Acids, Bases and Mixtures

Our homes contain many chemicals. These are mostly found in the kitchen, the bathroom and the
garage. We use these chemicals in a variety of ways to keep our homes and ourselves clean and
to improve our environment.

Types of household chemicals

Soaps come in the form of solid blocks or solutions. Washing powders or detergents are often
solids or suspensions. Detergents are often used in conjunction with fabric softeners.
Cleaning chemicals are solutions or suspensions containing detergents and other chemicals
designed to remove stains and grease. Some contain fine particles which act as an abrasive when
rubbed on with a cloth.
Disinfectants kill off germs in our homes. They usually come as solutions which can be rubbed
over surfaces in the kitchen and bathroom with a cloth.
Antiseptics are chemicals which prevent wounds from becoming infected by killing any germ
present but without damaging the skin further.
Antiperspirants reduce the amount of perspiration so less urea is released from areas such as the
armpits. Deodorants help to mask any remaining odor so a person remains smelling fresh.
Hair shampoos contain mild detergents which remove oil from the hair and clean the scalp.
Applying a conditioner after shampooing replaces some of the natural oils removed by
shampooing and leaves the hair looking and feeling
Acids

Acids are chemical that release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. They have the following
properties.
- They have a sour taste. Do NOT ever taste acids in the laboratory!
- Some are harmful and corrosive.
- They turn blue litmus paper red.
- They react with bases or alkalis to form salts.
- They release hydrogen ions when they are dissolved in water.

Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid are strong acids. They will damage the skin and
cause holes in fabrics. Splashes with these acids must be washed immediately with lots of cold
water.

The foods we eat contain many weak acids, for example:

- citric acid is found in citrus fruits such as oranges and limes
- ethanoic acid is found in vinegar
- ascorbic acid is another name for vitamin C; it is found in fresh fruit and leafy vegetables
- tannic acid is found in tea
- tartaric acid is found in baking powder

Bases

A base reacts with an acid to form a salt. Any base that dissolves in water called an alkali. Bases
have the following properties.
- They are soapy when touched.
- They turn red litmus paper blue.
- They react with acids to form salts. This is called a neutralization reaction.

Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are strong alkalis. They are both harmful and
corrosive and splashes should be treated in the same way as strong acids. Aqueous ammonia is a
weaker alkali but should still be handled with great care.

Strong alkalis are found in cleaning materials. Weak alkalis such as calcium hydroxide and
magnesium hydroxide are often found in remedies to combat indigestion.

pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is. A pH scale is used. On the pH scale a
value of 7 is neutral so it is neither acidic nor alkaline. Values below 7 on the scale become
increasingly acidic while values above 7 become increasingly alkaline.

Figure 1: The pH scale measures acidity and alkalinity

Indicators
Indicators are useful for testing whether a solution is acidic or alkaline but they do not always
indicate how acidic or how alkaline it is. In order to do this, we need a scale.

Acid-base indicators are chemicals which are different colors in acids and alkalis so they can be
used to test solutions.
Universal indicator Universal indicator is, in fact, a mixture of several indicators. It has the
advantage over other indicators of changing color several times over the full pH scale.
Universal indicator shows not only whether a solution is acidic or alkaline but also how acidic or
how alkaline.

Figure 3: Universal indicator has a range of colors

Salts

Acids react with bases to form salts and water only. This is described as a neutralization reaction
since the acid and the base react together to produce water.

Base + Acid  Salt + Water

Many common household chemicals are salts.

- Sodium chloride is the table salt we sprinkle on our food.
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical name for baking powder which we use to make
bread and cakes rise during baking.
- Sodium carbonate is the chemical name for washing soda.
- Magnesium sulphate is the chemical name for Epsom's salts which are used as a laxative.
Solutions, suspensions and colloids

Solutions

When a solid dissolves in a liquid a solution is formed. The solid is called the solute and the
liquid the solvent. Water is the common solvent. A solution formed from water is called an
aqueous solution. Water is used both in the laboratory and in making the products we use.
However, there are many other solvents. A non-aqueous solution results when other solvents are
used to make a solution.

Sugar water and Kool-Aid are solutions of a solid in a liquid.

Many gases also dissolve in water (any other solvents) to give solutions. Carbonated drinks such
as lemonade are fizzy because carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in the water.

Suspensions

If a mixture of a fine powder of an insoluble substance, such as calcium carbonate, and water is
shaken the particles distribute themselves throughout the water forming a suspension.
Brown sauce and tomato ketchup are suspensions. If they are left from day to day the particles
begin to fall to the bottom so we must shake them before use.

Colloids

If the particles of an insoluble substance are sufficiently small, they will not fall to the bottom
when shaken with water and left to stand. Instead, they remain in suspension forming a colloid.
Colloids form when one substance becomes spread out or dispersed in another. The amount of
the two substances are often different.
In an emulsion, a colloid is formed by one liquid becoming dispersed in another. Milk is an
emulsion in which oil is dispersed in water.

Table 2: The differences between a solution, a suspension and a colloid

Solvents and stain removal

Removing stains by neutralization

Some stains are caused by substances which are acidic or basic. They can be removed by
neutralizing the stain with an appropriate weak alkali, such as sodium hydrogen carbonate or a
weak acid, such as borax.
Stains caused by fruit juices, tea, coffee and red wine can be removed more easily from fabrics
by pre-soaking them in an appropriate solution which neutralizes the stain.

Removing stains using solvents

Some stains are caused by substances which are insoluble in water so soaking in water and
detergents will have no effect. In order to remove these stains a different solvent must be used.

The dust and grime which accumulates on the outside surface of windows is often difficult to
remove using water alone. Rubbing with a cloth soaked in water simply spreads any grease but
does not remove it. This is because the grease is not soluble in water.

Window cleaner is a solution of ethanol in water. Grease is soluble in ethanol so the window
cleaner will dissolve the grease spots leaving the window clean.

Gloss paints are colloids in which fine particles of pigment are dispersed in turpentine. Splashes
of gloss paint cannot be removed by soapy water but must be rubbed with a cloth soaked
turpentine or white spirit. paint passes into the solvent and absorbed into the cloth. Paint splashes
must be cleaned up immediately. As the paint dries a chemical change takes place and, once the
paint is no longer absorbed by the solvent.

Nail varnish is a colloid in which particles of the color are dispersed in organic solvents such as
acetate. Dry nail varnish can be removed from finger nails by rubbing cotton wool soaked in
propanone. The nail varnish is absorbed into the cotton wool.

Bleach

Bleach is a solution of a chemical called sodium hypochlorite in water. This chemical breaks
down to release chlorine gas.

Bleach is a cheap and effective disinfectant but it leaves an unpleasant smell and may irritate the
eyes. Bleach should never be used with other disinfectants because some chemicals cause bleach
to decompose and give off significant quantities of poisonous chlorine gas.

Bleach can be used to remove stains but there are two problems arising from its use. Bleach is a
powerful oxidizing agent and, in addition to removing stains, will remove any other color in a
fabric. This means that it is not safe to be used on colored garments. Bleach will also attack the
fibres in a fabric. Holes will arise the next time it is washed.

Bleach is sometimes used in very dilute solution to improve the color of white garments by
removing any yellowing.

Table 3: Methods for removing some other stains

The use of disinfectants and antiseptics

Chemical agents have been developed which can be used to destroy micro-organisms or to
reduce their numbers. These substances are called disinfectants and antiseptics.

Disinfectants
A disinfectant is a chemical substance that destroys or inhibits the growth of a disease-causing
micro-organism. Disinfectants are not designed for use on living tissues, but can safely be used
on objects and surfaces. They are used for sterilizing medical equipment, such as surgical
instruments, and for keeping household surfaces clean. Bleaches, Lysol and Dettol are examples
of disinfectants used in the home. Alcohols can be used as disinfectants: skin is often swabbed
with alcohol before an injection. Chlorine-releasing compounds, such as sodium chlorate, can be
used to disinfect water supplies.

Disinfectants are used to stop the spread of diseases in our homes, in our hospitals and on farms.

Disinfectants are useful because they are:

- readily available
- deodorizers (they remove odors)
- anti-microbial.

There are disadvantages to their use because they

- kill all bacteria, whether useful or harmful
- do not kill the spores of micro-organisms
- are not effective against all micro-organisms
- may cause burns or irritation to the skin
- are toxic.

Care needs to be taken when using these substances in the home. The instructions should be
followed and the bottles kept out of the reach of children. Medical assistance should be sought if
the substances are swallowed or splash into the eyes.

Antiseptics
Antiseptics also destroy or inhibit the growth of micro-organisms, but they can be used on living
tissue without causing harm to the tissue. Antiseptics can be applied to wounds and burns to
prevent bacterial infection. Antiseptic hand sprays are used by medical staff in hospitals to
reduce the transfer of disease-causing organisms from one patient to another. This reduces the
risk of patients picking up an infection whilst they are being treated.

An iodine-based antiseptic, polyvidone-iodine, is effective against bacteria, fungi and viruses. It

will also kill the spores of micro-organisms. When it is applied to the skin, it releases iodine
which destroys any micro-organisms that may be present.

Antiseptics are less harsh than disinfectants, so they can be used on the surface of the body. They
are not strong enough to sterilize surgical instruments or surfaces.

Hard and soft water

The water that flows out of our taps comes from the sky as rain. As it soaks into the ground and
gathers in streams and rivers it flows over different types of rock. If the rock contains soluble
minerals, these will dissolve in the water causing it to become hard.

Hard water contains dissolved calcium and magnesium, It does not readily lather with soap
solution but forms a precipitate called scum.

The dissolved minerals may also come out of solution in pipes and appliances which heat water,
such as kettles and irons. The resulting deposits are called limescale.

There are two types of hardness; temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness
Carbon dioxide gas from the air dissolves in rainwater forming a very weak acid called carbonic
acid. This makes rainwater slightly acidic. Typically, unpolluted rainwater has a pH of about 5.5.

Carbon dioxide + Water  Carbonic acid

If the rainwater passes over rocks containing carbonates the following reaction takes place.

Calcium carbonate + Carbonic acid  Calcium hydrogen carbonate

In rocks (insoluble) in water (soluble)

The soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate dissolves in the rainwater making it hard.
Temporary hardness is easy to remove since the above chemical reaction is reversed by heating.
heat
Calcium hydrogen carbonate  Calcium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water
(soluble) (insoluble)

Unfortunately, this leaves a deposit of insoluble calcium carbonate.

Permanent hardness
Permanent hardness results when calcium sulphate (or calcium chloride) dissolves in rainwater.

Calcium sulphate is sparingly soluble in water. It is not decomposed by heating but it can be
removed by adding sodium carbonate in the form of washing soda. Calcium chloride can be
removed in the same way.

Calcium sulphate + Sodium carbonate  Calcium carbonate + Sodium sulphate

(soluble) (soluble) (insoluble) (insoluble)

Although the water now contains sodium sulphate, this does not interfere with the action of soaps
and detergents because it does not form a scum.

Formation of scum
Hard water contains compounds of calcium such as calcium hydrogen carbonate and calcium
sulphate. Soap is a solution of sodium stearate. When soap is added to hard water and insoluble
scum of calcium stearate (scum) is formed.

Soap + Hard water  Scum

Scum removes the soap from the solution and prevents it from doing the job of removing dirt. It
is only when all of the calcium salts have been removed from the water that soap will remain to
form a lather.

In hard water areas, more soap has to be added to water or the hardness has to be removed in
order to make a solution that removes dirt effectively.

Scouring powders and detergents

Sometimes our clothes are stained with substances that are not easily removed by washing. Most
stains are not easily removed by water alone so we use a range of chemicals to help us.

Scouring removes stains by a combination of physical and chemical action. scouring powders
contain a finely ground-up powder of insoluble ash or calcite, mixed with water to make a thick
paste. When the powder is rubbed on a surface with a cloth or a brush, it acts as an abrasive,
removing any solid matter present.
Usually scouring powders also contain detergents, to help with removing dirt and grease, and a
bleaching agent which releases very small amounts of chlorine gas. This gas bleaches any stains
and disinfects the surface.
A perfume is sometimes added to the scouring powder so a pleasant odor is left after cleaning.

A detergent is a chemical we use to remove dirt and stains from clothing, surfaces and floors.
Detergents are composed of long molecules with two ends. These two ends have very different
structures and properties.

Figure 4: The two ends of a detergent molecule have different properties in water

One end of the detergent molecule readily dissolves in water. We say that this end is hydrophilic
or water-loving (so it is oil-hating).

The opposite end of the detergent molecule dissolves more readily in organic substances such as
oils and fats. We say that this end is hydrophobic or water-hating (so it is oil-loving).

Figure 5: Detergents remove dirt by forming micelles

When dirt collects on fabrics and the skin an oil film surrounds it, forming a droplet or micelle.
The hydrophobic end of the detergent molecule attaches to the oil film. The hydrophilic end
sticks out of the oil film. This end dissolves in water and the dirt particle is washed away.

Detergent action

Dirt and stains often consist of oily substances that do not dissolve in water. This makes them
difficult to remove. Detergents assist in the removal of dirt and stains by making the oily
materials mix with the water.

Figure 6: How a grease stain can be removed

Soapy and soapless detergents

Detergents molecules may be classified as soapy or soapless depending on their structure. The
two types of detergents react differently with hard water.

Soapy detergents
Soapy detergents are often just described as soaps. They are made by heating animal fats or
vegetable oils with a strong alkali such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The fats
and oils are mixtures of fatty acids, such as stearic acid, which are converted into the sodium or
potassium salts of the acids.
For example: Sodium hydroxide + Stearic acid  Sodium stearate + water
(soap)

In soaps the hydrophilic end of the detergent molecule is derived from a carboxylic acid.
All soaps form a scum in hard water because the calcium salts of these acids are insoluble.

Soapless detergents
Soapless detergents are often just called detergents or synthetic detergents. They are made from
petroleum products. Some washing powders and dishwashing liquids are soapless detergents.
Sulphonic acids are reacted with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to form sodium or
potassium sulphonates.

In soapless detergents the hydrophilic end of the detergent molecule is derived from a sulphonic
acid.
Soapless detergents do not form a scum in hard water because the calcium salts of these acids are
soluble.

Table 4: Comparison between soapy and soapless detergents