Mathematics II, Complex Analysis

Gunja Sachdeva

Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani K. K. Birla Goa Campus

March 18, 2024

Motivation

Find the roots of the poly 2 3 0 the root belongs to

x 2 0 roots are 12

CE a be a be a
0153
the poly 22 1 0
Find the Roots of IFT IR

RCI at bF anber complex numbers

in 1R d Yi 152.121 x x ynyz Instead 15.911 12.92

10.37 11,0 10,01 9.92 9112
Ex go.me a
Definition
A complex number is a pair (x, y ) of real numbers x, y .

It is customary to denote a complex number by z. Here the real

numbers x and y are known as real and imaginary parts of z,
respectively and written as

x = Re z y = Im z

say Z
iti
Addition and Multiplication

The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added” and

“multiplied” as follows:

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Notations

We can write a complex number z = (x, y ) as a sum

(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)

w̅
Let us identify the complex number (x, 0) with the real number x,
we see that:

(x, y ) = x + (0, 1)y .

Note that (0, 1)(0, 1) = ( 1, 0) = 1, so denoting (0, 1) by the
symbol i we can write a complex number (x, y ) = x + iy , where
i2 = 1.
Note that 10,11 11,0 10,0
Algebraic Properties

Additive identity 0 = (0, 0).

Additive inverse of z = (x, y ) is z = ( x, y ).

Multiplicative identity 1 = (1, 0). d 9 11,01 Gary

Multiplicative inverse of z = (x, y ) 6= (0, 0) is

✓ ◆
1 x y
z = , 2
x + y x + y2
2 2

the inverse 5 such an element 221 1

 ftp.T
zz 101 9
ye

1 at

1,0

set of complex numb.ee fxtiy x.yeir

11 11,0 is a field
vector space
Note that It was just a

whereas is a
field

1R multiplicative identity 1,1

1 11,1 x
g y
inverse e y W U 11,7
multiplicative
win 5

but 11,07 does not exist

R is not a
field
Algebraic Properties

1. Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal if

and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
2. If product of two complex numbers z1 , z2 is equal to zero then
at least one of the two is equal to zero. 2 0
if Z Z 0
3. The binomial theorem holds for the complex numbers, i.e., or Z2
Xk=n ✓ ◆
n n n k k
(z1 + z2 ) = z1 z2
k
k=0
Argand plane

The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a plane

with coordinated (x, y ), this plane is thought to be the plane where
the complex numbers reside, as a result, it is called “the complex
plane”. Sometimes this plane is also called “the Argand plane”
after the mathematician Argand who popularized this visualization
method. It is a perfect visualization method that brings out the
geometric properties and applications of complex numbers quite
e↵ectively as we will see soon.
Argand plane

Im(z)

z = x + iy
iy

x Re(z)
Absolute value

Absolute value
The distance from the origin to the point (x, y ) is called the
absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is
denoted by |z|.
So for a complex number z = x + iy we can write:
p p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = ( Re z)2 + ( Im z)2
Note: Re z  |z| and Im z  |z|, 31 512 CITY
z 6= 0 if and only if |z| =
6 0.
Vectors and Moduli

Im(z)
z1 + z2

z2

z1

Re(z)
Example

Im(z)
1 + 3i 1 351 12 1

73 217
3 + 2i

1 3 2 1
13 2

Re(z)
2 i
Triangle inequality

Triangle inequality

I
For any two complex numbers z1 , z2 , |z1 + z2 |  |z1 | + |z2 |.
The above inequality follows from the diagram:
z1 + z2
Im(z) z
2

z1
O
Re(z)

This implies
|z1 + z2 | ||z1 | |z2 ||
Conjugate

Conjugate
For a complex number z = x + iy the complex number x iy is
called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
reflection of the
2
1. Using the conjugate one can write |z| = zz. ix y along
2 01 an s
bitty my forty 0
or 1212 ⇣ ⌘
2. The conjugate satisfies z1 z2 = z1 z2 and zz12 = z1
z2 for z2 6= 0.
Parallelogram identity and other geometric properties

Parallelogram Law
z1 , z2 are complex numbers then

|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )

Polar form

A complex number z = x + iy on the p complex plane have polar

coordinates (r , ✓), where r = |z| = x 2 + y 2 and ✓ is any value
satisfying the equations

TI
o tail
x = r cos ✓ and y = r sin ✓.

Therefore, ✓ has an infinite number of possible values, including

negative ones, that di↵er by an integral multiple of 2⇡.
Each value of ✓ is called the argument of z and the set of all such
values is denoted by arg z.

FIE
Polar form

The value of the argument in the interval ( ⇡, ⇡] is called the

principal value of the argument, denoted by Arg z. So,
8
1
>
> tan (y /x) if x > 0
>
>
>
> ⇡ + tan 1
(y /x) if x < 0, y 0
<
Arg z = ⇡ + tan 1 (y /x) if x < 0, y < 0
>
>
>
>
> ⇡/2 It if x = 0, y > 0
>
:
⇡/2 if x = 0, y < 0

and hence arg z = {Arg z + 2n⇡ : n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .}.

Polar form

So we can write a complex number

eating
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))

If z1 , z2 are two complex numbers with arguments ✓1 , ✓2 respectively

then we have

z1 z2 = |z1 ||z2 |(cos(✓1 + ✓2 ) + i sin(✓1 + ✓2 )).

Hint: It is easy to verify that

(cos ✓1 + i sin ✓1 )(cos ✓2 + i sin ✓2 ) = cos(✓1 + ✓2 ) + i sin(✓1 + ✓2 ).

Polar form-Examples

Find the following:

Aug tan
1. Arg (1 + i) 2 1 1 x 1 y 1
71 4
1 Trt tan 1 1
2. Arg ( 1 + i) 31 9 1 Any 2
3T y
3. Arg ( 1 i)

4. Arg (1 i)

5. Arg ( 1)
Polar form-Examples

Find the following:

⇡
1. Arg (1 + i) Ans: 4

3⇡
2. Arg ( 1 + i) Ans: 4

3⇡
3. Arg ( 1 i) Ans: 4

⇡
4. Arg (1 i) Ans: 4

5. Arg ( 1) Ans: ⇡.
De Moivre’s identity

Euler’s formula
Z xtiy
41050 casino
The expression 111050 isano
e i✓ = cos ✓ + i sin ✓
is called Euler’s formula, it will be put on a sound footing when we
introduce complex exponential by it’s power series, but for now let
us take the exponential as a symbol.
From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as
z = |z|e i✓ where ✓ = arg (z).
leia
Cont.

1. Let z1 = r1 e i✓1 and z2 = r2 e i✓2 be two complex numbers then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(✓1 +✓2 )

2. If r2 6= 0 then we can also write the division as

1 r1 i(✓1 ✓2 )
z1 z2 = e
r2
3. arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) and arg(z1 /z2 ) = arg(z1 ) arg(z2 )
Cont.

De Moivre’s Identity
For any complex number re i✓ and an integer n we have:

(re i✓ )n = r n e in✓

2 re
o a eino
Application

A good number of applications of De Moivre’s identity may be found in trigonometry.

Example Let us find a formula for sin 3✓ in terms of sin ✓.
Consider the complex number e i✓ = cos ✓ + i sin ✓, let us raise both sides to the power
3.

losotisino (e i✓ )3 = e i3✓ = cos 3✓ + i sin 3✓

Now the left hand side is equal to (cos ✓ + i sin ✓)3
Which after a simple calculation

= cos3 ✓ + 3i cos2 ✓ sin ✓ 3 cos ✓ sin2 ✓ i sin3 ✓

So equating the imaginary part of both sides we get:

I
sin 3✓ = 3 cos2 ✓ sin ✓ sin3 ✓.
Roots and arguments

One application of the polar form of a complex number is the ease

of finding roots.
Let us consider the complex number z0 = r0 e i✓0 and let us have a
natural number n 2 N, we want to find a nth root of the complex
number z0 .
So we are looking for a complex number z = re i✓ such that

z n = z0 or r n e in✓ = ro e i✓0

Tu find a s t
Cont.

Now equating the modulus and the arguments we get

r n = r0 , and n✓ = ✓0 + 2⇡k fork 2 Z

Or we get

I
p ✓0 2⇡k
r= n
r0 and ✓ = +
n n
for k 2 Z.
So the distinct roots are obtained for the values
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1 and the distinct roots are given by
p
F
✓
i( n0 + 2⇡k
n )
ck = r 0 e
n
sit to
Questions

1. Find the fifth roots of (1 + i).

Need to find z sit Z5_t

where n 5
c so C cz C3 ly

no F 52
fan T1 ie
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Flu
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Topology of Complex plane

Neighborhoods
1. |z1 z2 | defines a “distance” between z1 and z2 on the complex
plane.

2. Given z0 a complex number and ✏ a real positive number, we

have a ✏ neighborhood of z0 defined as the set
{z 2 C : |z z0 | < ✏}.
If
3. A deleted neighborhood of z0 is the set of points
{z 2 C : 0 < |z z0 | < ✏}.

f
Interior Point

1. A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⇢ C if there is an

✏ neighborhood of z for some ✏ which is completely contained in
S.
Im(z)

Re(z)
Exterior Point

1. It is called an exterior point if there is a neighborhood which is

completely not contained in S. Or completely contained in the
complement of the set S.
Im(z)

Re(z)
Boundary Point and Boundary

1. It is called a boundary point if it is neither an interior point nor

an exterior point of the set S.
Im(z)

Re(z)

2. The set of boundary points is called the boundary of the set.

Open and Closed Sets

1. A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary points.

Infs s
2. A set is closed if it contains all it’s boundary points.
Im(z)

Re(z)

Ex neighborhood is open
Connected Set, Domain and Region

1. A set is called connected if given any two points in the set there
is a polygonal line (consisting of a finite number of line
segments joined end to end), connecting the two points inside
the set.

2. A nonempty open connected set in the complex plane is called a

domain.

3. A domain with some (none, all, some) of it’s boundary points is

called a region.
Bounded Regions and Accumulation Point

1. A region is called bounded if it is contained in a disc of radius R

for some R.
H = {z 2 C : Re(z) > 0} is an example of an unbounded
region.

2. A point z is called an accumulation point (or a limit point) of S

if every deleted neighborhood of the point contains a point of
the set S.
1
s { : n 2 N}
n
Ex 0 is the limit pf of 5