Sensor

A sensor is a device t hat produces an out put signal for t he purpose of det ect ing a physical
phenomenon.

Different types of light sensors

In t he broadest definit ion, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsyst em t hat det ect s
event s or changes in it s environment and sends t he informat ion t o ot her elect ronics, frequent ly a
comput er processor.

Sensors are used in everyday object s such as t ouch-sensit ive elevat or but t ons (t act ile sensor)
and lamps which dim or bright en by t ouching t he base, and in innumerable applicat ions of which
most people are never aware. Wit h advances in micromachinery and easy-t o-use microcont roller
plat forms, t he uses of sensors have expanded beyond t he t radit ional fields of t emperat ure,
pressure and flow measurement ,[1] for example int o MARG sensors.

Analog sensors such as pot ent iomet ers and force-sensing resist ors are st ill widely used. Their
applicat ions include manufact uring and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine,
robot ics and many ot her aspect s of our day-t o-day life. There is a wide range of ot her sensors
t hat measure chemical and physical propert ies of mat erials, including opt ical sensors for
refract ive index measurement , vibrat ional sensors for fluid viscosit y measurement , and elect ro-
chemical sensors for monit oring pH of fluids.

A sensor's sensit ivit y indicat es how much it s out put changes when t he input quant it y it measures
changes. For inst ance, if t he mercury in a t hermomet er moves 1 cm when t he t emperat ure
changes by 1 °C, it s sensit ivit y is 1 cm/°C (it is basically t he slope dy/dx assuming a linear
charact erist ic). Some sensors can also affect what t hey measure; for inst ance, a room
t emperat ure t hermomet er insert ed int o a hot cup of liquid cools t he liquid while t he liquid heat s
t he t hermomet er. Sensors are usually designed t o have a small effect on what is measured;
making t he sensor smaller oft en improves t his and may int roduce ot her advant ages.[2]

Technological progress allows more and more sensors t o be manufact ured on a microscopic
scale as microsensors using MEMS t echnology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a
significant ly fast er measurement t ime and higher sensit ivit y compared wit h macroscopic
approaches.[2][3] Due t o t he increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable informat ion in
t oday's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐t o‐use devices for short ‐t erm monit oring
or single‐shot measurement s—have recent ly gained growing import ance. Using t his class of
sensors, crit ical analyt ical informat ion can be obt ained by anyone, anywhere and at any t ime,
wit hout t he need for recalibrat ion and worrying about cont aminat ion.[4]

Classification of
measurement errors

An infrared sensor

A good sensor obeys t he following rules:[4]

 it is sensitive to the measured property
it is insensitive to any other property
likely to be encountered in its
application, and
it does not influence the measured
property.
Most sensors have a linear t ransfer funct ion. The sensit ivit y is t hen defined as t he rat io bet ween
t he out put signal and measured propert y. For example, if a sensor measures t emperat ure and has
a volt age out put , t he sensit ivit y is const ant wit h t he unit s [V/K]. The sensit ivit y is t he slope of
t he t ransfer funct ion. Convert ing t he sensor's elect rical out put (for example V) t o t he measured
unit s (for example K) requires dividing t he elect rical out put by t he slope (or mult iplying by it s
reciprocal). In addit ion, an offset is frequent ly added or subt ract ed. For example, −40 must be
added t o t he out put if 0 V out put corresponds t o −40 C input .

For an analog sensor signal t o be processed or used in digit al equipment , it needs t o be

convert ed t o a digit al signal, using an analog-t o-digit al convert er.

Sensor deviations
Since sensors cannot replicat e an ideal t ransfer funct ion, several t ypes of deviat ions can occur
which limit sensor accuracy:
Since the range of the output signal is
always limited, the output signal will
eventually reach a minimum or
maximum when the measured property
exceeds the limits. The full scale range
defines the maximum and minimum
values of the measured property.
The sensitivity may in practice differ
from the value specified. This is called a
sensitivity error. This is an error in the
slope of a linear transfer function.
If the output signal differs from the
correct value by a constant, the sensor
has an offset error or bias. This is an
error in the y-intercept of a linear
transfer function.
Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's
transfer function from a straight line
transfer function. Usually, this is defined
by the amount the output differs from
ideal behavior over the full range of the
sensor, often noted as a percentage of
the full range.
Deviation caused by rapid changes of
the measured property over time is a
dynamic error. Often, this behavior is
described with a bode plot showing
sensitivity error and phase shift as a
function of the frequency of a periodic
input signal.
If the output signal slowly changes
independent of the measured property,
this is defined as drift. Long term drift
over months or years is caused by
physical changes in the sensor.
Noise is a random deviation of the
signal that varies in time.
A hysteresis error causes the output
value to vary depending on the previous
input values. If a sensor's output is
different depending on whether a
specific input value was reached by
increasing vs. decreasing the input, then
the sensor has a hysteresis error.
If the sensor has a digital output, the
output is essentially an approximation of
the measured property. This error is also
called quantization error.
If the signal is monitored digitally, the
sampling frequency can cause a
dynamic error, or if the input variable or
added noise changes periodically at a
frequency near a multiple of the
sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
The sensor may to some extent be
sensitive to properties other than the
property being measured. For example,
 most sensors are influenced by the
temperature of their environment.
All t hese deviat ions can be classified as syst emat ic errors or random errors. Syst emat ic errors
can somet imes be compensat ed for by means of some kind of calibrat ion st rat egy. Noise is a
random error t hat can be reduced by signal processing, such as filt ering, usually at t he expense
of t he dynamic behavior of t he sensor.

Resolution
The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is t he smallest change t hat can be det ect ed
in t he quant it y t hat is being measured. The resolut ion of a sensor wit h a digit al out put is usually
t he numerical resolut ion of t he digit al out put . The resolut ion is relat ed t o t he precision wit h
which t he measurement is made, but t hey are not t he same t hing. A sensor's accuracy may be
considerably worse t han it s resolut ion.

For example, the distance resolution is

the minimum distance that can be
accurately measured by any distance
measuring devices. In a time-of-flight
camera, the distance resolution is
usually equal to the standard deviation
 (total noise) of the signal expressed in
unit of length.
The sensor may to some extent be
sensitive to properties other than the
property being measured. For example,
most sensors are influenced by the
temperature of their environment.

Chemical sensor
A chemical sensor is a self-cont ained analyt ical device t hat can provide informat ion about t he
chemical composit ion of it s environment , t hat is, a liquid or a gas phase.[5][6] The informat ion is
provided in t he form of a measurable physical signal t hat is correlat ed wit h t he concent rat ion of
a cert ain chemical species (t ermed as analyt e). Two main st eps are involved in t he funct ioning of
a chemical sensor, namely, recognit ion and t ransduct ion. In t he recognit ion st ep, analyt e
molecules int eract select ively wit h recept or molecules or sit es included in t he st ruct ure of t he
recognit ion element of t he sensor. Consequent ly, a charact erist ic physical paramet er varies and
t his variat ion is report ed by means of an int egrat ed t ransducer t hat generat es t he out put signal.
A chemical sensor based on recognit ion mat erial of biological nat ure is a biosensor. However, as
synt het ic biomimet ic mat erials are going t o subst it ut e t o some ext ent recognit ion biomat erials,
a sharp dist inct ion bet ween a biosensor and a st andard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical
biomimet ic mat erials used in sensor development are molecularly imprint ed polymers and
apt amers.[7]
Chemical sensor array

A chemical sensor array is a sensor

architecture with multiple sensor
components that create a pattern for
analyte detection from the additive
responses of individual sensor
components. There exist several types of
chemical sensor arrays including
electronic, optical, acoustic wave, and
potentiometric devices. These chemical
sensor arrays can employ multiple sensor
types that are cross-reactive or tuned to
sense specific analytes.[8][9][10][11]

Biosensor
In biomedicine and biot echnology, sensors which det ect analyt es t hanks t o a biological
component , such as cells, prot ein, nucleic acid or biomimet ic polymers, are called biosensors.
Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemist ry), for biological analyt es is
referred t o as sensor or nanosensor. This t erminology applies for bot h in-vit ro and in vivo
applicat ions. The encapsulat ion of t he biological component in biosensors, present s a slight ly
different problem t hat ordinary sensors; t his can eit her be done by means of a semipermeable
barrier, such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel, or a 3D polymer mat rix, which eit her physically
const rains t he sensing macromolecule or chemically const rains t he macromolecule by bounding
it t o t he scaffold.

Neuromorphic sensors
Neuromorphic sensors are sensors t hat physically mimic st ruct ures and funct ions of biological
neural ent it ies.[12] One example of t his is t he event camera.

MOS sensors
Met al–oxide–semiconduct or (MOS) t echnology originat es from t he MOSFET (MOS field-effect
t ransist or, or MOS t ransist or) invent ed by Mohamed M. At alla and Dawon Kahng in 1959, and
demonst rat ed in 1960.[13] MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were lat er developed, and t hey have
since been widely used t o measure physical, chemical, biological and environment al
paramet ers.[14]

Biochemical sensors
A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring physical, chemical, biological,
and environment al paramet ers.[14] The earliest MOSFET sensors include t he open-gat e field-
effect t ransist or (OGFET) int roduced by Johannessen in 1970,[14] t he ion-sensit ive field-effect
t ransist or (ISFET) invent ed by Piet Bergveld in 1970,[15] t he adsorpt ion FET (ADFET) pat ent ed
by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen-sensit ive MOSFET demonst rat ed by I. Lundst rom, M.S.
Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975.[14] The ISFET is a special t ype of MOSFET
wit h a gat e at a cert ain dist ance,[14] and where t he met al gat e is replaced by an ion-sensit ive
membrane, elect rolyt e solut ion and reference elect rode.[16] The ISFET is widely used in
biomedical applicat ions, such as t he det ect ion of DNA hybridizat ion, biomarker det ect ion from
blood, ant ibody det ect ion, glucose measurement , pH sensing, and genet ic t echnology.[16]

By t he mid-1980s, numerous ot her MOSFET sensors had been developed, including t he gas
sensor FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow t ransist or (CFT), pressure
sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect t ransist or (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET),
biosensor FET (BioFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET
(IMFET).[14] By t he early 2000s, BioFET t ypes such as t he DNA field-effect t ransist or (DNAFET),
gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-pot ent ial BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.[16]

Image sensors
MOS t echnology is t he basis for modern image sensors, including t he charge-coupled device
(CCD) and t he CMOS act ive-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), used in digit al imaging and digit al
cameras.[17] Willard Boyle and George E. Smit h developed t he CCD in 1969. While researching t he
MOS process, t hey realized t hat an elect ric charge was t he analogy of t he magnet ic bubble and
t hat it could be st ored on a t iny MOS capacit or. As it was fairly st raight forward t o fabricat e a
series of MOS capacit ors in a row, t hey connect ed a suit able volt age t o t hem so t hat t he charge
could be st epped along from one t o t he next .[17] The CCD is a semiconduct or circuit t hat was
lat er used in t he first digit al video cameras for t elevision broadcast ing.[18]

The MOS act ive-pixel sensor (APS) was developed by Tsut omu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985.[19]
The CMOS act ive-pixel sensor was lat er developed by Eric Fossum and his t eam in t he early
1990s.[20]

MOS image sensors are widely used in opt ical mouse t echnology. The first opt ical mouse,
invent ed by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5 µm NMOS sensor chip.[21][22] Since t he first
commercial opt ical mouse, t he Int elliMouse int roduced in 1999, most opt ical mouse devices use
CMOS sensors.[23]

Monitoring sensors

A LIDAR sensor (bottom, center), as

part of the camera system on an iPad
Pro.[24]

MOS monit oring sensors are used for house monit oring, office and agricult ure monit oring, t raffic
monit oring (including car speed, t raffic jams, and t raffic accident s), weat her monit oring (such as
for rain, wind, light ning and st orms), defense monit oring, and monit oring t emperat ure, humidit y, air
pollut ion, fire, healt h, securit y and light ing.[25] MOS gas det ect or sensors are used t o det ect
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and ot her gas subst ances.[26] Ot her
MOS sensors include int elligent sensors[27] and wireless sensor net work (WSN) t echnology.[28]

See also
Actuator
Data acquisition
Data logger
Image sensor
MOSFET
BioFET
Chemical field-effect transistor
ISFET
List of sensors
Machine olfaction
Nanoelectronics
Nanosensor
Sensing floor
Transducer
 Wireless sensor network

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of Neural Systems (http://fennetic.net/irc/C
hristopher%20R.%20Carroll%20Carver%20
Mead%20Mohammed%20Ismail%20Analo
g%20VLSI%20Implementation%20of%20Ne
ural%20Systems.pdf) (PDF). The Kluwer
International Series in Engineering and
Computer Science. Vol. 80. Norwell, MA:
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8 (https://do
i.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-1639-8) .
ISBN 978-1-4613-1639-8.
28. Oliveira, Joao; Goes, João (2012).
Parametric Analog Signal Amplification
Applied to Nanoscale CMOS Technologies
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Ahl_
OuKxsToC&pg=PR7) . Springer Science &
Business Media. p. 7.
ISBN 9781461416708.

Further reading

M. Kretschmar and S. Welsby (2005),

Capacitive and Inductive Displacement
Sensors, in Sensor Technology
Handbook, J. Wilson editor, Newnes:
Burlington, MA.
C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V.
Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of Sensors
(10-Volume Set), American Scientific
Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-056-X
Blaauw, F.J., Schenk, H.M., Jeronimus,
B.F., van der Krieke, L., de Jonge, P.,
Aiello, M., Emerencia, A.C. (2016). Let’s
get Physiqual – An intuitive and generic
method to combine sensor technology
with ecological momentary
assessments (https://dx.doi.org/10.101
6/j.jbi.2016.08.001) . Journal of
Biomedical Informatics, vol. 63, page
141–149.
Wikimedia Commons has media related
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Look up sensor in Wiktionary, the free
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 http://www.cbm-
sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_De
scriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf (see
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05724/http://www.cbm-
sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_De
scriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf )

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