older Granite
580 - 650Ma development.
Pan-African Orogenesis, deformation, metamorphism, Older Granite
650 - 850Ma migmatization, and reactivation of pre-existing
rocks.
Katangan Geosyncline deposition, intrusion of Katangan
800 - 1000 Ma hypersthenes bearing rocks. metasediments
Eburnean Granite intrusion, orogenesis, folding, Eburnean Granite
1900 ±250Ma metamorphism and reactivation of pre-existing
rocks.
Birrimian 2500Ma Geosynclinal deposition. Barremian
metasediments
Liberian cycle Possible formation of banded gneiss complex
2800 ± 200Ma near Ibadan (Grant, 1970).
Dahomeyan Crystalline Basement Granite gneiss
(>2800Ma)
11
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD
3.1 OVERVIEW
Laboratory analyses and field research are the methods employed in this study. In the field study
exercise, a topographic map, a geologic hammer, a compass-clinometer, a GPS unit, and a
measuring tape were used to map the geology on a scale of 1: 50,000 and the pegmatite and
quartz veins on a scale of 1: 10,000. In the study area, the various rock types were examined and
identified, the hand specimen and petrographic description were used, and the rocks' associated
structural features were identified by measuring the trends in the rocks. Compass clinometers
were used to measure the strike of veins, faults, dykes, and joints. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) was utilized to record exposure coordinates and determine the precise location of
the outcrops. The texture, forms, and proportions of each individual mineral grain in the rocks
were described using the hand lens. Measurements of the length and width of certain structural
features, the depth to water level in hand-dug wells, and the physical characteristics of the water
(temperature and pH) were made using Ph. and TDS. I used a digital camera to take pictures of
some of the unique features. Fresh rock samples were gathered, labeled, and stored in a sample
bag using a geological hammer to create thin sections for petrographic research using a polarized
microscope. All of these measurements were noted in a field notebook for future reference when
writing the report for this research project. The topographic cross section and geological map of
the study area were digitized using Surfer software.
3.2 FIELD INVESTIGATION
The field exercise was conducted in phases: a reconnaissance visit was conducted first, and then
a 1: 50,000 scale geological field mapping was completed. from which new samples of minerals
and rock were taken for manual specimen analysis. In addition, every lineament component was
observed and identified using a compass-clinometer, and the coordinates of each sample point
were recorded using a global positioning system (GPS). The study focused on the physical
characteristics, location, and mineralogy of the pegmatite and quartz veins within the area's field
structures. A sample of a few of the pegmatite dykes was taken for petrological examination.
Measurements were taken carefully to determine the structural attitude, length, width, and
12
location coordinates of each pegmatite dyke. Maps and records were also made of other
structures, such as joints and fractures.
3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSES
3.3.1 PETROGRAPHY
One rock sample were divided into chips for the petrographic studies using a cutting machine
that produced the necessary thicknesses and smooth surfaces. In order to identify minerals and
other features that could not be identified with the use of a magnifying lens, the prepared thin
section slides were examined under the petrological microscope.
3.4 ANALYSING WATER
Water samples were taken from hand dug wells and boreholes drilled into the state's different
Basement Complex rocks. A total of four parameters were selected based on those that were
determined to be pertinent to the research area (Macdonald et al., 1986). The selection process
was justified by taking into account the World Health Organization's Current (1984) Geneva
review of chemical parameters in drinking water standards for developing countries.
A pH meter was used to measure the pH of each sample as soon as it was collected, and a
conductivity bridge meter was used to determine the electrical conductivity of the water samples.
The atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used to calculate the concentrations of magnesium
(Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+). By reducing iron (III) to iron (II) and forming a reddish-purple color,
throglycollic acid is used in the calorimetric method to measure the total iron concentration. The
titration end point for the chloride concentration was indicated by the appearance of red
precipitate, which was obtained by titrating a standard solution of silver nitrate with an indicator
of 8% potassium chromate solution.
Using an acidified stannous chloride solution (SnCl2O) and sodium moly date (Na2 MaO2), the
colorimetric method was used to determine the total silica in all samples. The Standard
Aquameck Silica Color Scale was used to match the intensity of the blue color formed with the
corresponding concentration measured in milligrams per one.
The lithology or geology of the five boreholes that were sampled for this study is among the data
that was gathered. Drilling depths are used, and each borehole sample is sampled from the top to
the bottom, yielding rock at the zone of abstraction or fracture (screen position). The statistical
tools that would be employed in this study are both descriptive and inferential mean and standard
deviation is also used in the analyses of the data.
13
3.4.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR HEAVY METALS
50 millilitres of water were put into a comical flask, 10 millilitres of concentrated HNO 3 acid
solution were added, and the mixture was heated on a hot plate to facilitate analysis. After letting
it cool, distilled water was added to make 50ml volume, and filter paper was used to filter it. The
atomic absorption spectroscopy AA 6300 schimadzu, a device that measured the concentration
of the heavy metal in the sample using light, was used to analyse the heavy metals Cd, Cr, Cu,
Mn, and Pb.
Fig 3.1: Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS)

3.4.2 Major Cation Analysis
3.4.2.1 Calcium and Magnesium Analysis
Titration of Ions Method: The term "calcium and magnesium" describes the particular method
used to figure out how much calcium and magnesium ions are present in a sample of water. A
50-milliliter conical flask is filled with 20 milliliters of the water sample, and then a particular
reagent is added to cause the calcium and magnesium ions to react. The color shifts that result
from this reaction is used to calculate the ion concentration.
3.4.2.2. Calcium (Ca2+)
To measure the concentration of calcium, 1 milliliter of 10% sodium hydroxide was added, along
with a tip of muroxite added as an indicator. Next, 0.01 milliliter of ethylene diamine tetra acetic
acid (EDTA) was titrated from the pink color to the purple color end point (Ca 2+). and the titer
value was obtained from the burette reading, which was then utilized to compute the (Ca 2+)
concentration using the formula below.
Titer value×0.01×40×1000/20=amount of Ca in Mg/L
14
3.4.2.3 Magnesium ion (Mg2+)
In order to measure the concentration of magnesium ions, 5 milliliters of ammonium buffer
solution and two drops of erochromine black T indicator (which changes color from wine red to
blue) were added. The mixture was then titrated with 0.01 ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid, and
the burette reading was recorded to obtain the titer value, from which the concentration was then
calculated using the formula.
Titer value×0.01×24×1000/20 = amount of Mg/L
3.4.2.4 Sodium and potassium Analysis
The use of a flame photometer was necessary for the analysis of sodium and potassium. A witch
is a tool that produces light using a flame, which is then absorbed by the atoms of the element
being measured. The proportion of light absorbed to the element's concentration is known. The
flame photometer emits a particular wavelength of light that is absorbed by the atoms of sodium
(Na) and potassium (K). Following that, the amount of light absorbed is measured and utilized to
determine the sample's sodium and potassium concentrations.
3.4.2.5 Phosphate ion (P04)
phosphorus extraction solution and 2ml of ammonium molybdate was added and 1ml of dilute
stenus chloride was also added, and the stenus chloride then displays blue color, therefore a
distilled water makes it 50ml volume, from then the absorbance was taken from spectrometer
machine at 660 wavelengths to analyze the sample, and the value can be calculated using the
following formula
Absorbance×0.61×25/50.97 = amount of PO4 in Mg/L
3.2.3 Major anions Analysis
3.2.3.1 Sulphate ion (SO4)
To determine Sulphate 10ml of water was taken in to the test tube, then add1ml of 10% of BaCl,
then 1ml of HCl shake and kept in an oven dry over night at 80 ⁰C, then we take the empty filter
paper, then we pour water and filter paper to the ovens, and after dry, then we weight it again.
Then we calculated the value in Mg/L by misusing the empty weight from the dry weight. W2-
W1×411.5÷10 in Mg\L
3.2.3.2. Nitrate and ammonium
The process of distilling nitrate and ammonium involved taking 50 milliliters of water sample,
adding 0.4 grams of magnesium oxide, setting it on the distillation machine, and placing 20
15
milliliters of boric acid as an indicator under the condenser. Distillation began when the
ammonia was extracted, causing the boric acid's color to change from dark red to blue. This
process was repeated against 0.025 milliliters of H2SO4.
The only difference between the nitrate and ammonia is that 0.2 grams of devrda alloy were
added to the nitrate solution.
3.2.3.3 Bicarbonate, Carbonate and Chloride
which are also refers to as alkalinity, the 50ml of water sample was taken in to 250ml of conical
flask and two drops of phenolphthaline indicator was added and the concentration of chloride,
carbonate, Bicarbonate was determined using this method of titrimetric analysis although the
presence of color changed indicated the availability of the carbonate in the water sample,
likewise the presence of colorless indicated the absence of the carbonate in the water sample, and
if there is a carbonate then titrate with 0.05M of Hydrogen sulphate to the colorless as the end
point and measure the burette reading as the titer value.
After adding a drop of methyl orange to the carbonate solution, the water's color changed to
orange. It was then titrated with 0.05M of Hydrogen sulphate, at which point the color changed
to red, marking the end point, and the burette reading was recorded.
Next, the same solution was used to proceed with the chloride.
After adding 1 milligram of potassium chromite, the color changed to orange. Next, 0.05
milligrams of AgNO3 (silver nitrite) were titrated against the solution, which turned turbid brown
at the end point. The burette reading was recorded as the titer value. The concentrations of the
anions mentioned above are computed using the following formulas.
Titer value×0.05×1000/250=amount of Carbonate in Mg/L
Titer value×0.05×1000/250=amount of Hydrogen Carbonate in Mg/L
Titer value ×0.05×1000/250=amount of Cl in Mg/L
3.5 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES
3.5.1 COMPASS CLINOMETER
Assist in quickly determining a geologic feature's slope, the compass-clinometer module uses
information gathered from integrated sensors to calculate the orientation of geological structures.
It uses an algorithm created especially for this purpose to transform the sensor data into
orientation information.
16
A clinometer is a tool used to calculate a right-angled triangle's angle of elevation, or angle from
the ground. Using compass clinometers, the strike of veins, faults, dykes, and joints were
measured.
Fig 3.2: Compass clinometer can be used to measure slope angle, elevation, and vertical
distance. It's often used in forestry, surveying, and mountaineering.
3.5.2 TAPE MEASUREMENT

Using a measuring tape, the depth to water level in manually excavated wells as well as the
length and width of certain structural elements were determined.
Fig 3.3: Measuring tape is used to measure length, width, and height.
17
3.5.3 PH METER
Is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions,
indicating its acidity or alkalinity expressed as ph.
Fig 3.4: A Ph meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It's a crucial
tool for food and beverage industries, as well as chemical and environmental industries.
3.5.4 GPS
A network of satellites and receiving equipment makes up the global positioning system (GPS),
which is used to locate objects on Earth. It was employed to determine the precise location of the
outcrops and to obtain exposure coordinates.
uses of GPS:
Location — Determining a position.
Navigation — Getting from one location to another.
Tracking — Monitoring object or personal movement.
Mapping — Creating maps of the world.
Timing — Making it possible to take precise time measurements.
18
Fig 3.5: GPS used for navigation, mapping, surveying, tracking, and more
3.5.5 GEOLOGICAL HAMMER
Breaking off a chunk of rock in order to examine a new surface for identification or description,
or to gather samples for additional research. A hammer for splitting and breaking rocks is called
a geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, geological pick, or colloquially, a geo picks.
Fig 3.6: Geological hammer used by geologists to break rocks for identification and
sampling. It has a flat, square head for breaking rocks, and a pointed end for prying and
digging.
3.5.6 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID (T D S)
Are all the good and bad elements in your drinking water. These can be organic and inorganic
substances such as minerals, salts, metals, cations, or anions dissolved in water. Tads are often
measured in parts per million (ppm).
19
maintenance, and pool and spa management.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
By looking at thin sections of the rock sample under a petrographic microscope in both plane-
polarized (PPL) and cross-polarized (XPL) modes, the lithologies in the study area, as well as
their hydro geochemistry, petrographic properties, and hydro geology, along with their field
occurrences and relationships, and their textural variation, would be described. Porphyritic
granite was the type of rock sample that was gathered within the designated area for petrographic
examination.
20
Fig 4.0: Geological map of the study area showing Porphyritic Granite
4.1 PETROGRAPHY
The petrographic study gives the description of the representative rock samples obtained from
the study area. This is done using hand specimens and thin section under microscope.
4.1.1 COARSE PORPHYRITIC GRANITE
In hand specimen coarse porphyritic granite has a distinct difference in the size of its crystals
with at least one group of crystals obviously larger than another group, with individual crystals
of the groundmass easily distinguished with the eye.
The minerals observed in plane polarized light (PPL) and under cross polarized light (XPL) are;
plagioclase, alkali feldspar quartz, biotite and accessory minerals in order of abundance.
21
A B
Plate i: Photomicrograph of rock sample, under plane polarized light A (PPL) and crossed
polarized light B (XPL) Qtz= quartz Plg= plagioclase, Bio= biotite, and Alk= alkali feldspar in a
diameter of view= 40mm=4.0 Mag. =x40
4.1.2.1 Minerology
Plagioclase
The Plagioclase is colourless under plane polarized light and milky white under cross polarized
light. The crystals of the mineral are euhedral in shape, exhibits albite twining and is zoned. It
has low extinction angle and low relief. The percentage composition is about 25%.
22
Quartz
The mineral is colourless in PPL and XPL, not pleochroic, euhedral in shape. It has no cleavage
but minor cracks occur. The quartz exhibits undulatory extinction and constitutes about 20% of
the rock.
Biotite
The mineral is dark in plane polarized light (PPL) and brown in cross polarized light (XPL). The
biotite has a perfect basal cleavage with high relief. It is highly pleochroic on rotation of stage.
The composition of the mineral in the rock is about 5%.
Alkali felspar
The minerals are usually colourless but it can also be yellow pink or grey.it has two direction
cleavage, which means it breaks into two pieces that are flat and parallel. It has a distinct
twinning, which means it forms crystals that are mirror image of each other. It constitutes about
20%
Accessory minerals
The accessory includes zircon and apatite the opaque minerals and constitute about 5% of the
rock mineralogical composition.
4.2 IUGS CLASSIFICATION

The classification separates and individually classifies the pyroclastic, carbonatic, melititic,
lamprophytic and charnockitic rocks before entering the main QAPF classification for plutonic
and volcanic rooks which is based on the modal mineral proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar
and plagioclase or of alkali feldspar, plagioclase and feldspathoids.
23
TABLE 4.0: modal proportion of QAP (quartz, alkali-feldspar and plagioclase)
MINERAL PROPORTION (%)
Quartz 33.00
Alkali-feldspar 33.33
Plagioclase 33.66
TOTAL 100
100Q
Using the Formular
P+A
Hence 100x30.00 =45%

33.33+33.33
PORPHYRITIC
GRANITE
24
Fig 4.1: Mineralogical composition of coarse porphyritic granite using QAP diagram
25
4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS
The date measured physiochemical parameters, heavy metals, cation and anion for drinking
water quality can be represented in the Table 2,3 and 4 respectively.
Table 4.1: physico-chemical parameters of the study area
S/n Sample Sample Longitude Latitude Elev Tds Ec Temperatu

I. d location ation Ph (ppm) (µs/cm) re
(0c)
1 Sample Kafin Agur 110 51’ 27.6’’ 0080 21’ 45.6’’ 473 7.03 377 735 27.6
A m
2 Sample Galadimaw 110 51’ 36.54’’ 0080 22’ 43.2’’ 482 7.3 135 376 27.6
B a m
3 Sample Buzaye G 110 51’ 46.8’’ 0080 22’ 43.38’’ 478 7.3 149 378 27.6
C m
4 Sample Kwankwas 110 51’ 24.24’’ 0080 23’ 17.46’’ 470 7.28 178 356 26.6
D o m
5 Sample Burji 110 53’ 35.04’’ 0080 23’ 41.94’’ 483 7.8 76 156 27.6
E m
6 Sample Kebe 110 53’ 50.52’’ 0080 23’ 50.52’’ 466 7.08 148 296 27.6
F m
26
4.2.1. pH
The pH of water is the acidity or alkalinity of the water. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14, and a
pH of 7 is considered neutral. A pH below 7 is considered acidic, and a pH above 7 is considered
basic or alkaline. The WHO has a guideline value for pH of 6.5 to 8.5, and this is based on the
potential for water with a pH outside of this range to cause taste and odor problems or even
corrosion of pipes and equipment.
4.2.2 TOTAL DISSOLVE SOLID (TDS)

Refers to the total amount of all dissolved substances in water, like salts, metals, and organic
matter. These substances can come from natural sources, like rocks and soils, or from human
activities, like farming and industry. The WHO has a guideline value for TDS of 500 mg/L, and
this is based on the potential for these substances to cause taste and odor problems in water. If
the TDS level exceeds this value, the water may not taste good and may not be pleasant to drink.
4.2.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC)
The ability of water to conduct electricity. It's related to the amount of ions, or charged particles,
in the water. Water with high EC may contain high levels of salts or other substances that can be
harmful to human health. The WHO has a guideline value for EC of 1200 micro-Siemens per
centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius, and this is based on the potential for water with high EC to
cause taste and odor problems.
4.2.4 TEMPERATURE
Water temperature is an important factor to consider when evaluating water quality. Warm water
can promote the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms, while cold water can slow down
the rate of chemical reactions and biological activity. The WHO doesn't have a specific guideline
value for water temperature, but it does recommend that water for human consumption should be
kept at a temperature that minimizes the growth of microorganisms. Water that's too hot or too
cold can cause health problems and may even be harmful to human health.
4.3 HEAVY METALS
There are many different heavy metals that can be found in drinking water, including Cadmium,
Cobalt, Chromium, Ion, Nickel, and Lead. Each of these metals has its own specific health
effects and guidelines for acceptable levels in drinking water. There are also many different ways
27
to remove heavy metals from drinking water, such as filtration, distillation, and reverse osmosis.
The results obtained from the heavy metals analyzed are shown in table 3
Table 4.2: Concentration of heavy metals of water samples collected within the study area
S/n Sample I’d Sample Cd(mg/l) Co(mg/l) Cr(mg/l) Fe(mg/l) Ni(mg/l) Pb(mg/l)
location
1 Sample A Kafin Agur 0.022 0.013 BDL BDL 0.102 0.100
2 Sample B Galadimawa 0.022 0.018 BDL BDL 0.104 0.088
3 Sample C Buzaye G 0.022 0.028 BDL BDL 0.103 0.103
4 Sample D Kwankwaso 0.023 0.027 BDL BLD 0.109 0.104
5 Sample E Burji 0.022 0.027 BDL BDL 0.106 0.119

6 Sample F Kebe 0.023 0.028 BDL BDL 0.104 0.085
7 Minimum 0.022 0.013 BDL BDL 0.102 0.085
8 Maximum 0.023 0.028 BDL BDL 0.109 0.100
9 Average 0.022 0.026 BDL BDL 0.104 0.099
28
10 who 0.003 NIL BDL BDL 0.02 0.01
Standard
(2017)
4.3.1 CADMIUM
Cadmium is a toxic metal that can be found in drinking water as a result of contamination from
industrial sources, such as mining, smelting, and the manufacturing of batteries and plastics.
Cadmium in drinking water can pose a health risk, as it can accumulate in the body and cause
kidney damage, bone damage, and cancer. The regulatory body the WHO (2017) recommended a
concentration of cd is 0.003 in drinking water the concentration of Cd in the study area range
between 0.022 to 0.023 with an average mean value of 0.022 with is above the permissible limit
of Who (2011) as indicated in Fig 1. The water of the study area is not safe for drinking as the
concentration of the cd is above the permissible limit.
Series1
Cd Concentration Graph Series2
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Kafin Agur Galadimawa B.Galadimaa Kwankwaso Burji Kebe
Fig 4.23: Cadmium concentration graph showing concentration of cadmium over time or
space
29
4.3.2 COBALT
First of all, it's important to know that the presence of cobalt in drinking water is not considered
a major health risk. The main concern with cobalt is when it's ingested in high amounts over a
long period of time. This can cause health problems like anemia, thyroid problems, and bone
disorders. But at low levels, cobalt is not a health concern. So, what level of cobalt is considered
safe in drinking water. The EPA has set a maximum contaminant level of 0.001 mg/L for cobalt.
Series1
Co Concentration Graph Series2
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Kafin Agur Galadimawa B.Galadimwa Kwankwaso Burji Kebe
Fig 4.34: Cobalt concentration graph showing the concentration of cobalt

4.3.3 NICKEL
For nickel, the (WHO 2017) has set a guideline value of 0.02 mg/L. This means that a
concentration of 0.3 mg/L would be considered unacceptable according to the WHO. While a
low level of nickel exposure isn't harmful, higher levels of exposure can cause adverse health
effects, including respiratory irritation, kidney damage, and anemia. The main sources of nickel
in drinking water are natural sources like rocks and soils, and human activities like mining,
smelting, and the burning of fossil fuels.
30
Series
1
Ni Concentration Graph
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
ur a
w
a
as
o rji be
Ag aw im Bu Ke
fin im kw
ad l ad an
Ka l Ga Kw
Ga B.
Fig 4.45: Nickel concentration graph showing the concentration of nickel over time or
space
4.3.4 LEAD
The (WHO 2017) has set a very low guideline value of 0.01 mg/L. This value is based on the
serious health risks associated with lead exposure, including damage to the brain and nervous
system, developmental delays, and reduced cognitive function. Lead exposure is particularly
dangerous for children, as it can lead to learning disabilities and behavior problems. The main
sources of lead in drinking water are corrosion of plumbing materials, such as lead pipes, and
natural sources like rocks and soils. The EPA has set a similar guideline value of 0.015 mg/L.
Series
1
Pb Concentration Graph
0.140
0.120
0.100
0.080
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
ur a a
as
o rji be
Ag aw aw Bu Ke
n im im kw
Afi ad ad an
Ga
l
G al Kw
B.
31
Fig 4.56: Lead concentration graph showing the concentration of lead over time
4.4 CATIONS AND ANIONS ANALYSIS
Cations and anions are both important components of drinking water quality. Cations are
positively charged ions, and anions are negatively charged ions. The most common cations found
in drinking water are potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The most common anions are
chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. The WHO has set guideline values for many of these
individual ions, as well as for the total concentration of dissolved solids, which includes both
cations and anions.
Table 4.3: Cations and Anions
S/n Sample Sample Na K Ca Mg Cl C03 HC0- S04 P04 NH3 N03

I.d location
1 Sample Kafin Agur 9 5 68.0 49.2 7.2 Nil 28.0 0.04 0.10 1.6 2.4
A
2 Sample Galadimawa 8 24 30.0 43.2 10.0 Nil 16.0 0.06 0.09 1.8 1.6
B
3 Sample Buzaye G 5 Nil 24.0 26.4 11.0 Nil 28.0 0.02 0.09 2.2 3.6
C
4 Sample Kwankwaso 6 3 52.0 54.0 11.7 Nil 16.0 0.03 0.09 2.4 3.8
D
5 Sample Burji 9 5 22.0 38.4 14.0 Nil 20.0 0.04 0.09 1.8 3.6
E
6 Sample Kebe 9 3 52.0 43.2 13.0 Nil 16.0 0.06 0.10 14.4 1.2
F
7 Minimum 5 3 22.0 26.4 7.2 Nil 16.0 0.02 0.10 1.6 1.2
8 Maximum 9 24 68.0 54.0 14.0 Nil 28.0 0.06 0.09 14.4 3.8
9 Average 7.6 6.6 41.3 42.4 11.1 Nil 20.6 0.04 0.09 3.63 2.7
32
10 Who 200 55 100 30 250 Nil 400 250 0.1 1.5 50
Standard
(2017)
4.4.1. Sodium and potassium Analysis

The use of a flame photometer was necessary for the analysis of sodium and potassium. A witch
is a tool that produces light using a flame, which is then absorbed by the atoms of the element
being measured. The fraction of light absorbed to the element's concentration is known. The
flame photometer emits a certain wavelength of light that is absorbed by the atoms of sodium
(Na) and potassium (K). Following that, the amount of light absorbed is evaluated and utilized to
determine the sample's sodium and potassium concentrations.
SODIUM (Na)
As I mentioned before, sodium is an essential nutrient that the body needs in small amounts.
However, too much sodium can cause health problems, like high blood pressure and heart
disease. It's especially important for people with certain health conditions, like kidney disease
and diabetes, to limit their sodium intake.
33
Na concentration graph
250
200
150
100
50
0
Series1 Series2
Fig 4.67: sodium concentration graph showing trends in sodium levels, and it can be
helpful in monitoring the health of a person or an ecosystem.
POTASSIUM (K)
Potassium is another important nutrient that the body needs, and it can also be found in drinking
water. Like sodium, potassium is an electrolyte that helps to regulate fluid balance and muscle
function. While sodium is usually the focus of attention when it comes to health, potassium is
also important. In fact, a healthy balance of sodium and potassium is essential for good health.
Drinking water is not the main source of potassium in the diet, but it can still contribute to the
body's overall potassium levels.
Potassium concentration graph

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series1 Series2
34
Fig 4.78: Potassium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as well
as the average and range of potassium levels.
4.4.2 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM
The precise process used to ascertain the concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in a
water sample is known as the "ions titration method-calcium and magnesium." A 50milliliter
conical flask is filled with 20 milliliters of the water sample, and then a certain reagent is added
to cause the calcium and magnesium ions to react. The color shift that results from this reaction
is used to calculate the ion concentration.
CALCIUM (Ca)
For calcium 1ml of 10% of sodium hydroxide was added and also a tip of muroxite was added as
an indicator and then titrate with 0.01M Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) from pink
color to purple color end point in order to determine the concentration of (ca2+).and the titre
value was recorded from the burette reading which used in the calculation of the concentration of
the (ca2+)
Ca Concentration Graph
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Series1 Series2
35
Fig 4.89: Calcium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as well
as the average and range of Calcium levels.
MAGNESIUM (Mg)
Magnesium is another nutrient that can be found in drinking water, and it's an essential mineral
for the body. Magnesium plays a role in energy production, muscle function, and nerve function.
It's also important for maintaining a healthy heart. Like potassium, drinking water is not the main
source of magnesium, but it can still be a source of this important nutrient. Drinking water can be
a significant source of magnesium for people who are not getting enough from their diet.
Magnesium concentration graph

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series1 Series2
Fig 4.910: Magnesium concentration graph showing trends and fluctuations over time, as
well as the average and range of Calcium levels.
4.4.3 Phosphate ion (P04):
The 2ml of water sample was taken in to the 50ml of conical flask then then the, 2ml of
phosphorus extraction solution and 2ml of ammonium molybdate was added and 1ml of dilute
stenus chloride was also added, and the stenus chloride then displays blue color, therefore a
36
distilled water make it 50ml volume, from then the absorbance was taken from spectrometer
machine at 660 wave length to analyze the sample.
Po4 Concentration Graph

1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Series1 Series2
Fig 4.10: phosphate ion concentrations graph showing the main things they show are
trends are trends and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion
level
4.4.4 CHLORIDE (Cl)
Chloride (Cl), carbonate, Bicarbonate which are also refers to as alkalinity, the 50ml of water
sample was taken in to 250ml of conical flask and two drops of phenolphthaline indicator was
added and the concentration of chloride, carbonate, Bicarbonate was determined using this
method of titrimetric analysis although the presence of color changed indicated the availability of
the carbonate in the water sample ,likewise the presence of colorless indicated the absence of the
carbonate in the water sample, and if there is a carbonate then titrate with 0.05M of H2S04 to the
colorless as the end point and measure the burette reading as the titer value.
Then bicarbonate was proceeded with the same solution from carbonate a drop of methyl orange
was added then the color of the water was changed to orange color witch also titrate with 0.05M
of H2S04 where the color changed to red as end point and recorded the burette reading as the end
point.
37
Then the chloride was proceeded with the same solution
1m of potassium chromite was added then the color has changed to orange then 0.05M was
titrated against AgNO3 (Silver nitrite) then the solution changed to turbid brown end point and
recorded the burette reading as the titer value the following formulas are used to calculated the
concentration of the above anions
Cl Concentration Graph
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Series1 Series2
Fig 4.122: Chloride concentration graph showing the main things they show are trends are
trends and fluctuations over time, and the avarage and range of phosphate ion level
4.4.5 NITRATE
Nitrate is another nutrient that can be found in drinking water, and it has a very different story
than the other nutrients we've discussed. That's because nitrate can actually be harmful to human
health, especially for infants and young children. High levels of nitrate in drinking water can
cause a condition called methemoglobinemia, or blue baby syndrome. This is a serious condition
that can cause breathing problems and even death.
38
No3 Concentration Graph
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series1 Series2
Fig 4.13: Nitrate concentration graph showing trends are trends and fluctuations over time,
and the average and range of nitrate level
4.4.6 AMMONIA
Ammonia is another nutrient that can be found in drinking water. Like nitrate, ammonia can be
harmful to human health, especially at high levels. Ammonia can irritate the skin, eyes, and
respiratory tract, and it can also cause liver damage. Ammonia is also a precursor to nitrate, so
it's important to test for both nutrients in drinking water. The EPA has set a maximum
contaminant level for ammonia in drinking water of 0.5 mg/L. This level is based on the
potential health effects of ammonia exposure.
NH3 CONCENTRATION GRAPH

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Kafin Agur Galadimawa B.Galadimawa Kwankwaso Burji kebe
Series1 Series2
39
Fig 4.14: Ammonia Concentration the main things they showed are trends and fluctuations
over time, and the average and range of ammonium level
4.4.7 SULPHATE ION
To determine Sulphate 10ml of water was taken in to the test tube, then add1ml of 10% of BaCl,
then 1ml of HCl shake and kept in an oven dry over night at 80 ⁰c, then we take the empty filter
paper, then we pour water and filter paper to the ovens, and after dry, then we weight it again.
Then we calculated the value in Mg/L by misusing the empty weight from the dry weight
S04 Concentration Graph

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Kafin Agur Galadimawa B.Galadimawa Kwankwaso Kebe
Series1 Series2
Fig 15: Sulphate ion concentrations graph the main things they show are trends are trends
and fluctuations over time, and the average and range of sulphate ion level
4.5 POLLUTION INDICES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY
Heavy metal contamination indices, such as the Contamination Factor (Cf) and Contamination
degree (Cd), were used to assess the quality of the drinking water for each water sample. The
surface water sample had a significant contamination factor, computed from the data, while all of
the groundwater samples had substantial levels of heavy metal contamination.
40
4.5.1 CONTAMINATION FACTOR (CF)
The research area's water quality was assessed using the contamination factor (Cf), which also
serves as a measure of the contaminants' severity in the water samples. A Cf of less than one is
regarded as low, one to three as moderate, three to six as significant, and more than six as high
contamination factor. According to the estimated contamination factor, lead and cadmium seem
to be the main contaminants, with very low concentrations of cobalt and nickel.
Cf= Cmatal/C background value

Where Cf = Contamination factor, Cmetal= metal concentration in water, Cbackground value=
background value of metal.
TABLE 4.45: Concentration Based on Contamination Factor

S/N CF Contamination Factor
1 CF<1 Low Contamination Factor
2 1≤CF<3 Moderate Contamination Factor
3 3≤CF<6 Considerable Contamination Factor
4 CF≥6 Very High Contamination Factor
Table 4.56: Contamination factor distribution of cadmium

S/N Location Contamination Remark
factor
41
1 Kafin Agur 7.3 Very high contamination
factor
2 Galadimawa 7.3 Very high contamination

factor
3 Buzaye G 7.3 Very high contamination

factor
4 Kwankwaso 7.6 Very high contamination

factor
5 Burji 7.3 Very high contamination

factor
6 Kebe 7.6 Very high contamination

factor
Table 4.67: Contamination factor distribution of chromium

factor
1 Kafin Agur 0 Low contamination

factor
2 Galadimawa 0 Low contamination

factor
3 Buzaye G 0 Low contamination

factor
4 Kwankwaso 0 Low contamination

factor
5 Burji 0 Low contamination

factor
6 Kebe 0 Low contamination

factor
42
Table 4.78: Contamination factor distribution of ion

factor
1 Kafin Agur 0 Low contamination
factor
2 Galadimawa 0 Low contamination

factor
3 Buzaye G 0 Low contamination
factor
4 Kwankwaso 0 Low contamination
factor
5 Burji 0 Low contamination
factor
6 Kebe 0 Low contamination
factor
43
Table 4.89: Contamination factor distribution of Nickel
S/N Location Contamination factor Remark
1 Kafin Agur 5.1 Considerable

contamination factor
2 Galadimawa 5.2 Considerable

3 Buzaye G 5.15 Considerable

4 Kwankwaso 5.15 Considerable

5 Burji 5.45 Considerable

6 Kebe 5.3 Considerable

44
Table 4.910: Contamination factor distribution of lead
S/N Location Contamination factor Remark

1 Kafin Agur 10 Very high
2 Galadimawa 8.8 Very high
3 Buzaye G 10.3 Very high
4 Kwankwaso 10.4 Very high
5 Burji 11.4 Very high
6 Kebe 8.5 Very high
45
To Calculated results distribution from each element from table 4.6 to 4.13 showed that the water
quality data from the tested locations suggests that while some metals are within the
recommended range, like ion, chromium, and cobalt. Others are above the recommended
maximum concentration. This is a cause for concern, and further investigation is needed to
identify and address the sources of contamination. In particular, cadmium, Nickel, and lead
should be given high priority, as they pose a significant risk to human health. It's important to
take action to reduce the levels of these metals in the water supply.
4.5.2 THE CONTAMINATION DEGREEE
Contamination degree is defined as the summation of all contamination factors providing
information on the intensity of contamination caused by the combined effect of all metals present
in the groundwater which can be expressed mathematically as:
Where:
Cd = ΣCf
Cd=Contamination degree
CF=Contamination factor
Table 4.101: CONTAMINATION DEGREEE INTERPRETATION

SN CD VALUE INTERPRETATION
1 CD < 6 Low Contamination Degree
2 6 ≤CD < 12 Moderate Contamination Degree
3 12 ≤ CD < 24 Considerable Contamination Degree
4 CD ≥24 Very High Contamination Degree
46
Table 4.112: Calculated value of contaminated factor and contaminated degree of water
sample in the study area
S/N Location Cd Cr Fe Ni Pb Cd∑Cf Interpretation
1 Kafin Agur 7.3 0 0 5.1 10 22.4 Considerable

contamination degree
2 Galadimawa 7.3 0 0 5.2 8.8 21.3 Considerable
3 Buzaye G 7.3 0 0 5.15 10.3 23.75 Considerable
4 Kwankwaso 7.6 0 0 5.15 10.4 23.15 Considerable
5 Burji 7.3 0 0 5.45 11.4 24.15 Very high
6 Kebe 7.6 0 0 5.3 8.5 21.4 Considerable
4.6 PIPER DIAGRAM

A piper diagram is a type of graph that is used to represent the chemistry of water sample.It can
be a bit tricky to interpret, but it’s a really useful tool for understanding the composition of
water. The diagram has three axes cation, anions, and total dissolved solid. Each axis is plotted
against the other two, and result is a triangle shaped graph. The location of a sample on the graph
indicates its chemical composition.
The water in the study area mixed type while the major cation in the study area are magnesium
likewise the major anion are bicarbonate.
47
Fig 4.16. piper diagram of the water samples.
48
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 SUMMARY
The research area is composed of rocks from the basement complex that age from the
Proterozoic to the Lower Paleozoic and is situated in Kabo Local Government Area, Southwest,
Kano State, Nigeria. Marble, schist, quartzite, gneiss, gabbro, and intermediate plutonic rocks are
among these rocks. Granites make up the majority of the rocks that have been mapped. The
mapping exercise is the study of the petrology, hydrogeology, geological structure, and mineral
resources as shown on a map of a certain area at a particular scale. Quartz, muscovite, fuchsite,
biotite, and chlorite are among the schist minerals that make up the majority of the minerals in
the Kano region that are rich in these elements. Furthermore, gold and silver were discovered,
albeit in tiny concentrations (mean values of 0.15 and 0.03 ppm, respectively).
In rivers, streams, and locations with deep weathering, there are thick, superficial deposits
composed of clay material, autochthonic eluvia, diluvia, or alluvial Origin. The date measured
pysico-chemical parameters, heavy metals, cation, and anion for drinking water quality. Most of
the water in the study area is suitable for drinking. The petrographic study offers a description of
the representative rock samples that were collected from the study area. Hand specimens and thin
sections under a microscope are employed for this.
5.2 CONCLUSION
In hand specimen coarse porphyritic granite, there is a distinct difference in the size of its
crystals, with at least one group of crystals clearly larger than another group, and individual
crystals of the groundmass easily distinguished with the eye. This is based on the petrographic
analysis conducted based on the study area. The minerals that were detected under cross-
polarized light (XPL) and under plane polarized light (PPL) are as follows, in order of
abundance: orthoclase, plagioclase, microcline, quartz, biotite, and accessory minerals. The
hydrogeochemical analyses and their findings show that, of the primary cations and anions in the
water samples, calcium and magnesium are more concentrated than potassium and sodium
49
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
I give the following recommendations.
1. The students should be provided with more field equipment such as GPS, compass
clinometers to address the problem of shortage of equipment, this will enhance a better
mapping and save time on field.
2. The villagers in the study area should be enlightened on environmental issues such as;
they should not build houses too close to exposures, the importance of reforestation.
3. Government should provide good motor able roads for easy access to some areas, and to
boost quarrying which is the major economic activity in the area.
4. Also, the villagers should be provided with potable drinking water e.g borehole water to
reduce over dependence on well water and address water scarcity during the drying
season.
5. The rock exposures in the study area were seen because the field work was carried out
during early rainy season. It is therefore recommended that the field geological mapping
which has always been carried out during dry season by the department should be
maintained.
6. Also, the orientation of students by the supervisors (departmental staff) prior to the field
mapping gives insight on what is expected of the students on field and helps students to
relate theoretical knowledge with field experience. Hence, will make them good
geologist. Therefore, this should be maintained.
7.
50
REFRENCES
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Precambrian Geology of Nigeria, pp. 45-53.
Ajibade, A.C and Fitches W.R. (1988): The Nigerian Precambrian and the Pan-African Orogeny,
Precambrian Geology of Nigeria, pp. 45-53.
Ajibade, A.C., Woakes, M., and Rahaman, M.A. (1987): Proterozoic crustal development in Pan-
African regime of Nigeria: In A. Croner (ed.) Proterozoic Lithospheric Evolution
Geodynamics Vol. 17, pp. 259-231.
Black R (1980) Precambrian of West Africa. Episodes 4:3–8.
Egbuniwe IG (1982) Geotectonic evolution of the Maru Belt, NW Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
Falconer, J. D. (1911). The geology and geography of Northern Nigeria. MacMillan, London.
Farghar, M.N. (1961). The Precambrian geology of the 1:100,000 sheet no.52 (Anka) Sokoto
province Geol. Surv. Nigeria.
Grant, N.K (1970): Geochronology of Pre-Cambrian Basement Rocks. Earth and Planet Sci. Lett
10.29-38
Grant, N.K. (1978): Structural Distribution between Metasedimentary Cover and Underlying
Basement in the 600Ma Pan-African Domain of NW Nigeria, West Africa.
Holt RW (1982) The Geotectonic Evolution of the Anka Belt in the Precambrian Basement
Complex of N.W. Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, The Open University.
Ibrahim, M. A. (2015): Some effects of the Tiga Dam on valleyside erosion in downstream reaches
of the River. Kano El selvier.
Klemm DD, Schneider W, Wagner B (1984) The Precambrian metavolcano-sedimentary
sequence.
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Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethan Publishers, Lagos, pp 15–35
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45:1–30.
McCurry P (1976): The geology of the Precambrian to Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of Northern
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McCurry, P. (1970): Geology of degree sheet 21 (Zaria). M.Sc. Thesis, Ahmadu Bello
University (unpublished).
McCurry, P. (1971): Pan-African Orogeny of Northern Nigeria. Bulletin Geol. Soc. American,
82, pp. 35 1-362.
.Ogezi, A.E.O. (1977): Geochemistry and Geochronology of Basement Rocks from North-
Western Nigeria. Ph.D. thesis, Leeds University.
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evolution in the Pan-African domain of SW Nigeria. Precambrian Res 8:303–318.
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Min. Geol. and Mell.soc. Vol. 1.
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Whiteman, A. J. (Eds) African Geology, University of Ibadan, pp.66-82.
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ring complexes in Northern Nigeria. J Geol 92,173–184.
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THE GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY OF GALADIMAWA AND ITS

ENVIRONS PART OF KABO SHEET 80 NE, KANO STATE NORTHWESTERN

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, USMANU

Ibrahim Abba Date

B. Sc. Geology (Hons) in Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.

15th March 2024

Dr. Nura Abdulmumini Yelwa Date

Dr. Mutari Lawal Date

Malam Dauda Mohammed Date

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INFORMATION................................1

1.1 GENERAL INFORMATION.................................................................................................1

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................2

1.3 LOCATION EXTEND AND ACCESSIBILITY..................................................................2

1.4 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE....................................................................................................3

Fig 1.0: Drainage map of the study area..........................................................................................4

1.5 CLIMATE AND VEGETATION..........................................................................................4

2.0 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF NIGERIA...............................................................................5

2.1 Review of the General Geology of the Nigerian Basement Complex..................................5

2.1.1 Migmatite-Gneiss Complex..................................................................................................6

2.1.2 Schist Belts (Metasedimentary Series)................................................................................6

2.1.3 Older Granites......................................................................................................................7

2.1.4 Regional Setting of the Nigerian Basement Complex......................................................8

2.2 GEOLOGY OF KABO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.................................................9

2.2.3 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSIT.................................................................................................10

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHOD.................................................12

3.2 FIELD INVESTIGATION...................................................................................................12

3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSES..............................................................................................13

3.4 ANALYSING WATER.........................................................................................................13

3.4.1 SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR HEAVY METALS.....................................................14

3.4.2 Major Cation Analysis.......................................................................................................14

3.4.2.1 Calcium and Magnesium Analysis.................................................................................14

3.4.2.2. Calcium (Ca2+).................................................................................................................14

3.4.2.3 Magnesium ion (Mg2+).....................................................................................................15

3.4.2.4 Sodium and potassium Analysis.....................................................................................15

3.4.2.5 Phosphate ion (P04)..........................................................................................................15

3.2.3 Major anions Analysis........................................................................................................15

3.2.3.1 Sulphate ion (SO4)............................................................................................................15

3.2.3.2. Nitrate and ammonium..................................................................................................15

3.2.3.3 Bicarbonate, Carbonate and Chloride...........................................................................16

3.5 FIELD EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES.........................................................................16

3.5.1 COMPASS CLINOMETER..............................................................................................16

3.5.2 TAPE MEASUREMENT...................................................................................................17

3.5.5 GEOLOGICAL HAMMER..............................................................................................19

3.5.6 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLID (T D S).............................................................................19

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION..............................................20

4.1.1 COARSE PORPHYRITIC GRANITE.............................................................................21

4.2 IUGS CLASSIFICATION....................................................................................................22

TABLE 4.0: modal proportion of QAP (quartz, alkali-feldspar and plagioclase).........................23

4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS...................................................................................24

Table 4.1: physico-chemical parameters of the study area............................................................24

4.2.2 TOTAL DISSOLVE SOLID (TDS)..................................................................................25

4.2.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC)..........................................................................25

4.3 HEAVY METALS.................................................................................................................25

Fig 4.3: Cobalt concentration graph showing the concentration of cobalt....................................28

Table 4.3: Cations and Anions.......................................................................................................30

4.4.1. Sodium and potassium Analysis.......................................................................................31

4.4.2 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM.........................................................................................32

4.4.3 Phosphate ion (P04):..............................................................................................................34