ARCHITECTURE AS PALIMPSEST: RE-FUNCTIONING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, ‘WITHIN THE SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ‘THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF ‘THE MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY VO OS 2 NESLIHAN MUGE SOGANCI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE, IN ‘THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE SEPTEMBER 2001Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences — I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Architecture Assist. Prof. Dr. Sclahattin ONUR ‘Head of Department ‘This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion itis fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Archit Examining Committee Members: Assist. Prof. Dr. Cana BILSEL Assist. Prof. Dr. Aygen SAVAS Inst. Dr. Elvan ALTAN ERGUT Inst. De Fuat GOKGE al sha , Architect Cengiz KABAOGLU BomABSTRACT ARCHITECTURE AS PALIMPSEST: RE-FUNCTIONING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS WITHIN THE SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOGANCI, Neslihan Miige M.Arch,, Department of Architecture Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Cana BILSEL September 2001, 185 pages The word "palimpsest”, signifying any written surface that has been erased in order that a new text cam be written on, can be used metaphorically for any alterations in existing architecture. This thesis is a critical study on the functional re-vitalisation of industrial buildings. The concept of re-functioning emerged from the integration of preservation approaches with economic considerations; therefore it needs to be examined in a broader perspective. Industrial archaeology as a newly developing field of study provides a general framework for comprehensive studies on the industrial heritage. Architecture is seen as a form of constituting public realm by concretizing cultural, social and geographical memory of the city into built realm. This is provided by the permanencies that form the collective memory of the city. As witnesses of different periods, although original purpose and function of monuments are generally lost, they can survive as Jong as they incorporate their dynamics with the city. Preservation, rchabilitation and adaptation of industrial landscapes and buildings can only be realised by uncovering hidden meanings and memories, as well as qualities and characteristics of the unique places and artefacts and finally, by re-interpreting their identity with a new understanding. iliIn re-functioning, two basic concepts guide research: “reprogramming” and "re- architecture", While the former refers to the re-organisation of existing spaces to include new uses/activities/events, the latter defines the way of applying new programs by using the potential of architectural language. Industrial buildings are usually designed to serve purely functional intentions, as a paradox, they are preserved and converted for their symbolic existence. This paradox or dual transformation opens up new horizons in the researches on ‘the problematic of re-programming and re-architecture. In this study, the fictional transformation of industrial buildings is interpreted in the light of Alois Ricgl's comprehensive analysis of the Modern Cult of Monuments and Berard ‘Tschumi’s proposals for program and space combinations. These theories and concepts are discussed within the scope of industrial archaeology with five cases re-functioned throughout Istanbul: Bakirkoy Gunpowder Mill, Darphane-i Amire, Haskdy Lengerhane, Feshane-i Amire and Siitlice Slaughterhouse are taken into consideration. Key words: public realm, collective memory, Hustwollen, machine aesthetics, crossprogramming, re-programming, re-architecture, istanbul.oz “PALIMPSEST" OLARAK MiMARLIK: ENDUSTRi ARKEOLOJiSi KAPSAMINDA ENDUSTRi YAPILARININ YENIDEN iSLEVLENDiRiLMESi SOGANCI, Neslihan Miige Yiikesk Lisans, Mimarlk Bolimi Tez Yoneticisi: Yrd. Dog. Dr. Cana BILSEL Fylil 2001, 185 sayfa Yeni bir metnin yazilabilmesi igin silinen, Onceden yam bir yiizeyi tammlayan “*palimpsest” kavramt, varolan mimari olusumlardaki déniigiimler igin mecazi olarak kallanulabilir. Bu tez, endiistri yapilarmin islevsel olarak yeniden canlandinlmasi iizerine clestirel bir galismadir. Yeniden iglevlendirme kavrams, koruma yaklasimlarmin ckonomik diistiniislerle birlegiminden ortaya gikar, bu nedenle daha genig bir perspektifte incelenmesi gercklidir, Yeni goligen bir inceleme alam olarak endistri arkcolojisi, endistri mirast {lzerine yapilan kapsaml: calsmalar igin genel bir gergeve saglar. Mimarlk, kentin kaltirel, sosyal ve cografi bellejini yap1 alanmnda somutlagturarak kamusal alam olusturmann bir bigimi olarak gOrilir. Bu, kentin ortak bellegini olusturan stirekliliklerle saglanir. Farkht donemlere tamkhk oden bir mimari yaps, Szgiin amact ve fonksiyon genellikle silinmig olsa da, bu kendi dinamiklerini kentin dinamikleriyle birlestircbildigi Slgide hayatta kalabilir, Endistri alanlarmm ve yapilariun korunmast, rehabilitasyonu ve uyarlanmalan, Szgiin yerlerin ve artefaktlarm nitelikleri ile kkarakteristiklerinin oldugu kadar, gizlenmis anlamlarim ve bellcklerinin de ortayagikarimast_ ve sonunda kimliklerinin yeni bir anlayrsla yeniden yorumlanmastyla ‘Yeniden igleviendirme arastirmasim temel iki kavram yénlendirir: "yeniden programlama" ‘ve "yeniden mimari". ilki, var olan mekanlarm yeni kullanmlan / igindeki etkinlikleri / olaylan igermesi igin yeniden diizenlenmesine igaret ederken, digeri mimari dilin potansiyeli kullamlarak yeni programlarm uygulanmasm: tanmmlar. Endiistri yapilart genellikle, sadece fonksiyonel amaglara hizmet etmek igin tasarlamirlarken, paradoksal olarak, sembolik varoluslarmdan dolay: dénistirilirler. Bu paradoks ya da ikili dOniigiim, ‘yeniden programlama ve yeniden mimari konularmda yeni ufuklar agmaktadsr. Bu arastrmada, endistri yaprlarmin fonksiyonel dOnfigimi, Alois Riegl'm kapsamht analizi Modern Anu Kalta ve Berard Tschuminin program ve mekan kombinasyon Gnerileri eryevesinde yorumlanmaktadir. Bu teoriler ve kavramlar istanbut'da endilstri arkeol kapsammda yeniden islevlendirilmig dokuz Omek ile tartslmaktadw: Bakurkoy Baruthanesi, Darphane-i Amire, Hasky Lengerhane, Feshanei Amire ve Sitlice Mezbahas1 ele alinmigtir. Anahtar kelimeler: kamusal alan, ortak bellek, kunstwollen, makina estetigi, gapraz programlama, yeniden programlama, yeniden mimari, istanbul.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my thanks to my supervisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Cana Bilsel for her friendly guidance, valuable suggestions and comments throughout the thesis and the master courses in the two-year period. 1 am deeply indebted to my friend, Dr. Ali Cengizkan for sharing my excitement on the subject and for his discussions, which provided me new perspectives. To my friend and sister Ozge Sofancr, I thank for her patience in my most difficult times. I want to thank all my friends for understanding my efforts. Finally, I wish to thank, of course, my parents and other members of my family for their support throughout my education and especially through the thesis.TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. LIST OF FIGURES... CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION. . 1.1.Scope, Objective, and the Configuration of the Thesis. 2. HISTORICITY, COLLECTIVE MEMORY AND MONUMENTS: Preservation of Industrial Herltage.. 2.1. Monuments in Urban and Public Sense. 2.1.1. The Role of Public Realm in the Constitution of Urbanity/Citizenship. 2.1.2. The Role of Collective Memory in the Constitution of Public Realm... 2.1.3. The Role of Permanence in the Constitution of Collective Memory of the City. 10 2.1.4, Monuments as Elements of Permanence. 13 2.2. Reconstructing the History of Technology and Industry. 15 Industrial Archaeology and Museology 2.2.1. Survey of Literature On the Preservation of Cultural Heritage, 20 2.2.2. Development of Consciousness on Industrial Heritage. 4 2.2.3. Survey on National Legislation Regarding Industrial Heritage... 27 2.3, Interpretation of Industrial Heritage according to the "Modern Cult of Monuments": Riegi's Systematisation of Values Regarding Evaluation of Momuments.. - 30 2.3.1. The Role of Kunstwollen in the Consciousness on Industrial Heritage... 31 2.3.2. Past and Present-day Valu 2.3.3, Industrial Heritage or Heritage Industry?. auee viii3. RE-PROGRAMMING AND RE-ARCHITECTURE WITHIN/OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS: Analysis of Functional Transformation ‘as Conceptual Instrument in Architectural Design. 3.1. Funetion as a Too! of Architectural Communication 46 3.2. Functional Transformation: A Historical Background. a7 3.3. Reasons for Abandonment and Re-use of Industrial Buildings and Sites..... 49 3.4, Re-functioning of Industrial Buildings with respect to the Ideology of Re-vitalisation. 3.5. Re-functioning with respect to the Properties of Industrial Buildings. 3.6. New Uses for Industrial Buildings. 3.7. Architectural Programming Methods and Theories. 3.7.1. Actors in Planning Policics... 3.7.2. Re-programming, 3.7.3. Re-architecture... 45 50 53 58 59 39 OF 69 4, EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE 76 4.1, Historical Development of Industrial Architecture... 1 4.1.1, Early Industrial Architecture... 8 4.1.2, Industrial Architecture and Modernism. 82 4.2, Characteristics and Qualities of Industrial Buildings. 86 4.2.1. Material Aspects as Stylistic, Spatial and Structural Formation, 87 4.2.2. Functional Aspects as Program and Type. 94 4.2.3, Social and Physical Aspects as Transformative Element within Urban Context... 96 5, INTERPRETATION OF RE-VITALISED BUILDINGS WITHIN THE LIGHT OF INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE100 5.1, Industrial Developments within the Ottoman Empire. - 100 5.2, Emergence and Development of Industrial Architecture. 106 5.3. Industrial Architecture in Istanbul, the Centre of Industry. 109 5.3.1. Material Aspects as Structural, Spatial and Stylistic Formation. 109 5.3.2. Functional Aspects as Program and Type.. M4 5.3.3. Social and Physical Aspects as Transformative Elements within Urban Context. 5.4, Interpretation of the Re-vitalised Industrial Buildings in istanbul. 116 1185.4.1. From Bakirkéy Gunpowder Mill to Yunus Emre Cultural Centre....... 121 5.4.2. From Darphane-i Amire to istanbul Museum... 129 5.4.3, From Haskdy Lengerhane to Rahmi M. Kog Industry Museum. . 142 5.4.4, From Defterdar Feshane-i Amire to Feshane International Fair, Congress and Cultural Centre... . 152 5.4.5. From Sitlice Slaughterhouse to Sitlice Congress and Cultural Centre 166 5.5. General Evaluation on the Case-Studies... 6. CONCLUSION.LIST OF FIGURES Photographed by N. Miige Soganci unless otherwise stated. Figures: 3.1. Section of Tourcoing, Le Fresnoy designed by Tschumi as a strategy in between in 1991 (B.Tschumi, 1994: 453). 3.2. Model of Tourcoing (B.Tschumi, 1994: 396). 3.3. Cinematic Trusses: dematerialised structure (B.Tschumi, 1994: 413).. 4.1. Documentary works on industrial buildings without interpretation, photographed by Bernd and Hilla Becher ($.Arguner, December-January 2000. "Bir Anatomi Dersi", Domus m, no: 8, p.76).. .. 88 4.2, Documentary works photographed by Bernd and Hilla Becher Aree, December- Jamuary 2000. p.79).. . 91 4.3. Revinterpretation of deteriorated si stay building by Henri Pierre Freihofer (04.2001. "Werk", bauem+wohnen, pp.42-43)... 5.1. View above from the Bakarkdy Gunpowder Mill (P-Tufflaci, 1993: 92)... 5.2. Perspectives from the conversion project of the Mill by Haydar Karabey (Haydar Karabey Architectural Office). 5.3. View of the Mill from the courtyard... 5.4, Interior view of the Mill from the prepared project by Karabey. 5.5. Entrance hall of the Mill from the prepared project by Karabcy. 5.6. View through the space between old and new boundary of the Mil 128 5.7. Stage of the theatre from the prepared project by Karabey... 128 5.8. Plan of the Darphane complex (C.Birkan, June 1996, "Darphane-i Amire: Bir Habitat, Ti Mekam, Arredamento Dekorasyon, p.88).. 139 5.9, Small building in the courtyard used as café and exhibition space. 139 5.10. View from the courtyard through the complex. 139 5.11. View through one of the transitionary and transient ramps used for exhibitions... 140 5.12. Steam power room of Darphane .. 140 66 66 66 93. 127 127 128 128 128 xi5.13. Detail from one of the workshops. 140 5.14. Entrance gate to the narrow street between workshops of the complex. . 140 5.15. View from one of the workshops. . 141 5.16. View from inside of the small building in the courtyard used as bookshop......... 141 5.17. View from one of the workshops. . 141 5.18. View from one of the workshops. . 141 5.19. General view of the Lengerhane building. . 150 5.20. Plans of the main foundry and newly added exhibition space. . 150 5.21, Sections of the whole complex. . 150 5.22. View of the main foundry from the courtyard. 151 5.23. Entrance of the main foundry. 151 5.24. Connection detail from the integration of metal structure to the existing building. 151 5.25, Reverberant oven of the old foundry (Rami KOC Museum Catalogue). 5.26. Transition from the main foundry to the underground exhibition hall 151 5.27. View from inside of the main ball (Rahmi KOG Muscum Catalogue) . 151 5.28. Plan of the old Feshane complex, before other parts demolished, except the main weaving hall (O.Kiigiikerman, 1988: 200). . 164 164 5.29, An old photograph of Feshane complex (W.Miller-Wiener, 1992:108), 5.30, An old photograph from the existing parts of the Palace that Feshane placed on (W.Miiller-Wiener, 1992:110).. 5.31. An old photograph from inside of the main hall (W.Miiler-Wiener, 1992: 5.32, Plan of the converted Feshane main weaving hall (July-August 2000, Tasarum, no: 164 164 103, p.110). . 165 5.33. Perspective illustrating the shopping units designed within Feshane (July-August 2000, Tasarim, no: 103, p.117) . 165 5.34. View of the main hall before the restoration (T.Atagok, April 20 . 165 5.35. General view of the Feshane... . 165 5.36, View from the main hall converted as contemporary art centre. . 165 5.37. An old photograph of Sitiice Slaughterhouse (1949. Cumhuriyet Devrinde istanbul: 195). 5.38, An old photograph of the Slaughterhouse (1949. Cumhuriyet Devrinde istanbul: 196 170 5.39, Facadés of the icc house and meat exhibition halls of the Slaughterhouse (Giincirlioglu, 1991: 68)... .. 170 5.40. Interior of the old Slaughterhouse (G.incirliogtu, 1991: 71 aut 5.41 Detail from the exterior of old building (G-incirliogu, 1991: 72) im5.42. Slaughterhouse under construction in March 2001. im 5.43, Slaughterhouse under construction in August 2001 im 5.44, Vienna Gasometers, sections and plans ($.Arguner, ed., December-January 2000, "Viyana Gazhancleri", Domus m, no: 8, p.139). 176 5.45. One of the gasometers re-functioned as an exhibition hall by Manfred Wehdorn (O.Ugkan, October 1993:134). 176 5.46. One of the gasometers re-functioned as arboretum by Manfred Wehdorn (S.Arguner, ed., December-January 2000: 138). 176 5.47. One of the gasometers re-functioned as mixed-use centre by Coop Himmelblau (G-Arguner, ed., December-Jamuary 2000: 134). 176 5.48. One of the gasometers re-functioned as mixed-use centre by Wilhelm Holzbauer (G-Arguner, ed., December-January 2000: 136). . 176 A.1. Site plan of the Tophane region prepared by Pervititch in 1927 (2001. Jacques Pervititch Sigorta Haritalarmda istanbul: 108) . 193 A.2. Engraving of Tophane drawn by Melling (W.Miiller-Wiener, 1998: 129).. 193 A.3, Demolished carpentry ateliers of the old complex ((W.Miiller-Wiener, 1992: 98), 193 A4. General view of Tophane in 2001 193 A.S. Main foundry building. . 194 ‘A.6. Vaulted tunnels leading through the under floor level... 194 ‘A7. Interior of the main foundry. . 194 A8. One of the buildings used as an atelier for the art school students.. 194 A. Interior of the vaulted rooms. 194 ‘A.10. Main domes on the foundry building. 194 LIL. An old view of the Haskdy Sirket-i Hayriye Shipyard (1985. Tanzimattan (Cumburiyet'e Tiirkiye Ansiklopedisi, vol:5, p.792 . 197 A.12. An old view of the Shipyard (1985, Tanzimattan Cumburiyet'e Turkiye Ansiklopedisi, vol: 5, p.803).. 197 A.13. Plan of the converted Shipyard complex (Rahmi KOC Muscum Brochure)....... 197 A.14. General view of the complex in March 2001. . 197 AAS. Interior view. . 198 A.16. Exterior view of the complex ... 198 A.17. Interior view of the old workshops . 198 ‘A.18. New added transparent exhibition hall adjacent to existing buildings. 198 A.19. View from inside to outside buildings. - 198 ‘A.20. Metal exhibition platforms and stairs.. . 199 ‘A.21. View from the exhibition spaces . 199A.22, Olive oil production manufacture revived in formerly workshops .. seve 199 A.23. Wooden truss roof structure of the workshops... (A.24, Interior view. A.25. An old photograph of the Cibali Tobacco Factory (E. Tutel, 2000: 94)... A.26. An old photograph of the working women (F.and S.Dogrucl 2000; 280).. ‘A.27. View from the inside after converted as the university, ‘A.28. General view of the complex. .- 201 201 201 201 A.29, A scheme illustrating the production of cigarettes (Dogrucl F-and S., 2000: 326) 202 ‘A.30, One of the buildings under construction in August 2001. A31. Plan of one of the buildings within the conversion project A.32. Courtyard between two main parts of the factory. ‘A.33. Detail of the new added metal structure. A34. The inner courtyard. ‘A.35. The graphic representation of the Bakirkby Alcohol Factory conversion project (From the presentation for the Chamber of Architects of Turkey-National Awards- 2000 Building Awards)... 205 A36. Exterior view. 205 A337. View from the entrance courtyard. 205 A.38, Detail from the inside - 206 ‘A.39. The transparent projection at the rear facade added in the new intervention ...... 206 AAO, Entrance hall of the factory. 206 AAI. Reflection of the existing building on the facade of the new added part........ 206 AA2. Interior view. . 206 A.A43, General view of Silahtaraga Power Works in August 2001.. 21 A.44. Exterior of one of the turbine buildings. ‘A.45. Housing block for the workers. ‘A.A6, Detail from one of the buildings ... AAT. Exterior view of one of the turbine buildings ‘A.A8. Exterior of one of the buildings. AA9. Exterior of one of the turbine buildings.CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1. Scope, Objective, and the Configuration of the Thesis Monuments are the artefacts, in which social, cultural and economic relations can be traced, in urban and public sense. The objective of the thesis is to examine the re-vitalisation of industrial monuments by studying multiple components included in this process. Monuments take part in constituting the urbanity/citizenship through the sequence of permanence, collective memory and finally the public realm. This requires a survey on the relations between these concepts. ‘The socio-economic development of a community can be traced back through the industrial history of a country. The industrial sites and buildings constitute the most important part in the collective memory of an industrial city/industriatised community from the perspective of socio-economical and industrial history. Industrial heritage is a general concept in which the socio-economic interests, methods and subjects as well as the physical clements are involved. The concept of “industrial monument" is used throughout the thesis, comprehending artefacts from the scale of a piece of mechanical tool to industrial Tandscapes. For this reason, when they become disused and redundant, the qualities and characteristics that give them the status of a monument are came into the agenda. This requires dwelling on the concept of industrial monument that can be examined with respect to Alois Rieg|'s systematisation of the values based on the Modern Cult of Monuments. Jn the second chapter of the study, the role of permanence is searched within the chain of the constitution of urbanity/citizenship, whereby permanence is taken as a significant concept for the existence of public realm. The monument is the most apparent clement of permanence in the urban formation and thus, the collective memory of the city/citizen. The urban space/public space, urbanity/citizenship dualities and the collective memory are the * Riegl, A., Fall 1982, "The Moder Cult of Monuments: Its Character and Its Origin", Oppositions, no: 25, pp. 21-51, New York, Rizzoli.tension domains in which the role of monument is defined. Emergence of the idea of industrial monument gains importance in these dualitics. In this part, whether the existence of industrial sites and buildings can hold the traces of socio-economic and industrial history of a society, is questioned. Examination within the systematic analysis of "valucs" that Riegl put forward reveal their inherent qualities to call them as industrial monuments. In the third chapter, re-functioning of industrial buildings is examined with respect to the ideology of re-vitalisation and to the inherent propertics of these buildings together with the reason behind their abandonment. Two basic concepts dominate the architectural theories and methods of re-functioning: "re-programming" and "re-architecture”. The research on this process requires initially the definition of actors in the conservation and re-use of the industrial building, since the whole process is determined according to decision mechanisms and their intentions of these actors. Re-programming phase is discussed with Bernard Tschumi's strategies of combination of program and space as "crossprogramming”, "transprogramming” and "disprogramming”. His definition of different relations between space and event are also effective to evaluate appropriateness of uses within existing spaces; these are “reciprocal”, “indifferent” and “conflictual” relations. As for the re- architecture of industrial buildings, it is not possible to determine formal and theoretical principles valid for all individual architectural design treatments. But general approaches can be traced justifying the conceptual base of architectural design and finding the right balance between new design and existing architecture. ‘Emergence and development of industrial architecture are searched in the third part of the thesis. Changing understandings, intentions and necessities in stylisti/spatial/structural and programs reveal the inherent characteristics of these buildings, which make the decisions on functional transformation more accurate. Industrial archaeology requires handling the subject in a broader perspective, therefore, problematising physical existence of these buildings within the social and urban context is also necessary. Sociological perspective can be revealed in the formation and significance of industrial buildings and complexes. ‘What is important is to reveal hidden or ignored parts of our past, to constitute a coherent and multi-dimensional past of the industrial society. History writing generally deals with the history of dominant groups within the public. The distinction between what is ignored or even disguised and what is emphasised is essential in connecting individual experiences and perceptions with collective ones. It should not be ignored that there can be multiple collective memories like that of industrial society, of entrepreneurs, or of workers.The fourth chapter is a brief survey on the Ottoman industry and industrial architecture in istanbul beginning from the 16 century, in comparison with the European context. The core of the discussion concentrates on five cases chosen amongst the functionally transformed nine Ottoman industrial buildings from istanbul that belong to the period from the beginning of the 18* century. Evaluation of cascs integrates the previous analyses moulding the theories and concepts emerging within them. However, these buildings ‘cannot be examined in the larger contemporary urban and social context because most of them stand today, as fragments alien to their original location and complex relations. On the other hand, potential qualities are examined if they were realised as an integrated preservation. ‘There are only nine industrial buildings/complexes that are transformed functionally in istanbul. Most of them are concentrated on the banks of Halig, which is the ancient harbour and industrial site of istanbul. Along the northern banks of Halig, Haskiy Lengerhane and Sirket-i Hayriye Shipyard were converted, respectively, to Rahmi M. Koy Industry ‘Muscum and Siitlice Slaughtethouse to Sitlice Congress and Cultural Centre. On the southern shores, Cibali Tobacco Factory was converted to Kadir Has University and Defterdar Feshane-i Amire to Feshane Intemational Fair, Congress and Cultural Centre. There are also other spot locations in Istanbul: in Bakirkdy region, Gunpowder Mill was converted to Yunus Emre Cultural Centre and Alcohol Factory to Bakark®y Ispirtobane Conservatory and Cultural Centre; in the old peninsula, Darphane-i Amire to istanbul ‘Muscum; in the Galata region, Tophane-i Amire to Mimar Sinan University Culture and Art Centre. In the fifth chapter, from these buildings, Lengethane, Feshane, Stitlice Slaughterhouse, Darphane and Bakarkoy Gunpowder Mill, are discussed in terms of re- functioning processes within the framework that previous chapters had drawn. General ‘valuation and comparisons conclude this chapter. Finally, it is hoped that this thesis will constitute a reference for future works of re- functioning of industrial buildings that the thesis raises, and will open a discussion under the drawn conceptual framework.only be achicved by permanence since the immediate physical world relating generations to each other is not only constructed for the service of a generation, but they arc destined to transcend the life of a man. As stated by Arendt "without this transcendence into a potential carthly immortality, no politics, strictly speaking, no common world and no publie realm, is possible”, ‘What constitutes the society is the existence and togetherness of people composed of different cultural, religious and economic groups. The diversity and variety of these groups within the society are "the most characteristic features of urban culture, and the resulting dynamism and richness of content signifies the substantial issues of urban life’. These diversities are defined by behavioural patterns, belief systems, forms of thinking, life styles as well as modes of relationship and activities. However, these diversities cannot be interpreted as belonging only to one socio-cultural system, since they are distinct groups interwoven with cach other. It is important that the individual be conscious of his/her own roles and rights in the society. The diversification of human roles within society begins with this consciousness. Being conscious of own existence and of having rights means, to participate, to play active ole, to decide and to act consciously in the determination of physical and social environment. Living together in the same geography and society cannot be enough to constitute the consciousness of urbanity and citizenship. The answer lies in how the urban becomes citizen, Henri Lefebvre distinguishes the concept of "urban" from the "city", as "the city, [is] a present and immediate reality, a practico-matcrial and architectural fact, and the urban, [is] social reality made up of relations which are to be conceived of, constructed or reconstructed by thought”.* What is urban, cannot exist without its material base and morphology, which is city as physical and immediate reality. Urban refers to social reality consisting of the existence of thoughts, relations, interactions, that is "a kind of imaginary transcendence”. However, the distinction should be made also between the urban and the public in terms of their meaning and constitution. § Arendt, H., 1958:55. 7 METU Faculty of Architecture Members (A. Cengizkan, A. Gtzer, ©. Keskinok, T. Korkmaz, S, ‘Osmay, N. Sahin, N. Taymur), 1997. Hac Bayram, p.8, Med Campus AMIE. * Lefebvre, HL, 1996. Writings On Cities, trans. and ed. E. Kofinan and E. Lebas, p.103, Blackwell, ‘Cambridge, Massachusetts.cach concept with each other beginning from public realm and its relation with the most palpable clements as monuments. Public realm carries the utmost importance at the end of this sequence. Monument becomes part of the system in constituting urbanity/citizenship through the sequence of monument, permanence, collective memory and finally public realm, through the experience of the subject or citizen. 2.1, 1. The Role of Public Realm in the Constitution of Urbanity/Citizenship: ‘The Public Realm, as the common world, gathers us together and ‘yet prevents our filling over each other, so to speak. What makes ‘mass society so difficult to bear is not the number of people involved, or at least not primarily, but the fact that the world ‘between them has lost its power to gather them together, to relate and to separate them. Hannah Arendt ‘The Human Condition (1958)? ‘The manifestation of public realm is hidden in the notion of being public. It reflects two interrelated phenomena according to Arendt; firstly it signifies appearances that arc being seen and heard by everyone and secondly, the common world itself that is the "common meeting ground of all”.‘ As long as appearances are shared by everyone within the society, they become public appearances. Thoughts, personal emotions, subjective perceptions and senses of human beings need to be transformed and de-individualized in order to reveal themselves within public appearances. Since these elements constitute the individual memories, they have to be transformed to construct collective memory in community as well as to connect these appearances with the common world in the way of constituting the urbanity/citizenship. The meaning of the term "public” as a common world is closer to the man-made artefacts than earth or nature, and affairs that exist between those who share these human artefacts. ‘The world as a "world of things" between people who have those in common, relates and separates them at the same time.’ The second meaning of the word morc related with our physical world: society finds common ground to co-exist so that individual can fee! belonging to the same group sharing the same experience. Constitution of public space within the physical environment is one of the main conditions for the existence of public realm, but not the adequate one. The common world survives, not only with people belonging to the same generation, but also with generations before and after us. This can > Arendt, H,, 1958: 52-53. 4 Arendt, H,, 1958: 50-58, 5 Arendt, HL, 1958: 52.CHAPTER 2 2, HISTORICITY, COLLECTIVE MEMORY AND MONUMENTS: Preservation of Industrial Heritage 2. 1. Monuments in Urban and Public Sense ‘Only the existence of a public realm and the world's subsequent ‘transformation into a community of things which gathers men together and relates them to each other depends entirely on permanence. Hannah Arendt ‘The Human Condition (1958)? Cities consist of a stratification of historical, cultural and architectural layers in social and physical terms; accordingly they provide space for the constitution of public realm with their diachronical presence. Different theories have been produced to understand and elucidate the structure and formation of the city. However, the constitution of urban space does not always refer to the realisation of public space, similarly, urbanity docs not necessarily refer to citizenship. The criteria for the constitution and existence of them have to be questioned. Stratification and juxtaposition of human creations as physical and social layers create cultural accumulation as well as social continuity through permanence. This layering, converged with permanent elements and attributed socio-cultural roles, constitutes public space. These formations arc also effective in the constitution of public realm within society, not only as diachronical accumulation in time, but also a synchronical collision of each layer. Architecture is seen as a form of constituting public realm by concretizing cultural, social and geographical mcmory of the city into built realm, which is provided by permanencics that form the collective memory of the city. Monuments, among other structures, arc elements in which social, cultural and economic relations can be traced in urban and public sense. This requires surveying on the relations of ? Arendt, HL, 1958. The Human Condition, p.55, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.Existence of urbanity is the essential condition for the constitution of citizenship, according to Lefebvre. While the urban that forms urban life/space requires grounding itself on physical reality, it has to be determined by social relations. The existence of public, however, requires more conditions than the urban. Participation of the society in the determination of her physicaV/social environment, which is called as urban space, and consciousness of having rights in social life are essential in the constitution of public life. ‘Thus, while citizenship finds its place within the public, urbanity is constituted by urban Dynamism resulted from communication and participation in every part of social life and in the shaping of physical cnvironment is realised by active participation of society to create ‘the essence of urbanity. Traces of interaction and then participation can be read from the physical environment in urban and architectural formations. These traces can be seen in social environment as ways of living, behavioural patterns, modes of rituals and suchlike. ‘Communication and participation seem to be the most important acts in constitution of urbanity and citizenship: The city regains its status as the locus of democracy through free exchange of ideas and freedom in terms of inexhaustible access to a multiplicity of choices; and multiculturality, within such a context discloses itself as the very essence of prosperous urban life based on communication and participation.? 2, 1. 2. The Role of Collective Memory in the Constitution of Public Realm ‘Understanding the role of collective memory in the constitution of public realm requires the ‘understanding of memory in terms of its nature and its individual character. Christine Boyer in The City of Collective Memory" places memory that refers to different theories related to its intimate character and changing role within society. In our contemporary life, multiplicity and complexity of all kind of relations are depicted as a reason for “the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli" within the routine of everyday experiences on the human perception. As a reaction, man trics to resist over-stimulation by demonstrating less reaction to external effect. George Simmel calls this kind of behaviour as "blase attitude"". All these symptoms are directly related with perception of man, that is, recollection of perceptions as memory fragments. Walter Benjamin points out a kind of reaction of individual to external effects, as "time and space in the nincteenth-century ° METU Faculty of Architecture Members, 1997: 8, ® Boyer, MC., 1994. The City of Collective Memory, The MIT Press. 1 ‘The life of metropolis fife and its deep and emconscions effects are depicted very well in G. ‘Simmel, Summer 1996. "Metropol ve Zihinsel Yasam”, Cogito, pp. 81-89. 7industrial city no longer offered a reassuring correspondence between external experience and interior perception, and hence exterior events mo longer entered directly into memory"?. Maurice Halbwachs states that memory is social by nature rather than individualistic, Forgetting is not necessarily related with the obstacles in one's mind, but the cxisting impressions, situations are fragmentary and “producing inadequate stimuli to prompt awareness", He states that it is necessary to place individual perceptions into the collective experiences so as to reconstruct his/her individual memory into shared whole as collective memory. What carries utmost importance is the assertion of that the remembrances should be integrated within social space to keep memories alive: Memory had to be linked to lived experience; otherwise it was reduced to “history”, becoming abstract or intcllectualized reconstructions, debased or faked recollections. (..) And memory always unfolded in space, for when memories could not be located in the social space of a group, then remembrance would fail. Consequently, the activity of recollection must be based on spatial reconstruction." While memory as a social act is constituted from series of experiences, the memory as an individual act is opposed to social act, is constituted, according to Boyer, from fragmentary perceptions, details of life, vague impressions and conscious remembering to unconscious accumulation of images. If momentary perceptions and fragments depending on the state of the individual at that moment could not complete and support cach other, they could not constitute coherent integrity. According to Halbwachs, memory as meaningful association ‘of experiences, is a more objective fact as a social act than subjective fragmentary perceptions, His main claim on the relation of memory to society can be summarised by his ‘statement, "What makes recent memories hang together is not that they are contiguous in time: it is rather that they are part of a totality of thoughts common to a group". Society sometimes obligates people to relate individual cvents of their lives to the collective ones in order to gain individualistic memories a status and prestige at the level of group that one ‘belongs. Constitution of collective memory within society can be provided by relating them to collective experiences, for he stated "the memory of the same fact can be placed within many frameworks, which result from distinct collective memories"™®. *? Benjamin, W., 1969. "Moti", Muminations, trans. H. Zohn, Schocken Books, New York. (cited in MC. Boyer, 1994: 483) 'S Boyer, MCC, 1994: 26, ™ Boyer, MC., 1994: 26. '* Hialbwachs, M,, 1992. The Localization of Memories, On Collective Memory, ed. and trans. L.A. Coser, p.52, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. "© Halbwachs, M, 1992: 52.To understand the relation of memory with time and space in contemporary life, constitutions and models of previous periods in which the roots of these concepts lay should be revised. Contemporary city having multiplicity and complexity of all kinds of relations reveals its inner structure in built realm in the form of juxtaposed and stratified levels, in which machine-affected structures stand side by side with ancient structures. The fragmented and isolated urban clements in the memory of the city can be scen similarly as fragmentary impressions in the memory of human, The city can be seen as a product of the expression of human perception. Boyer evaluates these fragments in postmodern city in this way: "When juxtaposed against the contemporary city of disruption and disarray, the detached appearance of these historically detailed compositions becomes even more ‘exaggerated and attenuated”. Architectural residues from earlier times give pleasure for their elusive quality, precarious state of existence, reawakening forgotten memories, erosion of original function and ‘Purpose, substitution of imaginary narration and state of slowing the fast-paced tempo of city, with the words of Boyer. They also cause “unexpected shift of attention, allowing a reappraisal of their presence in the city"™*. Role of these fragments cannot be thought only in formal and functional terms but with interpretative systems of their presence as mentioned above: By placing these objects in unique contexts and configurations, they became a new form of "shock experience” used to reawaken memory. They enabled the spectator to think through dream images and to achieve a critical awareness of the present.”” According to Boyer, discontinuity and ruptures in urban fabric as postmodernists celebrate, create severe consequences on the public realm. She stresses different points in understanding of collective memory, which is elaborated on previous discussions. It is stated that memory crisis and loss of public realm in contemporary city are not only related with the loss of links to our ancestors in the form of physical and symbolic traditions. But ‘more importantly, it is related with the psychic perceptions of modern man within the resent time. Contemporary life creates continuous shift of extemal and internal stimuli within routine everyday experiences on the perception of individual; thereof, the necessity of collective memory comes into existence both for continuation of past through future and unification of fragments in the memory of citizen and city:Recall no longer refers exclusively to psychological memory -our ability to recollect forgotten experiences and retic than to conscious awareness. Nor is memory considered to be collective, in the sense that itis linked to the social and physical space of a people and related to the transmission of values and traditions.(..) Our memory crisis seems to be based on our need to establish counter-memories, resisting the dominant coding of images and representations and recovering differences that official memory has erased.” 2.1.3. The Role of Permanence in the Constitution of Collective Memory of the City ‘The public realm within the city is constituted not only of its permanencies but also of urban dynamics since the city changes and transforms as well. There have been urban artefacts in cities, which resist to the passing time. Their function changes in time and, most. of the time differs from their original use. Formal manipulations effect buildings to a certain degree but the general layout, location and relations to urban fabric have not been. transformed so radically. Both buildings and urban fabric are permanent elements providing continuity, for this reason, they are called as urban generators. Aldo Rossi searches for the characteristics and qualities that make them survive for centuries and make still active and vivid, As for the theory of permanence, the difference ‘between the past and future is that "the past is partly being experienced now, and this may ‘be the meaning to give permanencics: they arc a past that we arc still experiencing"”. Rossi defines two types of permanence: pathological and propelling. He calls "propelling permanencics" as historical permanencies that we still experience and live in: "it is still intimately tied to the city; it has been modified and we can imagine the future modifications”. "Pathological permanencies” are defined as the built realm that "stands virtually isolated in the city; (to which) nothing can be added’. He evaluates monuments in respect to their role in the dynamics of city and groups them into two with their symbolic and physical persistence. As he stated: am inclined to believe that persistence in an urban artifact often causes it to become identified as a monument, and that a monument persists in the city both symbolically and physically. A monument's persistence or a permanence is a result of its capacity to constitute the city, its history and art, its being and 2 ‘memory. Marcel Poste, a French urban historian of the carly 20" century, emphasises that there exists some constant themes and traces in the monuments of the city as well as patterns of ? Boyer, M.C., 1994: 28, 2" Rossi, A., 1982. The Architecture of the City, pp. 57-59, The MIT Press, Massachusetts. Rossi, A., 1982: 59-60, ® Rossi, A., 1982: 60, 10streets and formation of original plan by which the original spatial arrangement of the city can be understood.” Cities tend to sustain their original pattern while they change and transform in time. Artefacts within these patterns are the elements constituting the memory ofa city. Poete states that: ‘we must collect all the visual symbols of this urban being -all the evidence of its pathologics and normalitics, gathering and storing all the ‘memory tokens from bygone times, so that in our present time we can arrive at ‘an equilibrium between the urban being and its material environment.”* In reaction to these established ideas of European architectural thought, Bernard Tschumi in Architecture and Disjunction develops an argument against permanence of architecture, ‘based on discussions in Paul Virilio's L’Espace Critique. The image of the historical city in minds, having walls and gates, has been forgotten slowly with rapid developments in electronics, techniques and in more general term in technology. Physical boundaries are replaced by more invisible guarding systems both in urban and architectural scale. No more surrounding walls and gates in cities, and no more solid masonry and heavy materials in buildings exist. Actually according to him, there is no means for significance of monuments either: ‘What was once called urban design has been replaced by a composite of invisible systems. Why should architects still talk about monuments? Monuments are invisible now. They are dis-proportionate - so large (at the scale of the world) that they cannot be seen, Or so small (at the scale of computer chips) that they eannot be seen either. * One of the important roles of architecture in history of civilisation has been its quality of ‘being the witness of time and events. According to Tschumi, this role has been changed with the speed of the developments in tele-communication, because the image of artefacts can be produced virtually, so there is no need for permanence anymore, He states that "Speed expands time by contracting space, it negates the notion of physical dimension”. ‘Though of course, it will continue to have a material base, this materiality is much more transparent and transient now. The meaning of architecture is now open to interpretation, therefore architecture cannot claim permanence of meaning any more. ‘As being witnesses of the transformation of buildings to accommodate different activities, - like factories turned into museums, warchouses into discos etc.- Tschumi suggests that the % Pocte, M,, 1929. Introduction aT Urbanisme. L'evolution des villes, a legon de 'antiquite', Paris. (cited in M.C. Boyer, 1994: 17) 25 Boyer, M.C,, 1994: 17, 2 Tschumi, B., 1994. Architecture and Disjunction, p.216, The MIT Press, Massachusetts, 7” Tschumi, B., 1994: 216. ucause and effect or form and function discussion have no meaning anyway. As opposed to Rossi, he evaluates history and its close complementary phenomenon, tradition and memory as "modes of disguise and fake regulations, so as to avoid the question of transience and temporality". He depicts the situation to understand the state that we live in: ‘The city and its architecture losc their symbols -no more monuments, no more axes, no more anthropomorphic symmetries, but instead fragmentation, parcelization, atomisation, as well as the random superimposition of the images that bear no relationship to one another, except through their collision.* What Tschumi proposes is a kind of determination of the existing situation in physical environment. To accept fragmentation, erosion and disjunction and then to justify in architectural creation by handling them as the representative themes of contemporary world can only lead to deepen this fragmentation and disjunction. To introduce these concepts as abstract terms having any root or connection with hitherto accepted rules of design but to suggest that they are the symbols of our existing situations is a kind of reference system. With only a difference from that they are not referring to concepts of past times but to the concepts of present time. Continuation of the historicist approaches and then anti-historicist proposals of modernist ‘movement played an important role for Tschumi's reaction, since the superficial re-coding, of architecture with historicist and memorial images and superficial refusal of the same concepts exist together side by side. The role of permanencies in the constitution of collective memory usually overlooked unconsciously and sometimes was perceived incorrectly. These concepts were handled cither as images that should be used to revive/recall memories, or as the object of denial. The same treatment can be read in the understanding of the preservation of the permanence; but this time, it is not the reproduction of these images as in the historicist styles, but the preservation of them is in the agenda: Preservation sccmed to lose touch with its ethical core. It lost sight of the fact that it is about reality, about survival of real things and the lessons inherent in them (...) It treated its old buildings as artefacts to be coddled even at the expense of the truth, rather than works of art that make the truth accessible.” Boyer brings out the problem in a coherent way as mentioned before: "Nor is memory considered to be collective, in the sense that itis linked to the social and physical space of people and related to the transmission of values and traditions". As brought out by her, the Tschumi, B., 1994: 218. ® Byard, P., February 1998. File: Transformations, Arehitecture, p.60. **Boyer, MLC,, 1994: 28, 2attitude towards memory crisis is not to reach the mythical and utopian reconstructions but to constitute counter-memories and reveal hidden memorics against imposed ones. This can be realised in architectural terms by keeping the tension between what rally the truth is and what is reconstructed deliberately. The importance of the consciousness of being citizen comes into existence in the realisation of situations and then by revealing its manifestation within the public realm, . Meaning of permanencies within the collective memory of the city is still important in our time, Juxtaposition and superimposition of different cultural and historical layers reveals the significance of permanent clements associated with multiple collective memories; for the significance of permanencies comes not only from the religious, historical and cultural background but also from the architectural and urban formation for centuries, There are monuments erected in history emphasising the historical background of city and revealing the traces of past to sustain its importance within the collective memory. However, it should be pointed out that there are multiple backgrounds and multiple collective memories within the city. The question that Boyer poses seems to be important: "What structures or forms have evolved slowly and collectively over time? And just how does the city become ‘the locus of collective memory and not simply an outdoor museum or a collection of historic districts?""" These words secm to answer this question: "Not only the city with its collection of monuments expected to be a source of inspiration, but monumental buildings ‘were as well theatrical backdrops for dramatic representation and enduring civic display."** 2. 1. 4. Monuments as Elements of Permanence We depart from the Euclidean universe of unity, identity, center, and enter the non-Euclidean universe of pattern, superimposition, and differential function. Instead of continuity we have leaps in space, instead of linear time we have time wraps that ‘superimpose one part of the pattem upon another. ‘Elisabeth Deeds Earmarth Sequel to History (1992) Permanencies find their physical existence in monuments as urban and architectural clements. All the monuments stand as witnesses of time, existing synchronically as 2 Boyer, M.C,, 1994: 13-16. ® Boyer, M.C,, 1994: 15, Boyer answers the question by referring to Becherer, Science plus Sentiment, pp-203-209, 3 Deeds Earmarth E1992. Sequel to History: Postmoderaism and the Crisis of ‘Representational Time, p.166, Princeton University Press (cited in M. Christine Boyer, 1994; 492) 13different time periods, the original purpose and function of the monuments are generally crased, as they can generally survive as long as they are incorporated into the dynamics of the city. Layers of fragments from different periods survive in the city not only functionally and formally, but also symbolically and figuratively. As criticised by Boyer, in the postmodern understanding however, they only exist side by side figuratively without informing and creating any experience belonging cither to the present time or to the time that they recall: In the City of Collective Memory, we find that different layers of historical time superimposed on cach other or different architectural strata (touching but not necessarily informing each other) no longer generate a structural form to the city but merely culminate in an experience of diversity. ‘The architecture as a form of constituting public realm contributes to the transfer of collective memory into built realm. However, the constitution of place needs an active participation by members of the society, for the reconstruction of public realm, is only possible by "no more through assimilation or agglomeration, but through active participation"™*, Active participation of citizens and education of younger generations are ‘one the most emphasised and recommended criteria in the Charters and Symposiums on preservation of the cultural heritage. Historical urban centres with their architectural artefacts should be re-vitalised not as ‘outdoor museums or isolated conservation areas, but as vivid and meaningful places that recover fragmented and forgotten experiences embedded in the collective memory of the city. Transformation, preservation and rehabilitation of historical environments and ‘monuments can only be achieved by uncovering meanings, qualitics and characteristics of the unique place and object and then re-interpreting their identity with a new understanding, of these concepts. In this respect, the collective memory of the industrial city and industrialised community ccan be drawn with the testimonies of socio-economic past and industrial history. Industrial landscapes, buildings and structures, from a broader perspective, have become the permanent clements of the socio-economic past of a country. Within the sequence of monuments finding their place in the constitution of public realm, standing industrial built realm has gained the status of monument. In order to define the nature of industrial sites > Boyer, MC, 1994: 19. 35 METU Faeaity of Architecture Members, 1997: 8. 14and buildings, it is necessary to evaluate them in the scope of industrial archacology with respect to their relation to the Modern Cult of Monuments. 2. 2, Reconstructing the History of Technology and Industry: Industrial Archaeology and Museology ‘The two words, industrial and archacology may secm to be incompatible with each other since the concept of heritage by convention have been hitherto referred to the relies from pre-industrial history. The industrial buildings have not been registered as historical ‘monuments for a long time most likely, because most of the time, they art recent and very much altered structures, having no conventional architectural acsthetic.”” Trying to maintain permanency to reconstruct industrial past and then for this reason to preserve the images of bygone times serves to catch the images of industrial development for its overwhelming importance in all parts of life. Because of the penetration of industry into every part of life, the domain of industrial archacology has become comprehensive in which several disciplines, interests, surveying methods, subjects and objects are involved. Industrial archacology can be defined as "the organised, disciplined study of the physical remains of yesterday's industries", In this respect, scope of industrial archacology is closely related with the history of technology and economy as well as archacology and preservation. Industrial heritage exists at the intersection of production activity and architectural and engineering realm. This means that the archaeological survey is carried in that intersection area. The accepted general definition of an industrial monument is "any building or other fixed structure, especially of the period of the Industrial Revolution, which cither alone or associated with primary plant or equipment, illustrates the beginning. and development of industrial and technical processes, including means of communication”, The time scale of the scope of the discipline has been discussed in many disciplines, from the point of view their own ficld of interest and for different time periods. Most of the time the Industrial Revolution, that is the 18 century, has been depicted as a starting date. ° 1t is discussed in chapter 2.3 "Interpretation of Industrial Heritage according to the Modern Cult of Moruments" with respect to the Alois Rieg], Fall 1982. * Allfrey, J. and'T. Putnam, 1992. The Indestrial Heritage: Managing Resources and Uses, p.9, Routledge, London. * Raistrick, A., 1973. Industrial Archaeology: A Historical Survey, p.4, Paladin: Graftin Books, London. » Raistrick, A, 1973:2. 15‘Though the parameters of that period have not been strictly defined by the discipline, the industrial archaeology tends to concentrate on the period in which the production system evolved from the level of domestic production or craft into the industrial or capitalist production systems. ° There are also some counter-views about the time period that, it can be dated much earlier. If the organised activities for production is the main concern for the discipline to record and preserve, the archaeologists have already shown that these activities are to be found in the prehistoric times." Britain as the forerunner of Industrial Revolution has given particular importance to record and preserve her own industrial development for different aims such as nationalistic pride according to Palmer and gives importance to historical documentation much more than the economic viability of old industrial structures. It carried also the concern for the impact of industrialisation to the historical development of cities. The emergence of the term “industrial archaeology” in Britain is not a coincidence for that reason, The term did not ‘pass into popular usage until the mid1950s but in 1960s it became an accepted field of study. As it is expected from the broad range of the survey area, there have been various interest groups, disciplines, academics closely related with the industrial archacology. Re- evaluation of redundant industrial sites, structures and landscapes besides installations, has interested archacologists, historians, architects, planners, engineers, economists and so on. Some of them arc also interested in, and specialised especially on particular subjects like railway preservation, canal restoration, etc. W.Minchinton depicts the task of industrial archacologists as: “the industrial archacologist is concerned to locate, record and, when appropriate, preserve the physical survivals of past industrial processes together with the ancillary buildings associated with such activity". It is important to note the reasons behind the economical decline and disuse of industrial landscapes, buildings and artefacts. Industrial technologies have continuously developed since late 18" century. A rapid progression was seen, however, in the first half of the 20" ‘century, in the developed countries in terms of development of industrial production system and techniques. This gave way to the abandonment and alteration of industrial sites within “© Palmer, M. and P. Neaverson, 1998. Industrial Architecture: Principles and Practice, p.15, Routledge, London. * Raistrick, A, 1973: 5. “@ Palmer, M, and P, Neaverson, 1998: 1-2, © Raistrick, A, 1973: 10. 16cities both to open up new areas for new industries and to erase the traces of dreadful and uncompromising past. These countries have entered the post-industrial phase in which the heavy industry has largely disappeared and instcad, de-centralisation of industry took place, because of the existence of cheaper labour costs and abundance of raw material source.“ Therefore, large industrial areas within cities became redundant and disused and were left to dereliction with their potentialities in terms of historical, educational values and economic potentials. ‘When the values of industrial past began to be recognised, industrial structures as objects of this past have been firstly perceived as romantic images as ruined castles in the course of the 18° century. These structures have experienced this transformation from practical and efficient entities into objects reflecting images of industry carrying totally different ‘meanings from the intentions of their builders and users. They have been seen as “icons of innovative industrial past, rather than as functional structures operating within a ‘manufacturing environment" and regarded as "objects in themselves rather than part of the culture-historical process". ‘The shift from an attention for only their physical appearances towards contemplation for their social and cultural value occurred much later. Most of the critics aiming to place the ficld of industrial archaeology with the right terms, interest areas, and scope of subject put ‘the emphasis on the ignorance of socio-cultural dimensions and what really characterises the industrial past. This criticism is important since the direction of survey lead to the reconstruction of industrial past and to the construction of collective memory of industrial society. The distinction between what is ignored or even disguised and what is emphasised is essential in connecting individual experiences and perceptions with collective ones. It should not be ignored that there can be multiple collective memories. History writing generally deals with the history of dominant groups. What is important is to reveal hidden or ignored parts of our past to constitute a coherent and multi-dimensional past of the Industrial culture has itsef idealised archetypes of what itis not which can get in the way of recognising its own character, problems and achievements...) Established “treasures” are extensively reproduced while previously "hidden" histories are fretted out for public consumption.”* “ Minchinton, W., 1984, A Guide to Industrial Archaeology Sites in Britain, pp.192-193, Granada Publishing, London, Palmer, M. and P. Neaverson, 1998: 8, “ Alffey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 7Recording and preservation of physical remains of the past industries are meaningful when they are treated with the principles of integrated preservation. It is essential to keep industrial buildings and complexes together with all connections and relations of production spaces, auxiliary structures and in-situ installations. Since stratification of layers in those sites has rarely been preserved, industrial archaeologists at present concentrate on the interpretation of sites, structures and landscape more than artefactual material. This means that the understanding of taking "physical remains of past industries as entities themselves rather then as expressions of human endeavour” is tried to be broken with present studies and interventions, since "material culture is not a passive reflection of society but an active constituent of it". Reading these structures within the scope of architecture, benefits from the studies of other fields concerned with industrial archaeology. It requires an interdisciplinary study. These buildings indicate social dimensions of production that can be read, for example, from the viewpoint of spatial organisation of a complex. Purpose-built structures are especially the good resources to read how spaces were regulated for the maximisation of profit, economy of time and space as well as to control the worker from the moment he/she cnters the factory, through dining and recreation time. The light condition of industrial production space, for example, can sometimes express more information than physical clements of architecture. That is, extending and increasing the quantity and quality of light intensity into the production space can be interpreted as extending the working time of labour in a day as well as creating healthier conditions for them. Continuous production necessitates a degree of social control by the entrepreneur over his workforce, which can be observed in the organisation of the complex from production units to living accommodations provided in this complex. J. Alfrey and T. Putnam criticise the concerns dealt with from 1960s to the present day by industrial archaeologists. What is stated is that, characteristics, problems and achievements of industrial history have been surveyed on the basis of appearances, that is, "assessment hhas been anchored to visual values rather than to any other than a superficial consideration of function or history". This led to the ignorance of different aspects of the industrial past since the remains were not evaluated as a whole with other values, While unusual types and superficial qualities attracted attention, the disappearance of common types and essential ‘qualities representing the texture of an arca more truly, was allowed. #7 Palmer, M. and P. Neaverson, 1998: 2, “* Palmer, M. and P. Neaversan, 1998: 8. Airey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 8.Industrial culture has itself idealised archetypes of what it is not which can get in the way of recognising its own character, problems and achievements. (..) Established “treasures” are extensively reproduced while previously "hidden" histories are fretted out for public consumption.” ‘The resource of industrial past is abundant all over the world but they are fragmentary. This dircetly effects the understanding and also intervention on their recording, preservation and even re-use. There are different reasons for the fragmentation and disjunction of the industrial past; first reason is the elimination of most of the common types and selection of ‘unusual types representing values closer to conventional architectural aesthetics. Secondly, this fragmentation is derived from the industrial progress itself in the form of ‘transformations and technological alteration and lastly from the absence of integrated preservation management strategy.” It is important to understand these reasons to be able to overcome their effects on our perception as a result of our manipulation. The main emphasis of the criticism of Alfrey and Putnam is on the ignorance of the most essential features of the development of industrial activity, that is the pattern of change. In the preservation, the emphasis on original condition or visual integrity may not be relevant since the whole complex, from structure into installations, might have been successively transformed to adapt new technological and economic changes. Transformation and dynamism, therefore, symbolise the industrial activity, which also effects industrial structures. It is desired to preserve traces of this dynamism in industrial landscapes, structures and artefacts by means of revealing and recording each phase of built realm housing those activities: ‘It reminds us that renewal and transformation are more characteristic, more emblematic, of industrial history than any monument. And, consequently, the fragments that survive are seldom representatives of what went before.” ‘What should be preserved and revitalised and what can be ignored after recording traces cannot be determined by looking from only the perspective of a discipline. The scope of industrial archacology requires collaborative study in an interdisciplinary medium, which directly effects what should be preserved, why it should be preserved and how it should be preserved. Until very recent times, the common understanding was the preservation of only the physical remains of industrial past. In conservation planning of industrial sites, 19however, appropriation of a research method from only a discipline has been evaluated as one-dimensional heritage” preservation.” J.M. Richards in The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings™ identifies the essence of aesthetic qualities in industrial buildings as the expression of function. He argues that, in early industrial buildings, vernacular practices, techniques and matcrials used by practical intentions are seen as an essence of industrial aesthetics. Preservation of industrial monuments, that are chosen from the examples having highly visible architectural vocabulary, is criticised for its validity only for certain types such as mills, warchouses, or train stations.** They are not only the mediums to which most up-to-date and efficient technology are applied, but also the products of a larger local and economical context. As it is criticised, "one of the main fallacies of an architectural or a functional approach to industrial buildings is to treat them as static entities with a single purpose." ‘A comprehensive survey on the industrial archacology is necessary to determine the correct approach in planning the future of industrial heritage, The conservation planning is not comprehensive enough to determine all the dimensions since it tends to be concemed with the re-vitalisation of the heritage physically and economically. It can protect physical appearances and provide economic renewal but "may not be able to sustain the patterns of ‘use which have justified them". A survey through the international documents can inform us about the growing consciousness to extend the scope of industrial monuments and the necessity of collaboration with other disciplines for the correct approach of interventions to ‘monuments, 2. 2. 1. Survey of Literature On the Preservation of Cultural Heritage The 19% century recorded many fundamental changes establishing the rules of modem world with modern concepts of history and of cultural heritage. The most fundamental change occurred in the concept of value is that there is no more classical concepts of ‘universal, absolute and timeless values, but instead, relativity and specificity of all kinds of ® Alfrey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 26-27. Richards, J. M, 1958, The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings, The ‘Architectural Press, London, 5 Alfrey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 10. & Alffey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 113. * Alffey, J. and T. Putnam, 1992: 11. 20values. History began to be interpreted as "collective, social experience, recognising that ‘cultures of different ages and regions could have their own style and guiding spirit". ‘Moder restoration movement emerged subsequently in the early 19* century on the basis of new concept of historicity. Accordingly, works of art and historic buildings was given importance with the new understanding, that they are "unique and worthy of conservation as an expression of a culture and a reflection of national identity". Over-cmphasis on historicism in the second half of the 19% century, together with the emergence of positivism related with the development of sciences, strengthened the modern restoration movement. Emergence of the understanding based on the restoration of historical buildings to reach so- called 'stylistic purity’ and ‘unity’ arose from historicist movement. Emergence of positivism relying on scientific methods played an effective role to build upon restoration on objective logic that is beyond valuc judgements.® The main emphasis is put on the question of values in modern conservation theory. The notion of valuc brings together the concept of relativity and scrics of transformations. The role of values in interpreting history, consequently in conservation, came to the discipline as the recognition of cultural diversity. Alois Ricgl (1858-1905) focused his studies on the definition of the nature of monuments and their changing roles in different cultures at the turn of the 20 century. Introducing the concept of kunstwollen in the understanding of the nature of monuments as the object of conservation theories, he made a great contribution to the relativity of values in The Modern Cult of Monuments. Ricgl was the first to provide a clear analysis of the values that distinguish traditional and modem approaches. During the 20 century, and especially since the Second World War, protection of cultural heritage has gained intcrnational dimensions.” Review on the international and national documents, in which the development of consciousness of cultural heritage can be followed, reveals the aims and different philosophies behind these recommendations, resolutions and charters. The Conference for the "Protection of artistic and scientific institutions and historic monuments" held in ‘Washington on April 15%, 1935, defines the cultural and natural heritage all over the world 5 Jokilehto, J, 1999. A History of Architectural Conservation, pp.16-17, Butterworth- Heinemann, Oxford. He points out that the modem approach to values is determined by the inheritance of Descartes, Vico, Herder, Kant, Winckelmann, Hegel, Mars, Spengler, Comte, Dilthey and especially. Nietzsche. » Joie, J, 1999: 17. © Jokilehto, J, 1999: 18. Jokiletto, J, 1999; 19, aas the "cultural treasures of peoples". Everyone is responsible for the preservation of heritage by the admission that, each people make contribution to the cultural life of the ‘world. Therefore, any damage in any part of the world is seen as the damage in cultural and natural heritage of mankind.* The definition of cultural heritage is extended in time through symposiums until the comprehension of “any material or non-material vestige of human endeavour and any trace of human activitics in the natural environment"®. Remains of ancient civilisations as physical entities survive rarely with their formal, stylistic and contextual properties. They have become an image in time in the collective ‘memory of citizens with what they represent in minds. The idea was formulated in the International Venice Charter on May 31", 1964 as "imbued with a message from the past, the historic monuments of generations of people remain to the present day as living witnesses to their age-old traditions. (..) It is our duty to hand them on in the full richness of their authenticity", Jn the Venice Charter, some definitions and articles were approved on conservation, restoration, excavations and publications related with these rescarches. In definitions, it is stated that the concept of historical monument should not be perceived as a single entity but embracing "the urban or rural setting, in which is found the evidence of a particular civilisation, a significant development or a historic event"®. A growing consciousness on the appreciation of the art-value of monuments is seen as well. Articles on conservation ‘generally dwell on making use of historical monuments and set rules for modifications in ‘the layout or decoration, scale, mass, colour and items of sculpture and painting of the buildings. There is a more comprehensive article concerning the re-functioning of monuments. According to the Venice Charter, re-use of buildings can only be possible for social purposes and there are certain limits for change of layout or decoration of historical buildings. Article 5: The conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially useful purpose. Such use is therefore desirable but it must not change the layout or decoration of the building. It is within these limits only that modifications demanded by a change of function should be envisaged and may be permitted. © Madran, E, and N. OzgOntl, eds., 1999. International Documents Regarding the Preservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage, pp.1-3, METU Faculty of Architecture Press, Ankara. © Madran, E. and N. Ozginill, 1999: 576, © Madran, E. and N. Orginiil, 1998: °° Madran, E. and N. Ozgdinfil, 1999: 31. Venice Charter cited in E. Madran and N. Ozgéatil, 1999: 31-34, 2‘The topic of Vienna Recommendation on October 8*, 1965, by the Council of Europe was "Finding new uses for monuments in their natural or aesthetic surroundings, which are of cultural interest but no longer fulfil their original purposes". Transformation of buildings functionally is recommended in the case of "lack of the necessary maintenance and of functions in keeping with their character”. Keeping in mind that monuments are the reminders of a period of history, it is proposed to include them "as an integral part of a general policy, on regional planning which centralises and harmonises action to be taken throughout the country". It is also emphasised that conservation is a collective responsibility, therefore the conservation process should not be left only to owners but also to the governments. Recommendations on re-using redundant buildings are grouped at the end Different topics began to be introduced on the subject of preservation in the early 1970's. Introduction of new subjects as a response to contemporary problems in urban and architectural scale was first seen in Budapest on June 30%, 1972. The attention was diverted from social values of monuments towards the rapid growth of cities creating problems in preservation of cultural heritage in urban scale. In this symposium, the emphasis is put on the necessity of treating architectural heritage by conceiving past, present and future as an integrated whole. During their life processes, they are maintained in so for they serve to changing, socio-cultural, economic and political context. While they maintain their physical existence, their original use and symbolic attributes may change. This is expressed with this statement in the Symposium: () that architecture is necessarily the expression of its age, that its development is continuous, and that its past, present and future expression must be treated as a whole, the harmony of which must be constantly reserved; and that any historical monument or complex of buildings possesses an intrinsic value independently of its initial role and significance which enables it to adapt itself to a changing cultural, social, economic and political context while fully retaining its structure and character.° In the European Charter of the Architectural Heritage, held in Amsterdam on October 25%, 1975, general principles were drawn about the preservation of architectural heritage. The importance of this Charter also comes from the acceptance of 1975 as European ‘Architectural Heritage Year. There, some principles related with the importance of developing consciousness through more comprehensive preservation in terms of inclusion © Madran, E. and N. Ozginiil, 1 . Madran, B. and N. Gzg6nill, 1999: 44, © Madran, E. and N, Ozgintll, 1999: 105-106. 23of different kinds of architectural environments and objects were stated.” Sherban Cantacuzino, as an expert on the reuse of monuments, mentions about the criteria of what to preserve in his article for the celebration of European Architectural Heritage Year in 1975, From the architectural point of view, he insists that the emphasis should be on visual ‘qualities appreciated by architectural considerations rather than social and economic considerations. As stated "(.. still believe that our choice of subject should be dictated by architectural and historical considerations and not by secondary social, economic or even ecological arguments".”” This statement confirms that the critic on the preservation planing is not comprehensive enough, though it broadens the preserved period and material, in order to determine all the dimensions. The subject of industrial heritage has to be handled, according to me, as a separate topic but not as a sub-group of the cultural heritage. The collaboration of preservation with other disciplines in the industrial archaeology will provide broad perspectives for re-vitalisation of industrial monuments, 2. 2. 2, Development of Consciousness on Industrial Heritage Beginning from the end of the 18" century, massive migration of people to towns for better life conditions resulted in radical changes in the structure and scale of traditional towns. Cities grew rapidly and new kind of building types emerged when coming to the 19" ‘century. Large-scale industrial buildings replaced the small-scale manufactures; low- density residential areas left their places to blocks of flats and, with the increasing population, the small-scale public buildings were replaced by larger scale institutional buildings of higher capacity. The historical value of previous structures was undermined, ‘The acceptance of the 19" century architectural heritage as an important layer in the cultural heritage of mankind was mentioned in the Berlin Symposium organised on April % Madran, E. and N. Gzginil, 1999: 156-158. Some of them can be mentioned for their importance as: © the architectural heritage should be taken into consideration with its natural and man-made settings ‘and, itis also the “expression of history and helps us to understand the relevance of past to contemporary life". * it plays an important role in the collective memory of mankind and creates the environment that is ‘essential for the balanced and complete life, "Otherwise, part of man's awareness of his own. continuity will be destroyed.” * itis indispensable also to create a "harmonious social balance". Different activities are placed in an “authentic environment” of the old historical centres to activate the social integration of citizens at Jocal and national levels. * integrated conservation of architectural heritage in urban scale with correct restoration techniques and appropriate functions will protect it from these dangers, but itis especially emphasised that this ‘conservation technique should not damage social justice and prevent the introduction of modem architecture into this kind of areas. ™ Cantacuzino, S, and M. Reid, eds., January 1975. "Architectural Conservation in Europe”, Architectural Review, no: 935, pp.3-4. 429%, 1976. In this symposium, the reasons of urban problems in historical cities were depicted as population growth, cconomic and technological developments with the rapid industrialisation of cities as mentioned above, Though the 19" century gave way to great destruction on previous ages, it was realised that this period was also scriously affected from the ongoing developments: Despite certain negative aspects, the 19% century left us with urban, architectural and artistic ensembles, comparable in every respect to the great achievements of the past. They too form an i | part of the European ‘century just as much as that from earlier centuries, is seriously threatened by accelerated deterioration, current building regulations and renewal techniques.” However, the extension of periods in order to cover vernacular, rural, technical and industrial architecture of the 19* and 20* century with their surroundings was first formulated in the Symposium, held in Granada, on October 3", 1985.” As examples of one of the oldest industrial activity, the mining engineering monuments were taken into consideration in the colloquium on "Mining engineering monuments as a cultural heritage” organised on September 8°, 1988. Decision on the encouragement of preservation, conservation and adaptive re-use was taken for “mining has made an impact on large parts of natural and built environment”. Some of these recommendations for the preservation of mining heritage can be mentioned as: * the immediate development of the highest standard of rescarch, recording and documentation, * the promotion and encouragement of preservation, conservation and adaptive re-use, * a broadening of the public's awareness, * the continued encouragement and promotion of tourism,” ‘Most extensive recommendation for the preservation of industrial complexes was made in the symposium "On the protection and conservation of the industrial, technical and civil ‘engineering heritage in Europe" on September 13%, 1990. Different aspects of industrial heritage distinguishing them from other structures of the cultural heritage were expressed for their specific nature, "The promotion of scientific knowledge of the technical, industrial and civil engineering heritage” is the most important point that the Recommendation aims to emphasise. It is stated that there will be a loss in the collective memory and European identity, in the case of "total disappearance of buildings, installations or vestiges of industrial activity". The preservation of the industrial heritage began to be considered in ” Madron, E. and N. Ozginiil, 1999: 173-175, ® Madran, E. and N. Ozginil, 1999: 293-294. Madtran, E. and N. Gzgéntil, 1999: 335-336. 25different scale and involving several disciplines. It is summarised with these words: "the aim is not to consider only buildings, technical monuments, sites or objects, but also a physical environment, a corpus of knowledge, techniques and ways of life’”*. In the second half of the 20 century, large industrial areas became redundant and disused and left to dereliction”* with their potentialities in terms of historical, educational values as well as economic and tourism potentials. With the emergence of post-industrial society, to attract the attention of people to industrial buildings, installations and vestiges as part of collective memory and industrial identity have been essential. ‘The integrated prescrvation for industrial heritage is proposed with their installations within their context to reveal its inherent architectural quality, construction and operation technique and the ways of social life. It is proposed for every cultural heritage to be representative of the characteristics of its period. It seems that propositions and recommendations of integrated preservation in the subject of industrial heritage as a new sub-group of cultural heritage seem to be the right approach. Because, they can maintain their identity across different industrial periods of a country with the representation of all ‘races of these periods. Not only industrial landscapes and buildings of isolated forms, but also installations and machinery within their original context should be preserved. ‘The Symposium "On the protection of the twentieth century architectural heritage" was held, on September 9%, 1991, on the modern heritage of Nations. As a result of industrialisation, introduction of new materials and construction techniques to the vocabulary of architecture as well as a varicty of building types emerged. Heterogencous environments resulted from intermingling of traditional and modern styles, and the latter ‘was not recognised as a category of cultural heritage until that time for "its closeness in time, the abundance of examples and their heterogencous character”. Thus, it was aimed to encourage the interests of people and to inform them "by pointing out the wealth and diversity of its components, by tracing their history and links with the local surroundings"”. ‘The evolution of ideas on the preservation of objects, monuments and sites can be observed ‘through the analysis of the texts, charters and recommendations of preservation. ‘Developing consciousness in conservation of industrial heritage and also the extension of the subject in a way to include the 20 century cultural heritage reveals the fact that 7 Madan, E. and N. Ozgiindl, 1999: 374-379, 7 Reasons for the dereliction and disuse of the industrial areas are examined broadly in Chapter 3.3. 7” Madran, E. and N. Grgintil, 1999: 409-413. 26intentions on the preservation of cultural heritage have been evolved to be more ‘comprehensive in terms of period and types of physical entity. Emphasis put on the rapid developments all through the 20" century makes us think on the reasons behind the ‘comprehension of broader time periods. This is specifically derived from the reactions and criticisms against the impacts of the 20 century modernism as well as from the destructive cffects of large-scale urban renewal projects implemented after the Second World War. In the period of "all solids melting into air" in Marx's statement, mankind tries to catch all swept-away traces in built realm and in social relations as cultural heritage, 2. 2.3, Survey on National Legislation Regarding Industrial Heritage ‘The first legislation on the preservation of cultural heritage in the Ottoman Empire was the second Asar-1 Atika Nizamnamesi accepted in April 1874. Including immovable works of art, the comprehension of first legislation was extended in the second one. Those old regulations remaining from the Ottoman Empire were replaced by Legislation for Ancient ‘Works of Art (Eski Eserler Kanunu) in May 1973, in which the definitions of monument, historical, archacological and natural sites were made. A new legislation, The Cultural and ‘Natural Heritage Preservation Legislation (Kaltir ve Tabiat Varliklanm Koruma Kanunu) ‘was prepared and adapted in July 1983.”* ‘Basic considerations about why to preserve and what to preserve can be traced from a close study of this legislation, Until 1973, the main criterion for the definition of heritage was the "age value”. It was assumed that the age of a work of art or monument increases its value. his assumption was not based on a complex set of value systems since the only value was the age of the heritage. The new legislation accepted in 1983, brought definitions of cultural ‘and natural heritage, which shows that definitions and different value systems began to be introduced for the evaluation, understanding and preservation of national heritage. ‘The legislation of cultural and natural heritage makes the definition of cultural heritage including all movable and immovable works related with science, culture, religion and art of prehistoric and historical periods. It includes landscapes -natural or man-made-, different types of buildings and surface art works like mosaics, relieves etc as immovable cultural ‘works. Certain types of buildings, belonging to industrial past of the nation, were first % VidinlioBlu, N., 1994. "Korumada Yasal Sistem Gelisimi", Ulusal Koruma Planlamast Semineri 1s, pp.35-40, YTU Mimaritk Fakiitesi Basim isigi, Istanbul. 27included in the legislation of 1983. Shipyards, wharves and mints are the industrial building types that are mentioned in this Icgislation.”” Tiirkiye signed and accepted certain agreements that were prepared in different International Symposiums, in which more detailed definitions were given and types of intervention on industrial heritage such as preservation, rchabilitation, adaptive re-use were defined. The scale of monuments to be preserved was extended both including historical sites and more modest objects in the Venice Charter, which Tirkiye signed and later legalised with the Law of 1983. Extension of periods and types to include vernacular, rural, technical and industrial architecture of the 19" and 20" century buildings with their surroundings was firstly put forward in the Symposium, held in Granada in 1985. This was also accepted and legislated by the Turkish State in 1989.” This Symposium is the only document designating the inclusion of industrial architecture as national heritage within the scope of preservation in Tiirkiye. In the national legislation, there are special laws related with particular areas designated as cultural and historical sites to be preserved, for which special rules of implementation have ‘been fixed. istanbul Bosphorus Area is one of these preservation sites for which a special Law was emanated. The Bosphorus Legislation was prepared in 1983 with the aim of preserving cultural and historical values and natural beauties for public benefit and restriction of constructions in this area. Although istanbul has been the heart of industrial activity since the Ottoman period and included the traces of industrial past of the Ottoman Empire and of the Turkish Republic, there is no legislation, however, about the preservation of industrial landscapes, buildings or installations. The shore of Bosphorus and especially of Halig was the area where industry was concentrated. There is not any topic concerning the preservation of industrial past in the "Bosphorus Legislation". ‘The consciousness for industrial heritage has not grown yet in Turkiye. The whole discourse on the preservation is imported from European countries. Reasons behind these may be the unconsciousness in prescrving historical documents. Until the 19* century, what determines the preservation of any work was the age of that work instead of its importance in historical development.” The age of industrial buildings might not express much value ‘when it was compared to cultural works in the Ottoman period. ® 1990, Tasinmaz Kiltir ve Tabiat Varhklan Mevzuaty,p.4, Kilt Bakanigs Yayint, Ankara, © 1900: 3-5, 95-97. 8 1990: 63-73. © Tanyeli, G, April 1998. "EndOstri Arkeoloj Arredamento Mimark, no:100+2, p.92. 28It is obvious that the definitions, rules and general recommendations are not sufficient by themselves to preserve in the right terms and determine policies to be adopted in the works of restoration and revitalisation. Detailed definitions and nocessary resolutions should be prepared for the preservation, maintenance, restoration, reconstruction and re-use of industrial heritage, since present definitions and resolutions prepared for other types of ‘buildings are not applicable on and compatible with industrial monuments. As a way of preservation, re-use of industrial buildings requires special consideration appropriate with the preservation rules. Compared to other types of buildings, there is not much room for indcterminate activity and motion in industrial production spaces. Because they are integrated / intermingled with Production spaces, auxiliary structures and mechanical installations. Activities are determined / dependent mostly on the mechanical installations, working principle of machines and working processes in the original condition of industrial buildings. Rules of ‘mechanics and industrial system dominate the spatial organisation more than the human activity. When these machinery and tools were removed from these spaces, they become ‘transformed to flexible spaces offering, a variety of possibilities. Inserting a use to serve human circulation requires special study on re-programming and re-functioning since these ‘spaces should be transformed to design them appropriate to human activities. Reusing an industrial production space designed to house mechanical activity, with installations and machinery inside, requires a special care, consideration and definition. Just as the preservation of a mosque or church, it needs to be studied with its symbolism, special space qualities and integrated decorations. Correspondingly, general framework should be drawn for the re-fimnctioning of industrial heritage but this framework should not hinder new possibilities and experiences that can be drawn from the qualities of industrial buildings. Necessity of general framework does not refer to determine and fix strict rules, in ‘which leaving room for creativity and creative interpretation is nevessary for successful revitalisation and re-functioning. 292.3, Interpretation of Industrial Heritage according to the ‘Modern Cult of Monuments! :Riegl's Systematisation of Values Regarding the Evaluation of Monuments ‘Throughout history, historical artefacts have represented different meanings and reserved importance in the collective memory of a community; individuals experience them all through their life within their immediate environment. The nature of monuments and their changing role are studied rigorously by the art historian and theoretician Alois Riegl (1858- 1905) at the end of the 19 century. "The Modern Cult of Monuments: Its Character and Its Origin"® was written as a preface to the legislative proposal for the protection of historic monuments in the lands of Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1903." His contemplation of historical objects from a piece of paper to great palaces can be explained by his intellectual formation as a curator of the Muscum. Ignasi de Sola-Morales evaluates Riegl’s effort and contribution as: (..) his thought was developed as an effort to reconstruct the meaning of the ‘work of art at a moment when the Enlightenment mode! of the Museum as a collection was in crisis and when, for the same reason, the idea of art history as a purely classificatory discipline was also in crisis. Riegl's ideas are still valid today, for the proposed classifications and assigned values to ‘monuments are widely accepted. Though some values have gained new meanings their comprehension has been redefined, his article remains the most comprehensive one sustaining its own integral validity until our time, His research puts forward its subject ‘matter clearly but it does not fall into the mistake that the proposed values are the only ones assigned to a monument that cannot carry any other value. A monument can carry different ‘values at the same time, so more complex evaluations are required by the help of assigned values. Evaluation of monuments according to a value system is not a reductionist attimude but it seems a comprehensive systematisation, Ricgl's approach is widely accepted as "the first coherent basis for modern conservation theory", Riegl defines artistic and historical monuments as not only being “palpable, visual and audible creation” but also carrying different meanings. The historical monument is defined as; "Everything that has been and no longer (...) in accordance with the modern notion that, © Ricgl, A, Fall 1982. "The Modern Cult of Monuments: Its Character and Its Origin", Oppositions, no: 25, pp. 21-51, New York, Rizzoli. (Originally published in A. Rieg!, Gesammelte ‘Aufsatze Augsburg- Viema: Dr. Benno Filser, 1928) ™ Forster, K., Fall 1982. "Monument/Memory and the Mortality of Architecture", Oppositions, 10:25, pp. 3, New York, Rizzoli. * Sola-Morales, L, Fall 1982. "Toward a Modern Museum: From Riegl to Giedion", Oppositions, ‘0:25, p.69, New York, Rizzoli. 30what has been can never be again, and that everything that has been constitutes an irreplaceable and irremovable link in a chain of development." He distinguishes monuments further according to their commemorative value as “intentional” and “unintentional (historical)" and also to the passage of time as “possessing age-value”, Defined values cannot be separated strictly from onc another, because these categories are interwoven with cach other. They are further classified according to their relationship with present day values as “use-value” and “art-value™, which are in turn defined with respect to the concept of kunstwollen.” The term is translated as "will to form" or "will to art". Kurt Forster connects Riegl's discovery of kunstwollen to Freud's libido for their "individual manifestations and collective force". 2.3. 1. The Role of Kunstwollen in the Consciousness on Industrial Heritage The historical time begins with the creation of the object, then covers its lifetime from the end of creation to the present time, and finally, the perception of the object as a monument. In this process, cultural, social, economic and political conditions of a particular time period contribute to the transition from the creation through gaining of the object a status of ‘monument, At the end "a heritage resource that is substantially reconstructed today would become a product of the present”.” As in other building types, industrial buildings pass through a historical time of transition to become an industrial heritage, As a result of this, process, prescrvation of industrial buildings creates a paradoxical situation, since industrial buildings are designed usually for practical and functional usefulness with pragmatic intentions. They do not carry much symbolic meaning in the urban context when they are designed. But they are placed in the collective memory of countries as testimony of their industrial development. Their art-historical value emerged in relation to the transformation of aesthetic values in the “exalted machine age". However, this leads to the preservation of industrial buildings both as fragments of the industrial fabric physically and as emblems of technological progression symbolically. ° Jokilehto, J, 1999, A History of Architectural Conservation, p.215, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, © Riegl, A., Fall 1982: 21. °° Their definitions and relation to industrial buildings are discussed in the chapter 2,3.2. ® See also forthe interpretation of Ries essay on the city of Ankara: Cengizkan, A., 1994, "Bir Baskentin Yikahs, Bir Baskentin Olusumu: Ankara 1923-1950, pp.84-89, TMMOB Mimarlar (dast Ankara Subesi Yayinlan, Ankara. ® Forster, K., Fall 1982: 6. » Feilden, MEF. and J, Jokilehto, 1993. Management Guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites, p.16, IOCROM, Rome. ® Banham, R., 1986. Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 31