Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of ceramic waste tile as a fine aggregate on the mechanical properties

of low-carbon ultrahigh performance concrete
Liqing Zhang a, b, Hao Shen a, b, Kaicheng Xu a, b, *, Wenyi Huang a, b, Yunyang Wang c,
Mengcheng Chen a, b, Baoguo Han d
a
State Key Laboratory of Performance Monitoring and Protecting of Rail Transit Infrastructure, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China
b
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China
c
School of Civil and Architecture Engineering, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde 415000, China
d
School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Overmining of sand from natural resources has seriously impacted the environment, hindering the sustainable
Ceramic waste tile development of concrete. Ceramic waste tile has a chemical component similar to that of sand and can be a
Ultrahigh performance concrete potentially excellent substitute for sand. Therefore, this study uses 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 % ceramic
Mechanical properties
waste tile aggregate (CTWA) to replace sand in equal amounts to produce low-carbon ultrahigh performance
Mechanisms
concrete (UHPC). The workability and mechanical properties of UHPC with varying CTWA content is explored.
Additionally, the interface transition area (ITZ) and pore structure of UHPC are characterized by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), respectively. Finally, the modified
Andersen and Andresen (MAA) model is employed to evaluate the effect of CTWA on the UHPC packing
compactness. The results show that the incorporation of CTWA reduces the flowability of UHPC. However, the
spread flow for UHPC with 100 % CTWA can also reach a value of 398 mm. The UHPC with 100 % CTWA
exhibits better mechanical properties, as reflected by an improvement in compressive strength and flexural
strength of 15.5 % and 26.5 %, respectively, at a curing age of 28 d. Moreover, the addition of CTWA shows no
significant negative effect on the fracture toughness of UHPC. Microstructure analysis demonstrates that the ITZ
and pore structure of UHPC with CTWA are effectively improved due to the internal curing and better particle
gradation of CTWA. Therefore, CTWA, with economic and environmental advantages, is a practicable alternative
fine aggregate for UHPC.

1. Introduction
Ultrahigh performance concrete (UHPC) is a new type of cementi­
tious material with excellent workability, ultra-strong mechanical
properties, and outstanding durability. Compared with ordinary con­
crete, UHPC has been developed using a high-range water reducing
admixture for better workability, low water-cement ratios for higher
strength, and steel fibers for higher toughness. Moreover, coarse ag­
gregates are removed and replaced by smaller-sized refined quartz sand
in UHPC to reduce the interface transition zone (ITZ). Therefore, quartz
sand is a key component of UHPC. However, quartz sand is a nonre­
newable resource. The mining and manufacturing of quartz sand has
caused serious ecological and environmental problems, such as carbon
dioxide emissions, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation,
lowering of the groundwater table, and particulate air pollution [1].
These problems have resulted in a remarkable increase in the economic
and ecological costs of the raw materials used to prepare UHPC.
Currently, the worldwide resources of high-quality sand are nearly
depleted. It is imperative to find low-carbon and high-quality fine ag­
gregates instead of quartz sand.
At the same time, as ceramics industries have expanded, a large
amount of ceramic waste has been produced. Jiangxi Province in China
contains numerous ceramic development zones, and ceramic tile pro­
duction in Jiangxi Province exceeded 1.7 billion square meters in 2020.
The waste rate for ceramic tiles is still significant, ranging from 3 % to 7
%. This means that more than 50 million square meters of ceramic tiles
are turned into waste goods each year [2,3]. The vast majority of this
waste is disposed of in landfills, which not only take up arable land but

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xkcxj@ecjtu.edu.cn (K. Xu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130595
Received 8 September 2022; Received in revised form 26 December 2022; Accepted 29 January 2023
Available online 11 February 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Zhang et al.
also poison the soil, groundwater, and environment in the area because
of the long biodegradation time for ceramics. Ceramic tiles have excel­
lent properties, such as high mechanical strength, high resistance to
abrasion, high temperature and chemicals [4,5]. These characteristics
make it possible to replace quartz sand with broken ceramic waste tile.
Based on the available literature, ceramic waste exhibits high po­
tential to replace sand and natural aggregates in concrete and mortar
[6–9]. The utilization of different types of ceramic wastes in concrete
has been actively researched in the last few years, including wall and
floor ceramic tiles [3,10–12], sanitary ware ceramic [13–19], electric
insulators [6,20–22], bone China ceramic [23–28] and ceramic brick
[29–31]. López et al. [32] reported that the tensile and flexural strength
of concrete with 10 %-50 % white ceramic powder instead of conven­
tional sand is not considerably different from that of ordinary river sand
concrete, and the compressive strength is significantly improved. Torgal
et al. [33] found that replacing natural sand with ceramic sand in con­
crete does not result in a loss of strength and that the impermeability,
chloride ion penetration resistance, and strength following accelerated
aging tests are superior to that of conventional concrete. Higashiyama
et al. [20,21] investigated the resistance to chloride ion penetration and
compressive properties of ceramic waste aggregate mortars and found
that ceramic waste fine aggregates enhance the compressive strength
and significantly improve chloride-ion penetration resistance. The op­
timum amount of ceramic aggregate for mechanical properties and
chloride-ion penetration resistance is 20 %. Corominas et al. [34]
observed that replacement of 15 % and 30 % natural sand with ceramic
fine aggregates in high-performance concrete can enhance the
compressive strength and chloride-ion penetration resistance, contrib­
uting to the internal curing effect. Binici et al. [35] reported that the use
of 40 % ceramic fine aggregate can enhance the compressive strength of
concrete, improve abrasion resistance, and reduce the depth for
chloride-ion penetration.
Previous studies on ceramic waste aggregates have focused on or­
dinary and high-performance concrete, but no complete study has
examined the preparation of UHPC with ceramic waste tile aggregate
(CTWA). The preparation process of CTWA is much simpler than the
preparation process of ceramic tile waste powder, which is beneficial to
wide application. If CTWA can be used efficiently in UHPC, it would
bring green and low carbon value to UHPC while cutting costs and
alleviating the issue of land occupation and pollution caused by ceramic
waste tile. Therefore, in this study, UHPC was fabricated using 20
%-100 % CTWA as a fine aggregate. The effect of CTWA on the flow­
ability, mechanical characteristics, microstructure, and compactness of
UHPC was investigated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The raw materials used in this study include cement, silica fume,
CTWA, quartz sand, steel fiber, superplasticizer (SP) and water. Ordi­
nary Portland Cement (P⋅O 52.5) with an average particle size of 20 μm
was used, and its chemical constitutions and basic physical properties
are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Moreover, the particle size
distribution of the cement is shown in Fig. 1. Silica fume was utilized
with an average particle size and specific surface area of 0.2 μm and
18465 m2/kg, respectively. CTWA and quartz sand were used as finer
aggregates. CTWA was manufactured by crushing and grinding ceramic
waste tile, and its physical properties and chemical composition are
shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The SiO2 content of the quartz
Table 1
Chemical composition of the cement (wt.%).
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO Na2O K2O MgO SO3 LOI
22.35 6.30 4.91 55.73 0.07 0.68 2.84 2.47 1.15
2
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595
Table 2
Physical characteristics of the cement.
Soundness Setting time (min) Flexural Compressive Specific
strength strength surface area
(MPa) (MPa) (m2/kg)
Initial Final 3d 28 3d 28 d
setting setting d
time time
Qualified 147 179 6.3 9.1 35.4 61.4 408
sand adopted in this paper is over 99 %, and its particle size ranges from
0.05 mm to 2.36 mm. The particle size distribution and specific physical
properties of quartz sand are shown in Fig. 2 and Table 3, respectively.
In addition, a type of straight copper-plated steel fiber (0.2 mm in
diameter, 13 mm in length, and with a tensile strength of more than
2700 MPa) was employed. To improve the flowability of UHPC, poly­
carboxylate SP with 45 % solid content was included, and the water-
reducing capacity was greater than 60 %.
2.2. Mix design and specimen preparation
In this study, UHPC was prepared with a fixed water-binder ratio of
0.18. The binder includes cement and silica fume. Cement and silica
fume were applied in amounts of 90 % and 10 % by weight of binder.
Compared with the reference samples, quartz sand was replaced with 20
%, 40 %, 60 %, 80 % and 100 % CTWA by weight. In addition, to
eliminate the influence of other factors, the SP and steel fiber content
was fixed at 1.5 wt% binder and 2 vol% whole materials, respectively.
The detailed designed mix proportion is listed in Table 5.
The specimen casting process was carried out at room temperature
(25 ± 2 ◦ C), and the detailed manufacturing procedures are described as
follows: First, the CTWA and quartz sand were mixed in a single-
horizontal shaft mixer for 30 s to achieve a homogeneous mixture.
Second, cement and silica fume were added and mixed for 60 s to obtain
a uniform mixture of binder and fine aggregate. After that, 90 % water
and SP were added to the mixture and mixed for 60 s. The remaining
water was used to rinse the beaker containing the SP and water. Then,
further mixing was carried out for180 s. The steel fibers were slowly and
uniformly added to the mixture during another period of mixing for 90 s.
Finally, fresh UHPC was obtained and cast in plastic oiled molds with
corresponding sizes. The molds were shaken for 20 s to remove air
bubbles. To prevent moisture loss, the specimens were covered with
polyethylene film and kept under standard curing conditions of 20 ±
1 ◦ C. After curing for 24 h, the samples were demolded and then cured in
water at 20 ± 1 ◦ C until the test age.
2.3. Test methods
2.3.1. Flowability
A spread flow test was adopted to evaluate the flowability of UHPC
according to the Chinese Standard GBT 50080–2016 [36]. The fresh
UHPC was divided into three layers into the slump cone (300 mm in
high, 100 mm in top diameter and the 200 mm in bottom diameter), and
each layer was rammed for 25 times with a ramming rod. Then, the
slump cone was scraped flat and raised vertically and steadily. After the
mixture no longer diffused or continued diffusion for 1 min, the
maximum diameter and the diameter perpendicular to its phase were
measured. The average value was taken as the final result.
2.3.2. Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of UHPC, including the compressive
strength, flexural strength and fracture toughness, were explored. Cubic
specimens with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm were used
for the compressive strength test. Prismatic specimens with dimensions
of 40 mm × 40 mm × 160 mm were designed for the flexural strength
L. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution for the raw materials.

scanning electronic microscope (ESEM). The specimens used for the

Table 3
mechanical strength tests were crushed into particles with sizes of and
Physical properties of fine aggregates.
used to carry out the SEM test. In addition, the particle samples were
Properties CTWA Quartz sand deliberately selected from the central parts of the specimens to avoid
Specific density (g/cm3) 2.43 2.64 possible material inhomogeneity and then immersed in anhydrous
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.47 1.69 ethanol to terminate hydration. The samples were dried in a vacuum
Water absorption (%) 9.60 –
atmosphere at 40 ◦ C for 24 h to remove ethanol before testing. The ITZ
Fineness modulus 2.02 2.43
Mohs hardness scale 6 7
for the UHPC was observed in secondary electron imaging mode. After
Void fraction (%) 43.35 35.88 that, the ITZ width was calculated using ImageJ 1.53c software.

2.3.4. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)

To investigate the porosity and pore size distribution of UHPC, a
Table 4
Chemical composition of CTWA (wt.%). mercury pressing instrument (AutoPore IV-9500) with a pressurization
range of 30 to 60,000 psia (0.2 to 413.7 MPa) was employed. The
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O LOI
specimens taken from the compression test were cut into cubes
78.30 15.90 0.90 0.80 1.55 1.45 1.05 (approximately 10 mm in size) and then soaked in anhydrous ethanol to
prevent further hydration. The samples were removed from anhydrous
ethanol and dried at 40 ◦ C in a vacuum oven for 48 h to remove ethanol
test. Before the test, the surface of the specimens was wiped dry. At
before the experiment.
curing ages of 3 d, 7 d and 28 d, a WANCE 300 t and WHY-2000 uni­
versal testing machine were used to test the compressive and flexural
2.3.5. Packing compactness
strengths at loading speeds of 10 kN/s and 0.5 mm/min, respectively. In
The bulk densities of fine aggregates with various contents of CTWA
addition, three samples were tested for each group, and the mean values
were tested according to British Standard BS 812: Part 2: 1995 [38]. The
were taken as the final compressive and flexural strengths.
mixed aggregates were filled into a cylindrical iron container (195 mm
The fracture toughness test for UHPC was conducted with the three-
in diameter and 315 mm in height) in three equal portions and vibrated
point bending method recommended by RILEM [37]. Prismatic speci­
for 30 s with a shaking table each time. The mass of fine aggregates with
mens (40 × 40 × 160 mm) with a 10 mm precrack in the midspan were
various contents of CTWA was test and marked as M. The average value
used in the test. Three specimens were tested for each concrete mix
obtained from three test results for each group was recorded as the bulk
design. The fracture energy of the specimen was determined according
density. More specifically, the detailed test procedures for the bulk
to Equation (1):
density method can be found in the available literature [39]. The spe­
W0 + mgδ́0 cific densities of CTWA and quartz sand were tested according to Chi­
GF = (1)
b(d-a0 ) nese Standard GB/T 14684–2022, and listed in Table 2. The specific
density of fine aggregates with various content of CTWA can be calcu­
where W0 is the work done by the load, which can be calculated by lated using Equation (2).
integrating the load-deformation curve; m is the mass of the specimen
and δ0 is the maximum deformation; and b, d, and a0 are the width, M M
ρa = = (2)
height and prefabricated crack height of the specimens, respectively. Vc + Vs M × RC /ρc + M × RS /ρs

where ρa is specific density of mixed aggregate; M is the mass of the

2.3.3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
mixed aggregate when the size of container is 195 mm in diameter and
The microscopic morphology and ITZ for the UHPC at 7 d and 28
315 mm in height; VC and vS is the specific volume of CTWA and quartz
d were analyzed by means of a HITACHI SU8010 environmental

3
L. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

Fig. 2. Images of CTWA and quartz sand.

particle sizes in the particle system, respectively; and q is the distribu­

Table 5
tion modulus.
Mixture proportions of UHPC with CTWA.
The distribution modulus (q) determines the proportion between the
Specimen Cement Silica Water CTWA Quartz SP Steel fine and coarse particles in the mixture and is expressed in a geometric
code fume sand (wt. fiber
%) (vol.
sense as the slope of the particle size distribution curve [40]. Different
%) types of concrete can be designed using different values of q. A higher
distribution modulus (q>0.5) is recommended for concrete with more
Control 0.9 0.1 0.18 0.0 1.0 1.5 2.0
CTWA-20 0.9 0.1 0.18 0.2 0.8 1.5 2.0 coarse particles, while a lower distribution modulus (q>0.25) is
CTWA-40 0.9 0.1 0.18 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.0 designed for concrete with smaller particles [41]. In theory, a distribu­
CTWA-60 0.9 0.1 0.18 0.6 0.4 1.5 2.0 tion modulus q of less than 0.28 results in an optimal particle packing,
CTWA-80 0.9 0.1 0.18 0.8 0.2 1.5 2.0 and q values between 0.21 and 0.28 are better for concrete self-
CTWA- 0.9 0.1 0.18 1.0 0.0 1.5 2.0
100
compaction [42]. Therefore, the value of the distribution modulus q is
fixed at 0.25 in this study based on literature reports, considering the
large amount of fine particles present in the CTWA.
sand when the mass of mixed aggregate is M; RC and RS is the mass
percentage of CTWA and quartz sand in the mixed aggregates and can be 3. Results and discussion
obtained from Table 5; ρc and ρs is the specific density of CTWA and
quartz sand, respectively. 3.1. Flowability and mechanical properties
The packing compactness of particles is defined as the ratio of the
bulk density to specific density of the solid particles, can be calculated 3.1.1. Slump flow
using Equation (3). The slump flow for fresh UHPC with CTWA is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3
ρb clearly shows that the slump flow diameter linearly decreases with
PD = (3) increasing CTWA. When the CTWA substitution rate is 100 %, the slump
ρa
flow diameter of fresh UHPC is 398 mm, which is 162 mm and 28.9 %
where PD is the dry packing compactness of the mixed aggregates; ρb lower than that of the control group in absolute and relative terms,
and ρa are the bulk density and specific density of mixed aggregates. respectively. However, the fresh UHPC with CTWA still shows high
Additionally, to deeply examine the influence of CTWA on the flowability with no impact of the CTWA substitution on the mixing,
packing compactness of UHPC, the modified Andreasen and Andersen pouring, vibration and casting of the concrete. This observed phenom­
model (MAA) was utilized in this study to construct the particle distri­ enon can be attributed to CTWA having an irregular shape, more open
bution for UHPC with varying CTWA content, as given in Eq. (4): porosity, less fineness, and lower density [18]. As shown in Fig. 1, CTWA
q
has a rougher surface and a more irregular shape than quartz sand. The
D q -Dmin ceramic tile particles are embedded with each other as a result of the
P(D) = (4)
q
Dmax -D qmin increased frictional resistance, and, therefore, the fluidity is reduced.
Additionally, the water absorption of the mixture is enhanced due to the
where P(D) is the fraction with a particle size less than D; D is the par­ open porosity structure of CTWA. The fineness modulus of CTWA and
ticle size (μm); Dmax and Dmin represent the maximum and minimum quartz sand is 2.02 and 2.43, respectively. It indicates that the CTWA has

4
L. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

y x

Fig. 3. Spread-flow value and effective water-binder ratio of fresh UHPC with
varying content of CTWA.

less fineness and greater water absorption ability. Moreover, since the
density of CTWA is less than that of quartz sand, CTWA of the same mass
has a larger volume than quartz sand. Then volume proportion of paste
to sand decreased, when substitution ratio increased. Therefore, the
greater the proportion of CTWA replacing quartz sand, the smaller the
flow spread of fresh UHPC. The actual water content in fresh UHPC can
be expressed by the effective water-binder ratio (W/B), calculated using
Eq. (5):
W mW − mA (Δw1 − Δw2 )
= (5)
B mB
where mW, mA, and mB are the masses of water, aggregate and cemen­
titious material used, respectively, and Δw1 and Δw2 represent the water
absorption rate and water content of the aggregate, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 3, the effective water-binder ratio significantly
decreases with increasing CTWA. This indicates that the higher water
absorption of CTWA affects the free water within the mixing system and
decreases the effective water-binder ratio, in turn reducing the flow­
ability of fresh UHPC [16].
Fig. 5. Relative increase in the compressive strength of UHPC with varying
CTWA content.
UHPC and their relative increase for varying CTWA content at 3 d, 7 d,
and 28 d, respectively. As shown in Fig. 4, the compressive strength of
UHPC basically increases with increasing CTWA content. The variance
in compressive strength is not evident when the CTWA content is less
than 60 %. Additionally, the absolute increase and relative increase for
the reference samples are in the range of 7.1 MPa and 5.8 %, respec­
tively. The compressive strength of UHPC with 100 % CTWA can reach
142.9 MPa, which is 15.5 % higher than that of the reference samples at
28 d.
In general, the compressive strength of UHPC with or without CTWA
is enhanced with increasing curing age. Notably, as shown in Fig. 5,
there is no significant increase in the compressive strength of UHPC with
CTWA during the early curing ages (3 d and 7 d). This phenomenon can
be attributed to the higher water absorption of CTWA, which reduces the
free water required for early hydration. In contrast, the compressive
strength enhancement at later curing ages contributes to the internal
curing effect of CTWA, which promotes the hydration process [43].

3.1.2. Compressive strength

Figs. 4 and 5 demonstrate the average compressive strengths of

Fig. 4. Compressive strength of UHPC with varying CTWA content. Fig. 6. Flexural strength of UHPC with varying CTWA content.

5
L. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

3.1.3. Flexural strength

Figs. 6 and 7 show the flexural strength and relative increase in the
flexural strengths of UHPC with varying CTWA content at 3 d, 7 d, and
28 d. Fig. 6 shows that flexural strength development has two different
behavior modes at an early age (3 d and 7 d) and later age (28 d). At 3 d,
it can be observed from Figs. 6 and 7 that the flexural strength of UHPC
with 20 % CTWA is decreased by 15.8 %, but its flexural strength at 3
d can still reach 8.3 MPa. When the substitution rate is beyond 20 %, the
flexural strength improves with increasing CTWA. When the CTWA
replacement ratio is 100 %, the flexural strength reaches a maximum at
3 d, which is 12 MPa and 21.5 % higher than that of the reference
sample. The flexural strength development pattern for UHPC at 7 d is
similar to that at 3 d. At 28 d, the flexural strength of UHPC is increased
with increasing CTWA replacement ratio. UHPC with 100 % CTWA
reaches a maximum flexural strength of 18.7 MPa, corresponding to a
relative increase of 26.5 % at 28 d.
The results of both flexural and compressive strength test results
show that the improvement in the concrete strength due to the CTWA
becomes more obvious with increasing curing age or CTWA content.
This can be attributed to the physical filler action of CTWA [23,44,45].
Compared to quartz sand, a higher fine particle percentage in CTWA acts
as a filler to provide a dense matrix (Fig. 2), leading to an increase in Fig. 8. Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio for UHPC with CTWA.
mechanical performance. Another reason that can be claimed for the
enhanced flexural strength of such UHPC is the better bonding of CTWA
with the cement matrix [46].

3.1.4. Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio

Normally, the flexural strength of concrete increases with its
compressive strength, but the growth rate of the flexural strength is
slower than that of the compressive strength. When the flexural strength
meets the application requirements, there is always a large surplus in
compressive strength. Therefore, the toughness of UHPC characterized
by the flexural strength to compressive strength ratio was used to
comprehensively evaluate and coordinate these two types of strength
[47]. The flexural strength to compressive strength ratio and relative
increase in UHPC with CTWA are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
Fig. 8 shows that the flexural strength to compressive strength ratio
exhibits a similar tendency and generally decreases and then increases
with increasing CTWA content at different curing ages. Additionally, the
flexural strength to compressive strength ratio for UHPC with CTWA
increases with the curing age, indicating that flexural strength grows
more quickly than compressive strength, and its toughness is gradually

Fig. 9. The relative increase in the flexural strength to compressive

strength ratios.

improved as well. At 3 d, the flexural strength to compressive strength

ratio of UHPC ranges from 0.0845 to 0.113, a change of − 11.5 % to 16.6
% compared to the control group. The greatest increase in the flexural
strength to compressive strength ratio of UHPC is observed for a CTWA
content of 20 %. The variation in the flexural strength to compressive
strength ratio of UHPC at 7 d is similar to that at 3 d. All the groups
except for the UHPC with 100 % CTWA have a lower flexural to
compressive ratio than the control group. CTWA has a positive effect on
the toughness of UHPC at a curing age of 28 d, and the rate of increase in
the toughness is more noticeable with increasing CTWA content. When
the CTWA substitution rate is 80 %, the maximum value of the flexural
to compressive ratio is 0.143, which is 20 % higher than that of the
control group. The flexural to compressive ratio gradually increases with
the CTWA content, indicating that CTWA has a more positive effect on
flexural strength than on compressive strength.

3.1.5. Fracture toughness

Fig. 7. Relative increase in the flexural strength of UHPC with varying The 28 d flexural load-deformation curves for UHPC with CTWA are
CTWA content. shown in Fig. 10. Fig. 10 illustrates that the load-deformation curves for

6
L. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10. The flexural load-deformation curves for UHPC with varying
CTWA content.
all specimens possess a similar development tendency. Moreover, the
crack development process for UHPC can be classified into three stages.
Before the deformation reaches a value of 0.2 mm, the flexural load-
deformation curves for all specimens exhibit a high degree of consis­
tency. The UHPC is in the elastic deformation stage, and the bearing
capacity for UHPC is mainly provided by the matrix. When the defor­
mation value ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mm, the UHPC is in the plastic
deformation stage. Certain intrinsic defects in concrete can develop into
microcracks while the lower part of the concrete fails. Adding CTWA
increases the deformation of the specimen at this stage. After the
deformation exceeds a value of 0.4 mm, the peak load for UHPC is
increased with increasing CTWA content. This can be explained by the
fact that the incorporation of CTWA improves the compactness of the
concrete.
With the corresponding processing and calculation of the flexural
load-deformation curves, the fracture energy for UHPC with varying
CTWA content is shown in Fig. 11. The fracture energy for all specimens
ranges from 733.6 to 806.2 J/m2. Except for UHPC with 100 % CTWA,
the fracture energy of UHPC with CTWA is lower than that of the
reference samples. Overall, CTWA has no significant negative impact on
Fig. 11. Fracture energy of UHPC with varying CTWA content.
7
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595
the fracture toughness of UHPC, with fluctuations ranging within ± 6.4
%.
3.2. Microstructure analysis
3.2.1. Micromorphological
According to the comprehensive mechanical property performance
of UHPC, specimens with 0 % and 100 % CTWA replacement were
selected for micromorphological analysis. The microscopic morphology
and ITZ images of the selected specimens were obtained by the sec­
ondary electron imaging mode of SEM, as shown in Fig. 12. Fig. 13
displays the ITZ width that was determined by processing and
computing the ITZ images shown in Fig. 12. Fig. 12 shows that the ITZ
width for UHPC with 100 % CTWA is decreased, and the cement matrix
bonds more tightly with the aggregate. Fig. 13 shows that the ITZ width
for UHPC with 100 % CTWA is reduced by 55.0 % and 85.4 % compared
to the control group at 3 d and 28 d, respectively. Correspondingly, the
flexural and compressive strengths of UHPC with 100 % CTWA are
increased by 26.5 % and 15.5 %, respectively, at 28 d.
The improvement of the ITZ for UHPC contributes to the porous
structure and internal curing effect of the CTWA [25,34,43]. Precisely,
with the cementitious materials constantly hydrated, hydration prod­
ucts fill the capillary pores, resulting in a reduction in the capillary pore
size in the cement paste, while the internal humidity of the concrete is
decreased. Based on the capillary tension, the water in the pores of the
CTWA migrates into the cement paste, providing an internal water
source for the unhydrated cement particles. Consequently, the overall
compactness of the cement matrix, including the ITZ, is improved by the
effective promotion of the later hydration reaction. Valdés et al. [48]
observed that the self-curing effect promoted by the higher water ab­
sorption of recycled mixed aggregates can improve the microstructure.
Rashid et al. [13] and Bartosz et al. [15] also found that the bonding
interface between ceramic aggregates and cementite is more intense due
to the self-curing effect of ceramic aggregates. The rough surface of the
ceramic aggregate and the physical and chemical anchoring formed by
the penetration of the cement paste into the pores within the ceramic are
the main reasons for the enhancement of the ITZ.
3.2.2. Pore structure
The pore structure is a critical microstructural feature of porous
materials and has an important impact on the physical and mechanical
properties and durability of the material [49]. The pore size in UHPC
varies from the microscale to the nanoscale. The pore size with the
highest frequency in concrete is represented by the critical pore radius,
which is obtained from the maximum of the derivative of the pore dis­
tribution curve [50,51]. The critical pore radius is closely related to the
permeability of the cementitious material. To estimate the effect of
CTWA on pore structure, the derivative of the pore distribution curve
was plotted, as shown in Fig. 14. The pore distribution curve implies that
curing age is a vital decisive factor impacting the critical pore radius. As
shown in Fig. 14, UHPC with 100 % CTWA shows a decrease in the
critical pore radius, which demonstrates that the incorporation of CTWA
refines the pore size and reduces the connectivity between pores due to
its filler effect. This phenomenon is consistent with the flexural and
compressive strength test results. It can also be observed from Fig. 14
that the critical pore radius shows an obvious shift to a smaller value
with increasing curing age. When the curing age is increased from 7 d to
28 d, the critical pore radius of UHPC with 100 % CTWA is decreased
from 26.3 nm to 9.1 nm. This is due to the higher degree of hydration
and the filling of capillary pores by hydration products, resulting in a
dense and more compact microstructure.
In general, the pores in cementitious materials can be cataloged into
four classes: gel pores (less than10 nm), mesopores (10–100 nm),
capillary pores (100–1000 nm), and macropores (greater than1000 nm),
where pores smaller than 100 nm in size are considered harmless or less
harmful to cementitious materials [51–53]. Fig. 15 shows the total
L. Zhang et al.
Fig. 12. ITZ for UHPC with varying CTWA content.
Fig. 13. ITZ thickness for UHPC with varying CTWA content.
porosity of UHPC. Fig. 16 illustrates the volume fractions of the gel
pores, macropores, capillary and mesopores to the total pore volume of
UHPC. At 7 d, the porosity of UHPC ranges from 9.45 % to 10.27 %,
while the porosity at 28 d ranges from 6.49 % to 7.02 %. It is noteworthy
that the porosity of UHPC with CTWA at 7 d is higher than that of the
control group, while the porosity at 28 d is lower than that of the control
group, which is consistent with the compressive strength test results.
The results show that the incorporation of CTWA promotes the
8
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595
Fig. 14. Differential pore size distributions for UHPC with CTWA.
hydration of the cement matrix at a later stage, leading to a decrease in
the total porosity. In the early curing age, UHPC is poorly hydrated due
to the higher water absorption of CTWA and the presence of more un­
filled pores. However, in the later curing age, the water released from
CTWA promotes the hydration of cement particles and generates extra
hydration products. As a result, a high volume of capillary pores in the
matrix are filled, refined and converted into finer capillaries and gel
pores, which is macroscopically manifested as an enhancement of the
compressive and flexural strengths [25,43]. The pore size distribution
shown in Fig. 16 shows that the volume of the gel pores increases and the
L. Zhang et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595

y x

Fig. 15. The porosity of UHPC with CTWA. Fig. 17. Packing densities for fine aggregate with varying CTWA content.

designed curves for UHPCs are shown in Fig. 18, according to Equation
(4).
The calculated curve is distributed on both sides of the target curve.
When the calculated curves are above the target curve, the volume of the
material particles exceeds the theoretical value, and vice versa. As
shown in Fig. 18, most of the calculated curves for the six groups are the
same, with differences observed only in the section from 100 to 2000
μm, which is due to the change in fine aggregate particle size due to the
replacement of quartz sand by CTWA. The calculated curve gradually
deviates from the theoretical model curve in the 400–2000 μm range
with increasing CTWA substitution, but the variation section becomes
smoother. It can be observed that the fine aggregate particle size grade
increases and the overall particle gradation for concrete is improved
with increasing CTWA content.

4. Conclusion

This study investigated the effect of CTWA on the flowability and

mechanical properties of UHPC, and the mechanism for the influence of
CTWA on UHPC was analyzed at the microstructure level by SEM and
MIP. Moreover, the modified Anderason model was used to verify the
Fig. 16. Pore size evolution of UHPC with CTWA.
mechanism for the influence of CTWA on UHPC. The main conclusions
are listed as follows:
volume of the mesopores decreases with increasing tile aggregate sub­
stitution rate. This phenomenon indicates that the mesopores in UHPC
are converted to gel pores with increasing curing age or CTWA addition,
i.e., the refining effect of CTWA on capillary pores increases with the
degree of hydration.

3.3. Packing compactness

In general, optimizing the particle size distribution of materials can

improve the rheology and compactness of concrete. To verify the
improvement on the particle packing system for UHPC with CTWA, the
packing densities for fine aggregates with various contents of CTWA
were investigated, as shown in Fig. 17. Fig. 17 shows that the packing
compactness increases with increasing CTWA content. The packing
compactness of fine aggregates with 100 % CTWA is increased by 14.8 %
relative to the control group, which is consistent with the results
observed in the SEM and MIP tests. This result indicates that the
incorporation of CTWA can effectively fill the voids in UHPC, improve
the aggregate particle gradation, and increase the overall compactness Fig. 18. Particle size distribution for target and optimized grading curves for
of the concrete. Moreover, the particle size distribution of the target and different UHPC mixtures.

9
L. Zhang et al.
1) The spread flow for UHPC decreases with increasing CTWA content.
When the CTWA content is 100 %, the maximum reduction in the
slum flow is 28.9 %, but its spread expansion can still reach a value of
398 mm. The irregular shape, more open porosity, less fineness, and
lower density of CTWA are the main factors for the observed
reduction in spread flow for fresh concrete.
2) The compressive and flexural strengths for UHPC are enhanced
overall with increasing CTWA content. At a CTWA content of 100 %,
the compressive and flexural strengths of UHPC reach values of
142.9 MPa and 18.7 MPa at 28 d, which are 15.5 % and 26.5 %
higher than those of the control group, respectively. The flexural to
compressive strength ratio tends to increase with increasing CTWA
content. The maximum increase can reach 20 %, which indicates that
the CTWA has a more significant effect on the enhancement of
flexural strength compared to the compressive strength. Further­
more, the effect of CTWA on the fracture toughness of UHPC is not
obvious, with an overall effect within ± 6.4 %.
3) Microstructural test results show that CTWA can reduce the ITZ
width, decrease the critical pore and total porosity, and optimize the
pore size distribution. The improvement of the pore structure and
ITZ for UHPC can be attributed to the filler effect and internal curing
of CTWA.
4) The incorporation of CTWA optimizes the particle size distribution of
UHPC. With increasing CTWA content, the packing compactness of
the mixed fine aggregate increases linearly. The packing compact­
ness for aggregates with 100 % CTWA is increased by 14.9 %
compared to that with 100 % quartz sand.
5) The combined performance of concrete workability and mechanical
properties show that the UHPC prepared by replacing quartz sand
with 100 % CTWA has acceptable workability and mechanical
properties. Therefore, the use of lower-cost and environmentally
friendly CTWA for the preparation of low-carbon UHPC is a viable
alternative.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Liqing Zhang: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – review &
editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Hao
Shen: Methodology, Investigation. Kaicheng Xu: Methodology, Vali­
dation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Project
administration, Funding acquisition. Wenyi Huang: Methodology,
Investigation. Yunyang Wang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
Mengcheng Chen: Methodology, Supervision. Baoguo Han: Writing –
review & editing, Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The authors do not have permission to share data.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank funding from the National Science Foundation of
China (51968021), National Science Foundation for Post-doctoral Sci­
entists of China (2022 M713497), Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science
Foundation (20224BAB204067), Department of Education of Jiangxi
Province (GJJ210656), Jiangxi Province Graduate Student Innovation
Fund Project (YC2021-S437).
10
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595
References
[1] M.D. Gavriletea, Environmental impacts of sand exploitation. analysis of sand
market, Sustainability. 9 (7) (2017) 1118.
[2] H. Huang, Present situation and enlightenment of global ceramic tile development,
FoShan Ceramics. 25 (2015) 1–11.
[3] K. Xu, W. Huan, L. Zhang, S. Fu, M. Chen, S. Ding, B. Han, Mechanical properties of
low-carbon ultrahigh-performance concrete with ceramic tile waste powder,
Constr. Build. Mater. 287 (2021), 123036.
[4] G. Lu, Z. Fan, Z. Sun, P. Liu, Z. Leng, D. Wang, M. Oeser, Improving the polishing
resistance of cement mortar by using recycled ceramic, Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
158 (2020), 104796.
[5] G. Lu P. Liu Y. Wang S. Fassbender D, Wang, M. Oeser, Development of a
sustainable pervious pavement material using recycled ceramic aggregate and bio-
based polyurethane binder J. Clean. Prod. 220 2019 1052 1060.
[6] R. Senthamarai, P.D. Manoharan, Concrete with ceramic waste aggregate, Cem.
Concr. Compos. 27 (9–10) (2005) 910–913.
[7] J.R. Correia, J. de Brito, Effects on concrete durability of using recycled ceramic
aggregates, Mater. Struct. 39 (2) (2006) 169–177.
[8] F. Pacheco-Torgal, S. Jalali, Reusing ceramic wastes in concrete, Constr. Build.
Mater. 24 (2010) 832–838.
[9] P. Torkittikul, A. Chaipanich, Utilization of ceramic waste as fine aggregate within
Portland cement and fly ash concretes, Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (6) (2010)
440–449.
[10] M. Amin, B.A. Tayeh, I.S. Agwa, Effect of using mineral admixtures and ceramic
wastes as coarse aggregates on properties of ultrahigh-performance concrete,
J. Clean. Prod. 273 (2020), 123073.
[11] P.O. Awoyera, J.M. Ndambuki, J.O. Akinmusuru, D.O. Omole, Characterization of
ceramic waste aggregate concrete, HBRC J. 14 (3) (2018) 282–287.
[12] P.O. Awoyera, J.O. Akinmusuru, A.R. Dawson, J.M. Ndambuki, N.H. Thom,
Microstructural characteristics, porosity and strength development in ceramic-
laterized concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 86 (2017) 224–237.
[13] K. Rashid, K. Razzaq, M. Ahmad, T. Rashid, S. Tariq, Experimental and analytical
selection of sustainable recycled concrete with ceramic waste aggregate, Constr.
Build. Mater. 154 (2017) 829–840.
[14] C. Medina, M.I. Sánchez De Roja, C. Thomas, J.A. Polanco, M. Frías, Durability of
recycled concrete made with recycled ceramic sanitary ware aggregate. inter-
indicator relationships, Constr. Build. Mater. 105 (2016) 480–486.
[15] B. Zegardło, M. Szeląg, P. Ogrodnik, Ultra-high strength concrete made with
recycled aggregate from sanitary ceramic wastes – the method of production and
the interfacial transition zone, Constr. Build. Mater. 122 (2016) 736–742.
[16] A.V. Alves, T.F. Vieira, J. de Brito, J.R. Correia, Mechanical properties of structural
concrete with fine recycled ceramic aggregates, Constr. Build. Mater. 64 (2014)
103–113.
[17] T. Vieira, A. Alves, J. de Brito, J.R. Correia, R.V. Silva, Durability-related
performance of concrete containing fine recycled aggregates from crushed bricks
and sanitary ware, Mater. Design. 90 (2016) 767–776.
[18] C. Medina, M.I. Sánchez de Rojasb, M. Fríasb, Reuse of sanitary ceramic wastes as
coarse aggregate in eco-efficient concretes, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (1) (2012)
48–54.
[19] C. Medina, M. Fríasb, M.I. Sánchez de RojasbI, Microstructure and properties of
recycled concretes using ceramic sanitary ware industry waste as coarse aggregate,
Constr. Build. Mater. 31 (2012) 112–118.
[20] H. Higashiyama, M. Sappakittipakorn, M. Sano, F. Yagishita, Chloride ion
penetration into mortar containing ceramic waste aggregate, Constr. Build. Mater.
33 (2012) 48–54.
[21] H. Higashiyama, F. Yagishita, M. Sano, O. Takahashi, Compressive strength and
resistance to chloride penetration of mortars using ceramic waste as fine aggregate,
Constr. Build. Mater. 26 (1) (2012) 96–101.
[22] R.M. Senthamarai, P.D. Manoharan, D. Gobinath, Concrete made from ceramic
industry waste: Durability properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (5) (2011)
2413–2419.
[23] S. Siddique, S. Shrivastava, S. Chaudhary, Influence of ceramic waste on the fresh
properties and compressive strength of concrete, Eur. J. Environ. Civ. En. 23 (2)
(2019) 212–225.
[24] S. Siddique, S. Chaudhary, S. Shrivastava, T. Gupta, Sustainable utilisation of
ceramic waste in concrete: Exposure to adverse conditions, J. Clean. Prod. 210
(2019) 246–255.
[25] S. Siddique, S. Shrivastava, S. Chaudhary, Durability properties of bone china
ceramic fine aggregate concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 173 (2018) 323–331.
[26] S. Siddique, S. Shrivastava, S. Chaudhary, T. Gupta, Strength and impact resistance
properties of concrete containing fine bone china ceramic aggregate, Constr. Build.
Mater. 169 (2018) 289–298.
[27] S. Siddique, S. Shrivastava, S. Chaudhary, Lateral force microscopic examination of
interfacial transition zone in ceramic concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 155 (2017)
688–725.
[28] L. Gautam, J.K. Jain, A. Jain, P. Kalla, Recycling of bone china ceramic waste as
cement replacement to produce sustainable self-compacting concrete, Structures.
37 (2022) 364–378.
[29] A. Juan-Valdés, D. Rodríguez-Robles, J. García-González, M.I. Sánchez De Rojas
Gómez, M. Ignacio Guerra-Romero, Mechanical and microstructural properties of
recycled concretes mixed with ceramic recycled cement and secondary recycled
aggregates. A viable option for future concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 270 (2021),
121455.
L. Zhang et al.
[30] M.C.S. Nepomuceno, R.A.S. Isidoro, J.P.G. Catarino, Mechanical performance
evaluation of concrete made with recycled ceramic coarse aggregates from
industrial brick waste, Constr. Build. Mater. 165 (2018) 284–294.
[31] J.S. González, F.L. Gayarre, C.L.C. Pérez, P.S. Ros, M.A.S. López, Influence of
recycled brick aggregates on properties of structural concrete for manufacturing
precast prestressed beams, Constr. Build. Mater. 149 (2017) 507–514.
[32] V. López, B. Llamas, A. Juan, J.M. Morán, I. Guerra, Eco-efficient Concretes: Impact
of the Use of White Ceramic Powder on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete,
Biosyst. Eng. 96 (4) (2007) 559–564.
[33] F. Pacheco-Torgal, S. Jalali, Reusing ceramic wastes in concrete, Constr. Build.
Mater. 24 (5) (2010) 832–838.
[34] A. Gonzalez-Corominas, M. Etxeberria, Properties of high performance concrete
made with recycled fine ceramic and coarse mixed aggregates, Constr. Build.
Mater. 68 (2014) 618–626.
[35] H. Binici, Effect of crushed ceramic and basaltic pumice as fine aggregates on
concrete mortars properties, Constr. Build. Mater 21 (6) (2007) 1191–1197.
[36] GB/T 50080–2016 Standard for test method of performance on ordinary fresh
concrete Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China 2016
Beijing, China.
[37] C. Xie, M. Cao, M. Khan, H. Yin, J. Guan, Review on different testing methods and
factors affecting fracture properties of fiber reinforced cementitious composites,
Constr. Build. Mater. 273 (2021), 121766.
[38] BS 812 testing aggregates. Part 2. Methods of determination of density, British
Standards Institution, 1995.
[39] L.G. Li, A.K.H. Kwan, Packing density of concrete mix under dry and wet
conditions, Powder Technol. 253 (2013) 514–521.
[40] R. Yu, P. Spiesz, H.J.H. Brouwers, Mix design and properties assessment of Ultra-
High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC), Cem. Concr. Res. 56
(2014) 29–39.
[41] H.J.H. Brouwers, H.J. Radix, Self-Compacting Concrete: Theoretical and
experimental study, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (11) (2005) 2116–2136.
[42] H.J.H. Brouwers, Particle-size distribution and packing fraction of geometric
random packings, Phys. Rev. E. 74 (2006) 31309.
11
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130595
[43] M. Suzuki, M.S. Meddah, R. Sato, Use of porous ceramic waste aggregates for
internal curing of high-performance concrete Cem, Concr. Res. 39 (5) (2009)
373–381.
[44] P.O. Awoyera, A.R. Dawson, N.H. Thom, J.O. Akinmusuru, Suitability of mortars
produced using laterite and ceramic wastes: Mechanical and microscale analysis,
Constr. Build. Mater. 148 (2017) 195–203.
[45] C.S.G. Penteado, E.V. de Carvalho, R.C.C. Lintz, Reusing ceramic tile polishing
waste in paving block manufacturing, J. Clean. Prod. 112 (2016) 514–520.
[46] Z. Keshavarz, D. Mostofinejad, Porcelain and red ceramic wastes used as
replacements for coarse aggregate in concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 195 (2019)
218–230.
[47] Y. Ruan, B. Han, X. Yu, W. Zhang, D. Wang, Carbon nanotubes reinforced reactive
powder concrete, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 112 (2018) 371–382.
[48] A. Juan-Valdes, D. Rodriguez-Robles, J. Garcia-Gonzalez, M.I. Guerra-Romero, J.
m., Morán-del Pozo, Mechanical and microstructural characterization of non-
structural precast concrete made with recycled mixed ceramic aggregates from
construction and demolition wastes, J. Clean. Prod. 180 (2018) 482–493.
[49] M.R. Nokken, R.D. Hooton, Using pore parameters to estimate permeability or
conductivity of concrete, Mater. Struct. 41 (1) (2007) 1–16.
[50] P. Pipilikaki, M. Beazi-Katsioti, The assessment of porosity and pore size
distribution of limestone Portland cement pastes, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (5)
(2009) 1966–1970.
[51] Y. Zhao, J. Gao, C. Liu, X. Chen, Z. Xu, The particle-size effect of waste clay brick
powder on its pozzolanic activity and properties of blended cement, J. Clean. Prod
242 (2020), 118521.
[52] L. Li, W. Liu, Q. You, M. Chen, Q. Zeng, C. Zhou, M. Zhang, Relationships between
microstructure and transport properties in mortar containing recycled ceramic
powder, J. Clean. Prod. 263 (2020), 121384.
[53] C. Martínez-Garcí, B. González-Fontebo, F. Martínez-Abella, D. Carro-López,
Impact of mussel shell aggregates on air lime mortars. Pore structure and
carbonation, J. Clean. Prod. 215 (2019) 650–668.