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Energy Harvesting Using a Nonlinear Resonator with Asymmetric Potential

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 energies
Article
Energy Harvesting Using a Nonlinear Resonator with
Asymmetric Potential Wells
Grzegorz Litak 1 , Piotr Wolszczak 1 , Jacek Caban 1, * , Jerzy Margielewicz 2 , Damian Gaska
3
Xiaoqing Ma and Shengxi Zhou 3
Citation: Litak, G.; Wolszczak, P.;
Caban, J.; Margielewicz, J.; Gaska,
˛ D.;
Ma, X.; Zhou, S. Energy Harvesting
Using a Nonlinear Resonator with
Asymmetric Potential Wells. Energies
2022, 15, 9469. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15249469
Academic Editor: Zheng Bo
Received: 30 October 2022
Accepted: 10 December 2022
Published: 14 December 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 9469. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249469
˛ 2 ,
1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
2 Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8,
40-019 Katowice, Poland
3 School of Aeronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
* Correspondence: j.caban@pollub.pl
Abstract: This paper presents the results of numerical simulations of a nonlinear bistable system for
harvesting energy from ambient vibrating mechanical sources. Detailed model tests were carried out
on an inertial energy harvesting system consisting of a piezoelectric beam with additional springs
attached. The mathematical model was derived using the bond graph approach. Depending on
the spring selection, the shape of the bistable potential wells was modified including the removal
of wells’ degeneration. Consequently, the broken mirror symmetry between the potential wells led
to additional solutions with corresponding voltage responses. The probability of occurrence for
different high voltage/large orbit solutions with changes in potential symmetry was investigated. In
particular, the periodicity of different solutions with respect to the harmonic excitation period were
studied and compared in terms of the voltage output. The results showed that a large orbit period-6
subharmonic solution could be stabilized while some higher subharmonic solutions disappeared
with the increasing asymmetry of potential wells. Changes in frequency ranges were also observed
for chaotic solutions.
Keywords: energy harvesting; nonlinear dynamics; multiple solutions; bond graphs
1. Introduction
Wireless sensor networks and microelectronic equipment are widely used in daily
life and industrial production, which is the key to technological progress [1,2]. However,
conventional power supply methods (such as chemical batteries) cannot meet the energy
demand of the above devices due to the problems of inconvenient replacement and envi-
ronmental pollution [3,4]. With the development of materials science and microelectronics,
the power consumption of these electronic devices has decreased to range from several
milliwatts to tens of milliwatts, which makes it possible to power such devices with energy
harvested from the environment.
Distributed energy harvesting technology is vital to powering small devices and/or
recharging their batteries. Finally, such a technology would lead to designing autonomic
sensors for the structural health monitoring of various technical structures, including
bridges and railway infrastructure. In small centimeter-size systems, piezoelectric transduc-
ers are checked to ensure good performance [5]. To improve the environmental adaptability
and energy supply efficiency of the technology, researchers have proposed many energy
harvesters, such as flow-induced vibration [6,7] and base vibration energy harvesters [8,9].
In early studies, researchers proposed and designed many linear vibration energy har-
vesters, and their dynamic characteristics and operating performance were thoroughly
analyzed [10,11]. However, the operating frequency band of linear harvesters is narrow
and thus insufficient for their practical application in the environment [12].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 2 of 14

To solve this problem, many researchers introduced a nonlinear force into an energy
harvesting system to improve its operating performance [13,14]. Solutions based on kinetic
energy harvesting from ambient sources are becoming the most effective among systems
with nonlinear effects. They enable broad frequency input to obtain a fairly large power
output [15,16]. Numerous numerical and experimental investigations have been conducted
on nonlinear energy harvesters [17–19].
Harne et al. [20] reviewed and summarized the research status and challenges of
nonlinear bistable vibration energy harvesters. Huguet et al. [21] analyzed the dynamic
characteristics and output response of a bistable energy harvesting system. Lan et al. [22]
enhanced the operating performance of a bistable energy harvester by adding a small
magnet between two fixed magnets. The experimental results indicated that the proposed
harvester outperformed the conventional bistable energy harvester under weak excita-
tion conditions. Zhou et al. [23,24] and Kim et al. [25,26] studied the nonlinear dynamic
characteristics of a tristable energy harvester, and the results showed that the operating
frequency of the harvester was wide and that the output voltage of the harvester was
influenced by potential barriers to the harvester. Zhou et al. [27] constructed a nonlinear
penta-stable energy harvester by introducing a magnetic force, and the results confirmed
that the harvester could easily ensure interwell motion and large voltage output.
Although nonlinear energy harvesters have, in general, excellent energy harvesting
performance, the shapes of their potential wells should be optimized [15]. The nonlinear
dynamic characteristics of asymmetric energy harvesters are more complex. They have
usually more than one oscillating orbit and can thus oscillate more easily on high-energy
orbits than symmetric harvesters under weak excitation conditions. Giri and Ali [28]
classified nonlinear energy harvesters based on the symmetric and asymmetric potential
wells; they discussed the enhancement methods for the symmetric section, while for the
asymmetric section, they studied the influence of asymmetries on the harvesters. He and
Daqaq [29] studied the influence of asymmetric potential wells on nonlinear monostable
and bistable energy harvesters under white noise excitation. Zhou et al. [30] analyzed the
enhancement of asymmetric potential wells in tristable energy harvesters and proposed the
design scheme of potential energy for a high-performance energy harvester. Ma et al. [31]
investigated the threshold of chaotic motion for asymmetric tristable energy harvesters
using the Melnikov method, and they compared the operating performance of asymmetric
and symmetric tristable energy harvesters. The above studies have demonstrated that
the construction of asymmetric potential wells in energy harvesters provides a significant
enhancement to the output response of these harvesters. However, the systematic studies
on the solution periodicity were not complete.
This study proposes an asymmetric double-well potential system because it has an
additional frequency in the small amplitude limit, which automatically ensures the exten-
sion of the transmission frequency, including one per each potential well. The large orbit of
the solution follows the broken mirror symmetry. It should be noted that the large orbit
solution is associated with a stronger interaction (due to the stronger deformation in spring
elements). In this limit, the resonance curve is inclined and smeared to a larger interval of
frequencies [15]. This study analyses the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of the system,
including the solution periodicities. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a
mathematical model of the system is formulated. The operating performance and nonlinear
dynamic characteristics of the system are analyzed by numerical simulations in Section 3.
Section 4 provides the conclusions from the study.

2. Formulation of a Mathematical Model

The object of the model studies is a double-well potential energy harvesting system in
which the wells are located asymmetrically to the origin of the coordinate system. From
a technical point of view, asymmetric potential characteristics can be achieved by the
appropriate asymmetric arrangement of permanent magnets with respect to the straight,
coinciding axis of a flexible cantilever beam. An analogous effect can be obtained through
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

a technical point of view, asymmetric potential characteristics can be achieved by the ap-
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 propriate asymmetric arrangement of permanent magnets with respect to the straight, 3 ofco-
14
inciding axis of a flexible cantilever beam. An analogous effect can be obtained through
the distribution of appropriately oriented elastic springs (Figure 1). The starting point for
this distribution
the design solution is an energy harvesting
of appropriately system
oriented elastic with a(Figure
springs star-shaped
1). Thestructure
startingofpoint
con-
for this design solution is an energy harvesting system with a star-shaped structure by
nections between the linear elastic elements [4]. The asymmetric potential is obtained of
changing the
connections angularthe
between orientation of elements
linear elastic the selected
[4]. elastic elements.potential
The asymmetric A designis solution
obtained re- by
flecting the
changing theasymmetric potentialofwell
angular orientation the characteristics
selected elasticiselements.
shown inAthe schematic
design solution diagram
reflect-
below
ing the(Figure 1a). Inpotential
asymmetric this solution, the stationaryis
well characteristics attachment
shown in thepoints of the elastic
schematic diagram elements
below
imitate a1a).
(Figure five-point star. On the
In this solution, thestationary
other hand, in the symmetric
attachment points ofdouble-well potentialimitate
the elastic elements struc-
ture, the shape of the linear elastic elements resembles the mathematical addition
a five-point star. On the other hand, in the symmetric double-well potential structure, the symbol
“+”, asofshown
shape in the
the linear figure
elastic (Figure resembles
elements 1b). The proposed design solution
the mathematical additionof symbol
an energy “+”,har-as
vesting system consists of a flexible cantilever beam I at the end of which
shown in the figure (Figure 1b). The proposed design solution of an energy harvesting is mounted an
inertial consists
system element of m.aThe beamcantilever
flexible with an attached
beam I atpiezoelectric energyistransducer
the end of which mounted an II is fixed
inertial
in a rigid,m.
element non-deformable
The beam with frame IV, wherein
an attached connecting
piezoelectric pointstransducer
energy for the springs
II is define
fixed in thea
shapenon-deformable
rigid, potential barriers. Frame
frame IV is screwed
IV, wherein to thepoints
connecting vibrating object
for the by means
springs define ofthescrews
shape
III.
potential barriers. Frame IV is screwed to the vibrating object by means of screws III.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the tested design solutions of an energy harvesting system:
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the tested design solutions of an energy harvesting system:
(a) Asymmetric, (b) Symmetric (with respect to the vertical direction).
(a) Asymmetric, (b) Symmetric (with respect to the vertical direction).
The formal
The formal basis
basis forfor identifying
identifyingthe thepotential
potentialbarrierbarrierofofa asystem
systemcomposed
composed ofof
elastic
elas-
elements
tic elements is to
is reproduce
to reproduce thethe
mechanical
mechanical characteristics
characteristics describing
describing a cause-and-effect
a cause-and-effect re-
lationship between the displacement of the inertial element
relationship between the displacement of the inertial element m and the forces excited in m and the forces excited in
the springs. This is performed by neglecting the inertial and
the springs. This is performed by neglecting the inertial and dissipative forces occurring dissipative forces occurring
in the
in the tested
testeddesign
designofofan anenergy
energyharvesting
harvesting system.
system. FromFrom a mechanical
a mechanical point of view,
point the
of view,
external load acting on the inertial element is balanced by the
the external load acting on the inertial element is balanced by the forces induced in the forces induced in the main
springspring
main c3 andc3other compensation
and other compensationsprings. The compensation
springs. The compensation springs are mounted
springs sym-
are mounted
metrically as a = a = a and a = a = a with respect to the
symmetrically as a1 = a11 = a12 and a3 = a31 = a32 with respect to the axis of the flexible
1 11 12 3 31 32 axis of the flexible cantilever
beam I. Therefore,
cantilever for the identification
beam I. Therefore, of equivalent
for the identification mechanical
of equivalent characteristics,
mechanical the fol-
characteristics,
lowing simplifications were made: c = c + c and c = c
the following simplifications were made: c3 = c31 + c32 and c1 = c11 + c12 (by analyzing
3 31 32 1 11 + c 12 (by analyzing the vertical
and vertical
the horizontalandforce projections,
horizontal forcerespectively). The equivalentThe
projections, respectively). mechanical
equivalent characteristics
mechanical
of the tested design
characteristics of theoftested
an energy
design harvesting
of an energy system were identified
harvesting system were based on the schematic
identified based on
diagram
the presented
schematic diagram in Figure 2. Here,
presented in Figurec2 = c2.21 Here,
+ c22 by c2 =analyzing
c21 + c22 by theanalyzing
vertical spring force
the vertical
projections.
spring In connection
force projections. with this, itwith
In connection is necessary to add that
this, it is necessary the that
to add starting point for
the starting its
point
derivation
for was a was
its derivation schematic diagram
a schematic diagramof a star-shaped
of a star-shaped system of connections
system of connectionsbetween the
between
elastic
the elements
elastic elementsprovided
provided in [4]. AsAs
in [4]. a result
a result ofofthis
thisapproach,
approach,we wewere
were able
able to derive
(through theoretical
(through theoretical considerations)
considerations) the general mathematical relationships describing the
dependence between external load and inertial element element displacement.
displacement.
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,9469
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44 of
of1415

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagram which
which was
was used
used for for identifying
identifying effective
effective mechanical
mechanical characteristics.
characteristics. The
The system parameters provided in the figure are discussed in the text.
system parameters provided in the figure are discussed in the text.

Bearingininmind
Bearing mindthe
theabove-simplified
above-simplifiedassumptions,
assumptions,the
theequation
equationofofstatic
staticequilibrium
equilibrium
reflecting the cause-and-effect relationship between the external load
reflecting the cause-and-effect relationship between the external load F and the F and theinertial
inertial
element displacement, i.e., q = y − y , takes the
element displacement, i.e., q = y1 − y2 , takes the form:
1 2 form:
𝐹 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ,
F = FB + F1 sinϕ1 + F2↓sinϕ2 + F3 sinϕ3 ,
𝐹 = 𝑐 𝑞 + 𝑐 ∆𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ↓+ 𝑐 ∆𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 𝑐 ∆𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ,
F = c B q + c1 ∆L1 sinϕ1 + c2 ∆L ↓ 2 sinϕ2 + c3 ∆L3 sinϕ3 ,
𝑎 ↓ 𝑎 + ℎ! (1)
𝐹 = 𝑐 𝑞 + 𝑐 1 − √ 2  𝑞 + 𝑐 1 − √ 2 2 ℎ −𝑞 + (1)
F = c B q + c1 1 − √ 𝑎 + a1 𝑞
q + c 2 1 − q 𝑎 a2+
+h2ℎ − 𝑞
( h 2 − q )+
a21 +q2 a22 +(h2 −q)2
𝑎 +ℎ
+𝑐 1 − √ a2 +h2 ℎ +𝑞 .
!
+c3 1 − 𝑎 + ℎ3 2+ 𝑞(h3 + q).
q 3
a23 +(h3 +q)
The equivalent mechanical characteristics identified in this way are then expanded
intoThe equivalent
the Taylor mechanical
series, characteristics
leaving terms up to q3. As identified
a result of in such
this way are then expanded
simplification, the equa-
into up to qthe 3 . As a result of such simplification, the equation
tionthe Taylor series,
representing theleaving terms
relation between force and displacement takes the following
representing
form, where the
onlyrelation
the firstbetween
three termsthe are
force andinto
taken displacement
account during takesthe
theTaylor
following form,
expansion:
where only the first three terms are taken into account during the Taylor expansion:
𝐹 =𝑑 𝑞+𝑑 𝑞 +𝑑 𝑞 ,
F = d q + d q2 +ℎ d𝑐3 q3 , ℎ 𝑐
where 𝑑 1= 𝑐 2 − + ,
𝑎 + ℎ2 𝑎 +2 ℎ 
h2 c2 h3 c3
where d13𝑎 = ℎ c𝑐B − a2 +h3𝑎 2 +ℎa2𝑐 2 (2)
𝑑 = +2 2 3 + h3 ,
2 𝑎 + ℎ 2 𝑎 + ℎ (2)

3a2 h c2 3a23 h3 c3
d2 = 𝑐 22 2 4𝑎 2 +ℎ 𝑐 − 𝑎2 𝑐2 4𝑎 ℎ 𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑐
𝑑 = 2 ( a 2+ 2
+ h2 ) 2 ( a3 + h3 ) −
2
.
2𝑎 2 𝑎 +ℎ 2 𝑎 + ℎ
c1 4a2 h2 c2 − a42 c2 4a23 h23 c3 + a43 c3
The equation defining + 2 2barrier
d3 =the potential 3 is − obtained .
2a21 2( a23 +h23 ) directly as a result of integrat-
2 2 3
2 ( a2 + h2 )
ing Equation (2) with respect to the generalized coordinate q as follows:
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 5 of 14

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15

The equation defining the potential barrier is obtained directly as a result of integrating
Equation (2) with respect to the generalized coordinate q as follows:
R 𝑐 𝑞c q2 ℎh2𝑐c 𝑞q2 h2ℎc q𝑐2 𝑞 a2 h 𝑎 c qℎ 3
𝑐 𝑞
𝑉V= = 𝐹𝑑𝑞 Fdq== B2 −− 22 2 2 ++ 32 3 2 + +2 2 2 2 2 2 + +
2 2 (
2 𝑎 2+ ℎ2
a + h ) 2 (
2 𝑎a 3 + h
+ )
3 ℎ 2 ( a 22 𝑎2 + ℎ
+ h )
(3)
(3)
𝑎 ℎ 𝑐a2 h𝑞3 c3 q3 𝑐 𝑞c1 q4 4𝑎4aℎ2 h2𝑐c2 q𝑞4 −− 2 q 𝑐 𝑞 4a3 h4𝑎
a4 c𝑎 4 2 2 c q4ℎ + a𝑐4 c 𝑞q4 + 𝑎 𝑐 𝑞
+ + 3 2 2 +2 + 8a2++ 2 2 2 2 23 − − 3 32 2 33 3 . .
2 𝑎 +
2( aℎ3 +h3 ) 8𝑎 1 88(𝑎a2 ++h2 ℎ) 8( a3 +8 h3 )𝑎 + ℎ

ItIt should
should be be noted
noted that
that when
when dealing
dealing with
with aasymmetric
symmetric potential
potential energy
energy function
function
wherethe
where coefficient is
thedd22 coefficient is equal
equal to
to zero,
zero, the
the dynamics
dynamics ofofan
anenergy
energyharvesting
harvestingsystem
systemareare
represented by
represented by the
theDuffing
Duffingequation.
equation. However,
However, whenwhen dd22 assumes
assumes non-zero
non-zero values,
values, the
the
symmetry of
symmetry ofthe
thepotential
potentialcollapses.
collapses. AA visual
visual representation
representation ofofthe
therelationship
relationshipbetween
between
thedd22 coefficient,
the coefficient, mechanical
mechanical characteristics,
characteristics,and
andpotential
potentialbarrier
barrierisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure3.3.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional visualization
visualizationofofthe
therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenparameter
parameter δ~d 2 (see
δ~d thethe
2 (see di-
mensionless equation
dimensionless equationininEquations
Equations(11)
(11)and
and(12))
(12)) and:
and: (a)
(a) Potential
Potential wells and barrier, (b) Mechanical
barrier, (b) Mechanical
characteristics(restoring
characteristics (restoringforce).
force).

Geometricand
Geometric andphysical
physical parameters
parameters describing
describing thethe energy
energy harvesting
harvesting system
system with
with elas-
elastic
tic elements
elements werewere selected
selected in such
in such a waya as
way as to reflect
to reflect the symmetric
the symmetric double-well
double-well po-
potential
(Table
tential1). The particular
(Table selectionselection
1). The particular of parameter values made
of parameter valuesit made
possible to reproduce
it possible the
to repro-
potential’s characteristics
duce the potential’s as accurate
characteristics as as possible.
accurate A similarApolynomial
as possible. expression
similar polynomial was
expres-
provided
sion was in a studyin
provided byaErturk et al.
study by [18] for
Erturk a system
et al. [18] forwith magnetic
a system with interactions.
magnetic interactions.

Table1.1.Geometric
Table Geometricand
andelastic
elasticparameters
parametersdescribing
describingthe
thetested
testedsystem.
system.

Parameter NameParameter Name Symbol

Symbol Value
Value
Upper main springs Upper main springs c21c=21c=22 c22 52.02
52.02 Nm
Nm−1
−1

Bottom main springs

Bottom main springs c31c=31c=32 c32 25
25 Nm
Nm −
−11

Compensation springs
Compensation springs c11c=11c=12 c12 Nm−
8.83 Nm
8.83 −11

Horizontal
Horizontal attachment pointsattachment
for upperpoints
main for upper main springs
springs a21a=21a=22 a22 00mm
Horizontal mounting points for bottom main springs a =a 0m
Horizontal mounting points for bottom main springs a31 =31a32 32 0m
Horizontal attachment points for compensation springs a11 = a12 0.05 m
Horizontal attachmentVertical
pointsmounting
for compensation springs
points for upper main springs a11 = ah122 0.05
0.1 m
m
Vertical mounting Vertical
points for upper points
mounting main springs
for lower main springs h2 h3 0.1
0.1mm
Vertical mounting points for lower main springs h3 0.1 m
By assuming the above values for the geometrical and physical parameters, the coeffi-
cientsByof assuming
the mechanicalthe above values for(Equation
characteristics the geometrical and
(2)) take thephysical
following parameters,
values: d1 the
= −coef-
8.67,
dficients
2 = 0, d 3
of= the
5202. mechanical
Since the characteristics
aim of this study (Equation
is to (2))
determine take
the the following
effect of the values:
asymmetry d1of=
−8.67, d 2 = 0, d 3 = 5202. Since the aim of this study is to determine the
potential wells while deriving the differential equations of motion, we took into account effect of the asym-
metry
the of potential
d2 parameter wells while
because deriving
the change the
in its differential
value inducesequations
asymmetry ofofmotion, we took
the potential into
wells,
account the d parameter because the change
as shown in the three-dimensional graphs (Figure 3a).
2 in its value induces asymmetry of the poten-
tial wells, as shown in the three-dimensional graphs (Figure 3a).
From a mechanical point of view, the differential equations of motion can be derived
in many ways. In classical terms, this problem most often comes down to the application
of type II Lagrange equations. An alternative approach is to use topological methods
 based on graph theory. As far as energy recovery systems are concerned, it is m
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 venient to use the bond graph method proposed by Paynter [32] and popularized 6 of 14
nopp and Rossenberg [33,34]. This method is applicable to modeling dynamic sy
a different technical nature. Its unquestionable advantage is that it allows numer
From ato
ulations mechanical
be performed point ofwithout
view, the explicit
differential equations ofof
knowledge motion can be derived
the differential equation
in many ways. In classical terms, this problem most often comes down to the application of
tion. At the same time, the structure of a mathematical model was obtained by t
type II Lagrange equations. An alternative approach is to use topological methods based
tions
on graphoftheory.
state.As Withfar asthis approach,
energy however,
recovery systems it is necessary
are concerned, it is mosttoconvenient
use specialized
to c
programs.
use The corresponding
the bond graph method proposed softwareby Paynterfor [32] system modeling
and popularized [35–38]and
by Karnopp can be ru
toolboxes of Matlab, Mathematica, and/or Pyton. In this paper, the equations o
Rossenberg [33,34]. This method is applicable to modeling dynamic systems of a different
technical nature. Its in
were generated unquestionable
an explicit form advantage
because is that it allows
they numerical
constituted the simulations
formal basis to to de
be performed without explicit knowledge of the differential equations of motion. At the
the dimensionless model, on the basis of which quantitative and qualitative c
same time, the structure of a mathematical model was obtained by the equations of state.
simulations
With this approach,would be carried
however, out. In to
it is necessary the usebond graphcomputer
specialized method,programs.
the edges The are assig
variables: flow
corresponding and for
software effort. In electrical
system subsystems,
modeling [35–38] can be run the
in flow variable
the toolboxes of is the current
Matlab,
Mathematica, and/or Pyton. In this paper, the equations of
through the conductor, while the voltage difference is assigned to the effort motion were generated in an varia
explicit form because they constituted the formal basis to determine the dimensionless
worth mentioning that originally the bond graph method was used to model e
model, on the basis of which quantitative and qualitative computer simulations would be
circuits.
carried out.Nevertheless,
In the bond graph bearing
method,in mind
the edgeselectro-mechanical
are assigned two variables: analogies,
flow anditeffort.
came to be
time for modeling systems of differing technical natures.
In electrical subsystems, the flow variable is the current flowing through the conductor, Numerical simulations
tromechanical
while systems is
the voltage difference are usually
assigned to carried
the effort out withItthe
variable. use ofmentioning
is worth current analogies.
that T
originally the bond graph method was used to model electrical
say, speed is used as an analogy of current (the flow variable), while forces are rep circuits. Nevertheless,
bearing in mind electro-mechanical analogies, it came to be used in time for modeling
by effort variables. From a physical point of view, the product of flow and effor
systems of differing technical natures. Numerical simulations for electromechanical systems
theusually
are power of the
carried outedge. In use
with the other words,
of current the structure
analogies. That is toofsay,
a bond
speedgraph
is used is
as aangraphic
sentation
analogy of power
of current flow
(the flow in a dynamic
variable), while forces system.
are represented by effort variables. From
a physical
For point of view, the product
the derivation of flow and effort
of a mathematical defines
model, thethebond
powergraph
of the method
edge. In was m
other words, the structure of a bond graph is a graphical representation of power flow in a
which enabled a system of second-order differential equations to be obtained. T
dynamic system.
achieved
For the by introducing
derivation additionalmodel,
of a mathematical dummy edges,
the bond which
graph methodrepresented
was modified, the sourc
variables’
which enabled flow 𝑆 : 𝑞 ofand
a system effort 𝑆 differential
second-order : 𝑢. These equations
edges were to benot subject
obtained. towas
This numberin
achieved by introducing
role was to assign additional dummy edges, which represented
appropriate physical quantities to incident one nodes. As a the sources of the
.
variables’ flow S f : q1 and effort Se : u. These edges were not subject to numbering. Their
such modification, it was possible to assign the property of differential causatio
role was to assign appropriate physical quantities to incident one nodes. As a result of such
elements storing
modification, kinetic
it was possible energy
to assign the Jproperty
without creating causation
of differential a causality to theconflict.
elements In the
method
storing of bond
kinetic energygraphs,
J withoutelements that store
creating a causality kinetic
conflict. energy
In the aremethod
classical assignedof bondintegral c
A topological
graphs, elements structure mapped
that store kinetic to the
energy so-called
are assigned Lagrange
integral bond
causality. graph is shown i
A topological
structure
4. mapped to the so-called Lagrange bond graph is shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4. Bond
4. Bond graph
graph of theof the analyzed
analyzed energy harvesting
energy harvesting system. system.

At this point, one could ask how to identify the edges of a bond graph (i.e., how to
At this point, one could ask how to identify the edges of a bond graph (i.e.
define the sense of a half-arrow). The easiest way to conduct this is to treat the edges of
adefine the sense
bond graph of a half-arrow).
as hydraulic The
lines; in effect, theeasiest waydefine
half-arrows to conduct this isofto
the direction treat the ed
liquid
bond
flow graph
along theseasfictitious
hydrauliclines.lines; in effect,
To determine thethe half-arrows
direction of powerdefine
flow inthe direction
a graph with of liq
respect to each structure of the graph, one must start from the source of the
along these fictitious lines. To determine the direction of power flow in a graph effort variable,
and if there is none in the graph, then the power flow is determined based on the source
spect to each structure of the graph, one must start from the source of the effort
of a flow type variable. In the considered bond graph, there are no real sources of the
and if there is none in the graph, then the power flow is determined based on th
of a flow type variable. In the considered bond graph, there are no real sources of t
variable; therefore, the power flow is determined based on the source of a flow ty
able. In the first stage of the derivation of the mathematical model, the cause-an
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 7 of 14

effort variable; therefore, the power flow is determined based on the source of a flow type
variable. In the first stage of the derivation of the mathematical model, the cause-and-effect
relationships in the one and zero nodes of the bond graph were determined (Figure 4). In
the case under analysis, there were two one-nodes and two zero-nodes. As for the one
node, there was a super-position of the effort variable, and additionally, all edges of an
incident with node one were assigned the same flow variable. From a mathematical point
of view, the cause-and-effect relationship occurring in node one (see the bond graph in
Figure 4) is given by the equations:
  .
e1 = e2 , f 1 = f 2 = y1 ,
(4)
e4 = e5 + e6 + e7 , f4 = f5 = f6 = f7 ,

On the other hand, regarding the zero nodes, all incident edges with the null node are
assigned the same value of the effort variable while the flow type variables are summed as:
 
f4 = f3 − f2 , e3 = e2 = e4 ,
(5)
f 8 = f 9 + f 10 , e8 = e9 = e10 = u,

where:
.
f 3 = y0
Whatever the node type, the rule is that the edges “entering” the node are written
with the sign “+”, whereas when the edge “leaves” the node, then the sign “-” is used. The
cause-and-effect relationship between the flow and effort variables in the elements of the
bond graph ultimately takes the form:
d f1
d3 f 43 + d2 f 42 − d1 f 4 dt,
R

e1 = m 1 dt , e5 = b B f 4 , e6 =
. (6)
f 3 = y0 , f9 = 1
R Z e9 , f 10 = CP dedt10 .

In the formulated bond graph, there is an additional element modeling energy trans-
formation, “TF”, which was used to model the transformation of energy in a piezoelectric
transducer. The cause-and-effect relationships occurring in this piezoelectric element are
given by the equations:

e7 = k P e8 = k P u, f8 = k P f7 = k P f4 . (7)

After substituting the aforementioned cause–effect relationships to a system of equa-

tions (Equation (4)), we obtained the following differential equation:
( d f1
m1 dt = e2 ,
e2 = e4 = bB f 4 + d3 f 43 + d2 f 42 − d1 f 4 dt + k P u,
R

. . . (8)
↓ where f 1 = y1 and f 4 = y0 − y1
.
d y1 . .
y0 − y1 − d3 (y0 − y1 )3 − d2 (y0 − y1 )2 + d1 (y0 − y1 ) − k P u = 0.


m1 dt − bB

At the same time, the equation describing the dynamics of an electrical subsystem was
obtained from the dependencies corresponding to the null nodes (Equation (5)):
 . .
 f 4 = y0 − y1 ,
 k P f 4 = 1 e9 + CP de10 ,
RZ dt (9)
↓ where
e9 = e10 = u,
. .
k P y0 − y1 = R1Z u + CP dudt .
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 8 of 14

After applying elementary transformations to the derived equations (Equations (8) and (9)),
we finally obtained an explicit representation of the mathematical model modeling the
dynamics of the energy recovery system:
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

d2 y1
  
dy1 dy0


 m 1 dt 2 + b B dt − dt + d3 (y1 − y0 )3 − d1 (y1 − y0 )+
2
d𝑑2 (𝑦y1 − y0 )𝑑𝑦 − k𝑑𝑦
P u = 0, (10)
⎧𝑚 +𝑏 −  + 𝑑 𝑦 −𝑦 − 𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑦 +
𝑑𝑡+ k 𝑑𝑡 dy1 − dy0 = 0.

⎪ C𝑑𝑡du + 1 u


P dt R P dt dt
𝑑 𝑦 −𝑦 − Z
𝑘 𝑢 = 0, (10)
⎨ 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⎪𝐶
In the numerical + 𝑢+𝑘
calculations, it − = 0.
was assumed that the energy recovery system was af-
⎩ 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
fected by external mechanical vibrations modeled by the harmonic function y0 = A cos(ωW t).
In the numerical calculations, it was assumed that the energy recovery system was
Additionally, we introduced a new coordinate, which we defined as a difference in the
affected by external mechanical vibrations modeled by the harmonic function 𝑦 =
displacement of the ends of a flexible cantilever beam: q = y − y0 . as a differ-
𝐴cos 𝜔 𝑡 . Additionally, we introduced a new coordinate, which we 1defined
ence in the displacement
 .. of the .ends of a flexible
2 cantilever

2 beam: 𝑞2= 𝑦 − 𝑦 .
x + 2ζ x − x 1 − αx + δx − χu = ω p cos(ωτ ),
𝑥u.++
2𝜁𝑥 (11)
λu−+ 𝛼𝑥0, + 𝛿𝑥 − 𝜒𝑢 = 𝜔 𝑝cos 𝜔𝜏 ,
𝑥 κ1x.−=
(11)
𝑢 + 𝜆𝑢 + 𝜅𝑥 = 0,
where:
where:
d q A b d3 q2
𝑑 ω 2 = 1 , τ = 𝜔ω0 t, ω = 𝑞 ωW0 , x =𝐴 q0 , p = q0𝑏, 2ζ = ω0 Bm𝑑 𝑞, α = d 0 ,
ω
𝜔 = , 𝜏 0= 𝜔 m𝑡,1 d 𝜔q = , 𝑥 = , 𝑝 = , 2𝜁 = , 𝛼= 1 , 1 (12)
𝑚 δ = ω22 m0 , χ𝜔 = ω2kmP 𝑞q , λ = C𝑞P R1Z ω0 , κ 𝜔
= 𝑚kCP Pq0 , q0 ≈𝑑0.0288. (12)
𝑑 𝑞 0 𝑘 1 0 1 01 𝑘 𝑞
𝛿= , 𝜒= , 𝜆= , 𝜅= , 𝑞 ≈ 0.0288.
𝜔 𝑚 𝜔 𝑚 𝑞 𝐶 𝑅 𝜔
It should be noted that the value of the scaling 𝐶 parameter q defines the position of the
0
minimum well
It should be of the that
noted symmetric
the valuepotential barrier.
of the scaling parameter q0 defines the position of
the minimum well of the symmetric potential barrier.
3. Numerical Results
3. Numerical Results
The calculations that follow are based on Equation (11). Figure 5 shows the results of
The calculations that follow are based on Equation (11). Figure 5 shows the results of
simulations conducted for selected values of δ (δ = 0, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6). The numerical results
simulations conducted for selected values of δ (δ = 0, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6). The numerical results
reveal the sensitivity of the effective voltage value induced on the piezoelectric electrodes
reveal the sensitivity of the effective voltage value induced on the piezoelectric electrodes
and
and the exciting
the exciting solutions
solutions to asymmetric
to the the asymmetric
locationlocation of the well.
of the potential potential well. The diagrams
The diagrams
were
were plotted
plotted forfor 200
200 randomly
randomly selected
selected initial initial conditions
conditions taken
taken from from
the area thephase
of the area of the phase
.
plane: 𝑥x ϵ[–2,
plane: [−2,2] 2]
and 𝑥 ϵx[−2,
and −2, 2].
 [2].

Figure 5. Diagrams of the rms values of voltage induced on piezoelectric electrodes for p = 0.183 and
Figure 5. Diagrams of the rms values of voltage induced on piezoelectric electrodes for p = 0.183 and
randomly selected initial conditions: (a) δ = 0, (b) δ = 0.15, (c) δ = 0.3, (d) δ = 0.6, 𝜅 = 0.5. The branches
randomly selected initial
of broadly distributed pointsconditions:
correspond to(a)non-regular
δ = 0, (b) δ(chaotic)
= 0.15,solutions.
(c) δ = 0.3, (d)
The δ = 0.6, κ = 0.5.
corresponding fre- The branches
quency
of bands
broadly are marked in
distributed yellow.correspond
points The bright orange color stripe denotes
to non-regular the region
(chaotic) of low-energy
solutions. The corresponding
solutions for the resonator motion located in a single potential well. The response periods nT are
frequency bands are marked in yellow. The bright orange color stripe denotes the region of low-
with respect to the excitation period T. For n = 1, the response frequency (period) is the same as the
energy solutions
excitation forFor
frequency. then >resonator motion
1 the solutions locatedare
represented in the
a single potential
small and well.
large orbit The response
solutions with periods nT
are with respect
subharmonic to the excitation period T. For n = 1, the response frequency (period) is the same as
nature.
the excitation frequency. For n > 1 the solutions represented are the small and large orbit solutions
with subharmonic nature.
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 9 of 14

For each plotted branch, the periodicity of the solution was identified based on the
intersection points between the phase stream and the control plane of the Poincaré cross-
section. Additionally, the lower index indicates the number of coexisting solutions with
the same periodicity. Regardless of the size of the potential asymmetry defined by δ, it can
be observed that periodic solutions with a periodicity (response period) of 1T dominate
in the range of low values ω < 1 (where T is the excitation period). When increasing
the asymmetry of the potential barrier, this area widens towards higher values of the
dimensionless excitation frequency. Similar behavior was observed for the zones with
chaotic solutions. In the plotted diagrams, for the bands indicating the occurrence of
chaotic solutions, the RMS voltage values are marked in yellow. Periodic solutions with a
response period of TR > 1T are excited in the range of high values of ω. These solutions are
subharmonic [19,21]. At this point, it should be highlighted that by “high frequencies”, we
mean the areas located on the right to the areas where the chaotic solutions occur. In these
areas, we deal with periodic solutions of different periodicity, which are characterized by
stable large and small orbits of the mechanical resonator. By “large orbit“, we understand
a solution whose trajectory runs around both wells of the potential barrier. From the
point of view of energy harvesting, only large orbits are of interest because their presence
significantly increases the efficiency of energy harvesting. In other words, we are not
interested in solutions with small orbits, which are represented by the branches located in
the area marked in bright orange, i.e., uRMS < 0.3.
The plotting of effective value diagrams for a large number of initial conditions is
a time-consuming process. For this reason, it is justified to make a choice between the
accuracy of calculations and the time spent on performing a required number of computer
simulations. To obtain relatively accurate results, we performed additional numerical
simulations, which were carried out for five times as many of the analyzed initial conditions.
In addition, we extended the time in which transient processes were extinguished and
non-permanent solutions occurred.
The diagrams below (Figure 6) show examples of orbits of the coexisting solutions
characterized by efficient energy harvesting. For each solution with a given periodicity, the
probability of its occurrence was calculated. For the sake of clarity, the visualization of the
stable periodic orbits was limited to presenting one of the coexisting solutions with the
same periodicity.
For the frequency ω = 1.9 (Figure 6a), there are two periodic solutions with a pe-
riodicity of 2T (T stands for the excitation period) and 3T, the trajectories of which run
around the potential barrier wells. The 2T-periodic solution is characterized by a higher
energy harvesting efficiency. Although the 2T-periodic solutions were characterized by in-
creased energy harvesting efficiency, they occurred almost six times less frequently than the
3T-periodic responses. If the energy recovery system is affected by external excitation
with the frequency ω = 2.1 (Figure 6b), there exist three large solutions with the following
periodicities: 2T, 3T, and 9T. Detailed numerical analyzes also showed the presence of
7T-period responses. Nevertheless, for the considered phase space, the probability of
achieving this solution is approx. 0.002. At this point, it should also be noted that in
the plotted diagram of the effective values of the voltage induced on the piezoelectric
electrodes, a branch with such periodicity does not appear at all. This situation is most
likely caused by the lower accuracy of the numerical calculations associated with plotting
the diagrams of RMS voltage values. Another explanation is the attraction of the 7T-period
orbit by the 9T-periodic solution, the probability of which is approx. 0.349. In the case under
consideration, we are dealing with low-energy solutions, and the probability of achieving
them is approx. 0.163. Let us recall that these solutions are located in the memories that
are marked in light orange in the diagrams (Figure 5). In the case under consideration, the
solutions with the highest efficiency of 2T-period energy harvesting occur relatively rarely,
and the probability of their achievement is about 0.077. Regarding the excitation frequency
ω = 2.1, the greatest probability amounts to approx. 0.409 was identified for the solution
with an odd 3T periodicity.
Energies 2022,
Energies 2022, 15,
15, 9469
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1010of
of 15
14

Figure 6. Examples of orbits of the coexisting periodic solutions together with the probability dia-
Figure 6. Examples of orbits of the coexisting periodic solutions together with the probability
grams illustrating the probability of their achievement: (a) ω = 1.9, (b) ω = 2.1, (c) ω = 2.6, (d) ω = 3.8.
diagrams illustrating the probability of their achievement: (a) ω = 1.9, (b) ω = 2.1, (c) ω = 2.6,
Note that the Poincaré points denoted by the black circles correspond to the numbers of excitation
(d) ω=
input 3.8. Note
periods for that the Poincaré
a single pointsofdenoted
output period by the black
system response. Thecircles correspond
horizontal torelated
axis T is the numbers
to the
of excitation input periods for a single output period of system response. The horizontal axis T
excitation period, and it is the unit of the response periodicity in the response probability diagrams.
is related to the excitation period, and it is the unit of the response periodicity in the response
probability
For the diagrams.
frequency ω = 1.9 (Figure 6a), there are two periodic solutions with a perio-
dicity of 2T (T stands for the excitation period) and 3T, the trajectories of which run around
In the example of coexisting solutions that occur at an external load acting with a
the potential barrier wells. The 2T-periodic solution is characterized by a higher energy
frequency of ω = 2.6 (Figure 6c), the probability of achieving a low-energy solution is
harvesting efficiency. Although the 2T-periodic solutions were characterized by increased
approximately 0.179. From the point of view of energy recovery, in this particular example,
energy harvesting efficiency, they occurred almost six times less frequently than the 3T-
there are three effective orbits with three periodicities: 2T, 3T, and 6T. The solutions with
periodic responses. If the energy recovery system is affected by external excitation with
the highest efficiency of energy harvesting (2T-periodic) occur sporadically because the
the frequency ω = 2.1 (Figure 6b), there exist three large solutions with the following peri-
probability of their achievement is about 0.005. This low probability value means, in fact,
odicities: 2T, 3T, and 9T. Detailed numerical analyzes also showed the presence of 7T-
 Energies 2022, 15, 9469 11 of 14

that the excitation frequency value is basically at the end of the branch where these solutions
occur. The highest probability (0.614) of achieving a stable periodic orbit was observed for
the 3T-periodic solution. On the other hand, an orbit characterized by a periodicity of 6T
is achievable with a probability of 0.202. At this point, it is worth noting that the 6T-the
periodic solution has better energy harvesting properties than the 3T-periodic solution.
Even periodic solutions (which are the subject matter of this study) also occur in the range
of high excitation frequency values. An example of such a case is shown in the diagram
(Figure 6d). It is worth noting that in terms of high excitation frequencies, the solutions
with low energy recovery efficiencies are dominant, as the probability of their achievement
is over 28.95%. In the analyzed example and among the stable periodic solutions, the
probability of achieving a solution with an even periodicity of 4T is approx. 0.087.
Additionally, in Figure 7, we present the results for two selected subharmonic solutions
(solutions with periodicity 2T). It must be noted that the original solution for δ = 0 is
asymmetric. Interestingly, the probabilities of particular solutions indicate that the inclusion
of asymmetry to the potential does not stabilize that solution in the investigated cases.
Namely, δ = 0.15 and 0.3 seem to favor the 3T solution significantly. On the other hand,
δ = 0.6 favors the 1T solution. Further results (in Figure 8) summarize the probability
of achieving an asymmetric potential while increasing the excitation frequency ω. The
solutions of corresponding periodicities follow the related subharmonic branches given in
Figure 5b. The diagrams in the figure show the probability of their occurrence. It should be
stressed that the T = 6 solution is dominant for the large interval of ω  [2.7, 3]. This could
be an effect of asymmetry. It should be noted that the resonator orbits plotted in Figure 6c
(for ω = 2.6), corresponding to the solutions 3T and 6T, are similar in terms of both voltage
rgies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of
output (Figure 5) and the Poincaré statistics using a ratio of the number of loops to the
number of Poincaré points.

FigureFigure
7. Numerical results
7. Numerical showing
results showingthe
the influence
influence ofofpotential
potential asymmetry
asymmetry on theonprobability
the probability
of of
currence of particular solutions for different values of δ (δ = 0.0, 0.15, 0.30, and 0.60, respective
occurrence of particular solutions for different values of δ (δ = 0.0, 0.15, 0.30, and 0.60, respectively).
The horizontal axisaxis
The horizontal T is related
T is related to theexcitation
to the excitation period,
period, and
and it it is
is the the
unit of unit of the response
the response periodicityperiodic
in theinresponse probability
the response probabilitydiagrams. Thecolors
diagrams. The colors represent
represent the different
the different orbits oforbits of δ parameter.
δ parameter.
 Figure 7. Numerical results showing the influence of potential asymmetry on the probability of oc-
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 currence of particular solutions for different values of δ (δ = 0.0, 0.15, 0.30, and 0.60, respectively).
12 of 14
The horizontal axis T is related to the excitation period, and it is the unit of the response periodicity
in the response probability diagrams. The colors represent the different orbits of δ parameter.

Figure 8. Numerical results showing the influence of potential asymmetry on the probability of oc-
Figure 8. Numerical results showing the influence of potential asymmetry on the probability of
currence (periodicity diagrams) of individual solutions for different values of ω (ω = 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9,
occurrence (periodicity diagrams) of individual solutions for different values of ω (ω = 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9,
3.0, 3.1, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9, respectively). The colors represent the different orbits of δ pa-
3.0, 3.1, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9, respectively). The colors represent the different orbits of δ parameter.
rameter.
4. Conclusions
The asymmetric potential removes frequency degeneration for the particular solutions
pinned to the stable equilibria. This effect is relevant mainly to the small orbits, but it could
also be applied to the large orbits, provided that they are distributed unequally with respect
to both sides of the potential barrier. Namely, the asymmetric potential leads to the richer
dynamical response of the system, including solutions of various characteristic frequencies.
Consequently, the system is sensitive to a wider interval of input excitation frequencies.
This study investigated the probability of the occurrence of different solutions with
the change from a symmetric double well to an asymmetric double well. The results have
shown that the stability of particular solutions changes insignificantly for most cases of
small-periodicity solutions (subharmonic solutions 2T, 3T). Our preliminary results have
demonstrated that the solution of periodicity for 3T is relatively strong, but the 6T solution
could become more stable than the 3T solution and other solutions for the asymmetric
potential in some regions of the excitation frequency. Furthermore, our calculations have
shown that the higher periodicity solutions of 5T, 7T, 9T, and 10T disappear gradually
while increasing the asymmetry of the double-well potential. It should be noted that this
effect makes other solutions stable. Nevertheless, to provide more information about the
subharmonic branches (Figure 5), their stability, and their impact on the power input, one
should study the corresponding basins of attraction. The study has also indicated the
extension of chaotic intervals in terms of frequency (see the corresponding branches in
Figure 5) with an increase in potential asymmetry. In fact, the chaotic solutions could
Energies 2022, 15, 9469 13 of 14

also be useful for energy harvesting, as they belong to high-energy transmission solutions.
Nevertheless, any irregular change in the voltage might cause problems in more advanced
electrical circuits. Their chaotic nature should also be confirmed by estimating the Lyapunov
exponent. This is left for the next part of our studies.
Note that the large vibration amplitude limit is not relevant in the present model
because higher polynomial order terms in the nonlinear potential were neglected. On
the other hand, the asymmetric system designed by springs can have some limitations in
miniaturization, where mechanical springs can be substituted by magnets to create similar
potential wells.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.M. and G.L.; methodology, J.M., J.C., P.W., X.M., S.Z.
and G.L.; software, J.M. and D.G.; validation, J.M., J.C., P.W., G.L. and D.G.; formal analysis, J.M.
and G.L.; investigation, J.M., D.G., P.W., X.M., S.Z. and G.L.; resources, S.Z.; data curation, J.M., J.C.,
X.M. and S.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M., D.G., X.M., S.Z. and G.L.; writing—review
and editing, G.L., P.W., J.C., J.M., D.G. and S.Z.; visualization, J.M.; supervision, G.L., S.Z. and J.M.;
project administration, G.L. and J.M.; funding acquisition, G.L. and S.Z. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Science Centre, Poland under the project SHENG-2,
No. 2021/40/Q/ST8/00362 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52161135106).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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