ENGLISH

Grammar Appendix

LEVELS
Upper-Intermediate and Advanced
INDEX
INDEX 1
INTRODUCTION 4
GRAMMAR RULES 5
1. Question formation (tenses revision: present, past, future forms) 5
2. Direct and indirect questions 7
FORM 7
USES 7
3. Present perfect simple 8
FORM 8
USES AND EXAMPLES 9
4. Present perfect continuous 10
FORM 10
USES AND EXAMPLES 11
5. Present perfect simple vs continuous 11
CONTRASTED USES AND EXAMPLES 12
6. Past perfect simple 12
FORM 13
USES AND EXAMPLES 13
7. Past perfect continuous 14
FORM 14
USES AND EXAMPLES 14
8. Past perfect simple vs past perfect continuous 15
9. Narrative tenses 16
EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT 16
USES 16
10. Modal verbs 17
REQUESTS, OFFERS AND ABILITY 17
FORM 17
USES 17
OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY + HAVE TO VS MUST 18
FORM 18
USES 18
GIVING ADVICE 19
FORM 19
USE 20
WILL FOR HOPES, PROMISES, OFFERS AND REQUESTS 20
FORM 20
 USES 21
PRESENT DEDUCTION 21
FORM 21
USES AND EXAMPLES 21
PAST DEDUCTION 22
FORM 22
USES 22
11. Future forms 22
FORMS AND USES 22
12. Conditionals zero, 1, 2, 3 and mixed 23
FORM 24
USES 24
13. Wishes and regrets 26
FORM 26
14. Reported speech 28
FORM 28
OTHER CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH 30
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM IN REPORTED SPEECH 31
15. Passive voice 31
FORM 31
USE AND EXAMPLES 32
16. Defining and non-defining relative clauses 33
FORM 33
USES 34
17. Inversion 35
USING NEGATIVE ADVERBS OR ADVERBIAL PHRASES FOR INVERSION 35
USING INVERSION INSTEAD OF “IF” IN CONDITIONALS WITH
“HAD/WERE/SHOULD” 36
USING INVERSION WITH AN ADVERBIAL EXPRESSION OF PLACE 36
USING INVERSION AFTER “SO” + ADJECTIVE…THAT: 37
18. Cleft sentences 37
19. Verb patterns 38
20. Verb adjective patterns 39
21. List of verbs 40
VOCABULARY 42
1. Business expressions 42
2. Idioms, words and expressions related to money 45
IDIOMS 45
EXPRESSIONS 47
 4. Idioms about communication 48
5. Idioms about judgement and decision-making 49
6. Expressing preference 49
7. Linkers 50
8. Linking words of cause and result 50
9. Comparisons 51
10. Describing quantity and numbers 52
NOUNS 52
ADJECTIVES 52
11. Gradability and modifiers 52
12. Word families 54
13. Marketing word partnership 54
14. Adjectives and Prefixes/word families 56
15. Adjective + noun collocations 57
16. Multi-words 58
PRONUNCIATION TIPS 60
Phonemic Symbols 60
1. Pronunciation of letter “a” 60
2. Pronunciation of letter “o” 62
3. Pronunciation of /s/ and /z/ sounds 63
4. Pronunciation of weak forms in question words 63
Word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and question intonation 64
WORD STRESS 64
SENTENCE STRESS 64
INTONATION PATTERNS 65
5. Intonation: Polite vs assertive intonation and requests 65
6. Emphasis and de-emphasis 66
5. Prepositions as weak forms and elision 67
6. Elision of /t/ and /d/ 67
7. Linking with /w/ 68
8. Linking in discourse markers 69
9. Confusing sounds (/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/) and linking across words 69
10. Regular verbs in the past (-ed ending) 71
INTRODUCTION

This Grammar Appendix covers the main areas of English grammar, vocabulary and
pronunciation seen in the Upper-Intermediate and Advanced levels.
The grammar explanations are descriptions of how English works; they are a guide to help you
understand, not rules to be memorized. These are supported by examples related to the topics
covered in each of the units that will help you understand the rules and internalize them more
effectively.
Regarding the vocabulary, you will find almost all the terms you have worked with in these units
together with their definitions in alphabetical order.
Finally, at the end of the Appendix, you will find all the pronunciation tips covered in the units
with further explanations and useful charts related to spelling and pronunciation, elision, weak
forms, etc.
You are invited to use this Appendix either during the lessons or as a reference when carrying
out the homework assignments, as well as any other instance along your learning experience.
If you need extra assistance or if you are in doubt about some of the rules, remember you can
always ask your teacher for any further help.
 GRAMMAR RULES

1. Question formation (tenses revision : present, past, future forms)

English, as opposed to other languages like Spanish, is very strict regarding word order in
sentences. For positive statements it always takes the same formula: subject + verb +
remaining information. For questions, English requires the use of auxiliary verbs to come to the
front position - only preceded by wh-words in wh-questions.
In the following chart you will find a basic formula followed by the different tenses seen with
some examples and uses.

QUESTION FORMATION

(Wh-word) + auxiliary verb + subject + verb + (object / place/ time/ extra info) ?
(person/thing/place)

Present simple
Are you the company’s secretary?
Is that the latest investor?
Do they work for you?
Does Kyra arrive early on Tuesdays?
Uses:
- Facts: for permanent situations/events that are unlikely to change
- Routines: actions that happen regularly, habits in the present.

Present continuous
Are you working this week from home?
Is Luke talking to the CEO right now?
Uses:
- Things happening now/at the moment of speaking or at the time being
- Temporary situations: events that differ from the usual, temporary situations
- Future fixed arrangements: plans that have already been made for the future.

Past simple
Did you drink coffee yesterday?
Did he always come to the office on foot?
Uses:
- A single action that started and finished in the past: a definite/specific event that took place at some
point in the past
 - Repeated actions in the past: an action that was repeated over time
- A series of actions (=one thing happened after another)

Past continuous
Were they video chatting when the lights went off?
Was she running in the corridor?
Uses:
- Things that were in progress at some point in the past
- To describe what was happening
- To describe a longer action that was interrupted by a shorter one

Present perfect simple

Have you ever thrown an end-of-year party?
Has the waiter brought you the bill?
Uses:
- An experience: to talk about actions and experiences that have happened in our lives up to now.
- An unfinished action in the past: to talk about an action that is still not complete.
- An action that happened in an unspecified time: in contrast to past simple actions, we use present
perfect simple to talk about actions that happened in the past but when they happened is
unknown/unspecified/irrelevant.
- A past action that has a present result
- An ongoing action that started in the past but continues still in the present

Past perfect
Had she been in this job position before?

Uses:
- An action in the past prior to another action: We use the past perfect to show an action that happened
before another one. For this reason, past perfect sentences need to be contrasted or set in a specific
time in the past prior to a more recent past action.
- Give a reason: we use past perfect to provide a reason for having done something. The past perfect
action is usually preceded by “because”.

Future
Will they send you the invoice?
Are we going to invite the staff from marketing to the release?
Is she coming tomorrow at 5 pm?
Uses:
- Will: to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do in the future; to talk about something we
have decided to do at the time of speaking (decision made at the time of speaking)
- Be going to: for intentions - to talk about what we intend to do and have already decided to do; there’s
evidence that something is definitely going to happen.
- Present continuous: future fixed arrangements

2. Direct and indirect questions

FORM

DIRECT QUESTIONS INDIRECT QUESTIONS

When did you send it to us? Can you tell me when you sent it to us?

What exactly is the problem? Could you explain exactly what the problem is?

Why is it doing this? Do you know why it is doing this?

Have you got an order number? Can you tell me if/whether you’ve got an order
number?

How long will it take? Could you let me know how long it will take?

USES

● In a direct question, the normal word order is auxiliary - subject - verb. These are the
typical questions you learn.

● Indirect questions, however, are used when we want to ask more polite/formal questions.
They typically start with a phrase like Do you know… / Could you tell me… / Could you let
me know…../ Can you tell me…
In indirect questions, the order is subject + verb.
Can you tell me where it is? Can you tell me where is it?

We don’t use do/did in the second part of the question. Therefore, the action/verb will carry
the tense.
Do you know where he lives? …where does he live?

You need to use if or whether in questions without a question word (yes/no questions) and
after the initial phrases (can you tell me…?).
Direct: Did you call her?
Indirect: Can you tell me if/whether you called her?
 When who or what is the subject of the direct question, there is no difference in word order
between the direct and indirect question.
Who wrote this email? → Can you tell me who wrote this email?
Can you tell me who did write this email?

3. Present perfect simple

FORM

I/you/we/they Have + past participle

The world’s top ten biggest economies have changed since

2002.
POSITIVE
He/she/it Has + past participle

The world population has jumped to seven billion people.

I/you/we/they Have not (haven’t) + past participle

They haven’t finished discussing the project yet.

NEGATIVE
He/she/it Has not (hasn’t) + past participle

She hasn’t gone to Italy.

Have you/I/we/they + Past participle ?

Have you seen the new marketing campaign?

Yes, I have./No, I haven’t.
QUESTIONS
Has he/she/it + Past participle?

Has John told you about the newest deal?

Yes, he has./No, he hasn’t.
 There is a difference in meaning between been and gone. Compare:

Martha has gone to the US. (She went and she is still there)
Martha has been to the US. (She went there and came back)

USES AND EXAMPLES

This is one of the most used tenses in the English language. It is important to acknowledge all
of its uses. We use present perfect simple to talk about:

● Actions/experiences that have happened in our lives up to now: My father has worked
for several companies.

We use “ever” and “never” to ask and answer about experiences.

Have you ever worked in an NGO?
I have never won the employee award at my company.

● An action that started in the past but it’s not completed (unfinished action): Have you
spoken to Salem this morning? (=the morning is not over, so there is still time to complete
the action.)
● An action that happened in an unknown/unspecified/irrelevant time: I have seen John
recently.

Compare past simple actions (that happened at a specific time in the past) vs
present perfect simple actions (that happened at an unspecified time in the past).

We’ve been to the art gallery many times.

We went to the art gallery in 2001.

● A past action that has a present result: We can start the interviews now: all the
candidates have arrived. (= the candidates have arrived recently and that’s why they can
start.)
● An ongoing action that started in the past but continues still in the present: Richard has
been the CEO since 2009.
 We usually use for and since to emphasize when the action started.
- FOR: it introduces a period of time: Lucy and I have known each other for over a decade.
- SINCE: it shows a specific point in time from which the action began. : We have worked
with the Asian region since we started operating in Japan.

● To indicate recency: we use the adverbs already and just for positive statements (when
the action has been completed in the short term, very recently) between ‘have’ and the
past participle and yet for negative statements and questions (when the action hasn’t
been completed or when we want to ask if someone has finished doing something) at
the end of the sentence.
I have already shown Layla the office.
He has just arrived at the airport.
Have you finished the assignment yet?

● After superlatives (often followed by ever): This has been the best business trip we’ve
ever been to.

COMMON TIME EXPRESSIONS FOR THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

in (somebody’s) life, today, this morning, this week, this year, recently, so far, never, ever,
for, since, just, already, yet, the best, the first, by far

4. Present perfect continuous

FORM

I/you/we/they Have been + -ing

Many startups have been struggling since the pandemic.

POSITIVE
He/she/it Has been + -ing

He has been working extra hours for months.

NEGATIVE
 I/you/we/they Have not (haven’t) been + -ing

They haven’t been getting the figures they had planned..

He/she/it Has not (hasn’t) been + -ing

She hasn’t been coming to the meetings.

Have you/I/we/they + been + -ing ?

Have you been working on the new marketing campaign?

Yes, I have./No, I haven’t.
QUESTIONS
Has he/she/it + been + -ing ?

Has Tina been discussing the news with her team?

Yes, she has./No, she hasn’t.

USES AND EXAMPLES

● Focus on duration: this tense emphasizes the duration of an action (so that it is not
necessary to mention the number of times that we have done an action): He’s been
writing emails all afternoon.
● Ongoing situations: we use the present perfect continuous (usually with for or since) to
talk about actions that started in the past and are still continuing or have just finished:
Women have been struggling to have their salaries equal to men's for ages.
● Present result: we use this tense to focus on the activity rather than the result. In this
case, we don’t usually use time adverbs. Don’t sit on that chair. They’ve been painting it
earlier.

5. Present perfect simple vs continuous

 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
POS I/you/we/they + have +
past participle
He/she/it + has + past
participle
NEG I/you/we/they + have not
(haven’t) + past participle
FORM He/she/it + has not
(hasn’t) + past participle
QUES Have + I/you/we/they +
past participle …?
Has + He/she/it + past
participle …?
TIME A long time/two days/a year ago,
EXPRESSI last month/week/year, yesterday.
ONS It is usually preceded by WHEN.
CONTRASTED USES AND EXAMPLES
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
● completed actions that have a
measurable result in the present:
UNICEF has published three reports on
this topic this year.
● life experiences, when the person is
still living: Our speaker today has
published several books and has given
conferences in many countries.
● a past action when the specific time is
not stated (indefinite) and we want to
emphasize the action: The chief
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
POS I/you/we/they + have been
+ verb in -ing form
He/she/it + has been + verb
in -ing form
NEG I/you/we/they + have not
(haven’t) been + verb in -ing
form
He/she/it + has not (hasn’t)
been + verb in -ing form
QUES Have + I/you/we/they +
been + verb in -ing form…?
Has + He/she/it + been +
verb in -ing form …?
It is usually preceded by AS/WHILE.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
● a recent activity when we want to
emphasize the process, duration or
steadiness of the activity more than
the result of the activity: The Human
Resources department has been
working non-stop all morning to deal
with complaints.
● an activity that started in the past and
may or may not be in progress at the
moment of speaking: Has anyone
been counting the number of
 executive officer has made a number responses to our advert?
of important changes.
● an action or situation in a time that
continues up to the moment of
speaking: The CTO and CMO have
been together for a number of years
now.

6. Past perfect simple

FORM

Subject + had + past participle

POSITIVE
Before he called us into his office, he had prepared a big breakfast for
us.

Subject + had not (hadn’t) + past participle

NEGATIVE
I hadn’t met the IT specialist when he came last time.

Had + subject + past participle … ?

QUESTIONS
Had he asked you how to proceed before he started working on the
project? Yes, he had./No, he hadn’t.

USES AND EXAMPLES

- An action in the past prior to another action: We use the past perfect to show an action
that happened before another one. For this reason, past perfect sentences need to be
contrasted or set in a specific time in the past prior to a more recent past action.
 Look at the following question from an interview:

Interviewer: “Why did you decide to leave school at seventeen?”

Interviewee: “Well, I guess like a lot of kids, I had studied for long enough. I had done some
concerts at school and a lot of people had said I was good but I hadn’t thought about it as a career.
So, I took a job as a door-to-door salesperson.

If an action happened immediately after another one, we use past simple for both cases.

When Paul arrived, Martin opened the door for him. When Paul had arrived, Martin
opened the door for him.

- Give a reason: we use past perfect to provide a reason for having done something. The
past perfect action is usually preceded by “because”. Tom was fired because he hadn’t
done a good job in the last project he was in charge of.

7. Past perfect continuous

FORM

Subject + had been + verb in the -ing form

POSITIVE
They had been working on a new business plan.

Subject + had not (hadn’t) been + verb in the -ing form

NEGATIVE
He realized she hadn’t been paying attention.
 Had + subject + been + verb in the -ing form… ?
QUESTIONS
Had you been studying before applying to this position?
Yes, I had/No, I hadn’t.

USES AND EXAMPLES

● Ongoing situation: we use this tense to describe an ongoing situation/action which

continued up to, or stopped just before, another time in the past (often with before or by
the time): C&A had been working for 12 years in Argentina before they left the country.
● Duration of the action: we often use the continuous form with for or since when we want
to focus on the duration of an action: They had been trying to close the deal for more
than 6 months.

Remember that we use past continuous for background situations that were happening at
the same time as main events (that are usually in the past simple), not the past perfect
continuous.

For instance:

When she left the office, they were discussing the offer. (at some point while they were
discussing, she left)

They had been discussing the offer before she left the office. (first, they had been talking
and discussing about the offer and once the “discussion” was over, she left.)

8. Past perfect simple vs past perfect continuous

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORM POS Subject + had + past POS Subject + had been + -ing
participle
 NEG Subject + hadn’t + past NEG Subject + hadn’t been + -ing
participle
QUES Had + subject + been +-ing?
QUES Had+ subject + past
participle?

- An action in the past prior to - Ongoing situation:

another action:
The advertising agency had
started before the war broke out
USES and it couldn’t survive.
- To provide a reason:
She didn’t get her driving license
because she had driven badly
and had failed her exam.
C&A had been working for 12
years in Argentina before they left
the country.
- Duration of the action in the
past, prior to another past:
They had been trying to close the
deal for more than 6 months.

Past perfect simple refers to a completed action that took place before another past action,
whereas the past perfect continuous usually refers to an action that was still ongoing at the
time. Because the action was ongoing, we do not mention the number of times that we have
done an action with past perfect continuous.

- They had been discussing the budget when the CEO arrived. (=the ongoing action was in
progress when the CEO arrived.)
- They had already discussed the budget when the CEO arrived. (=the action had already
finished by the time the CEO arrived.)

9. Narrative tenses

We have seen the different past tenses in isolation, however, it is important to understand when
to use each of them when narrating an event/an anecdote, etc.

EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

PAST SIMPLE, PAST CONTINUOUS, PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND PAST PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
 In one of my most recent projects, while we were discussing the steps ahead, a conflict arose
between a software developer and a UX designer about the best way to approach the next A/B
test phase. Even though the software developer had been with the organization for longer, the
UX designer had far more experience in successful A/B testing. However, the developer had
been working on the project since kick-off, and since they both had great ideas, I scheduled a
meeting with both of them to discuss both sides and work our way towards the best method to
go with.
At the end of the meeting, everybody agreed to adopt the strategy of the UX designer while
incorporating some of the ideas of the developer. Furthermore, the developer would be more
involved in the tests to ensure all set targets would be met.

USES
● We use the past simple to talk about consecutive actions or punctual situations in the
past. These would be the main events in a story/anecdote.
● We use the past continuous to describe what was happening – for longer continuous
actions/situations that were in progress when something else happened or for an
action/situation that was not complete at a past time.
● We use the past perfect simple to talk about a past that is prior to the past of the main
actions. It would refer to those events that happened before the main events. This tense
emphasizes the completion of an activity.
● We use the past perfect continuous with action verbs to talk about longer actions in
progress that started before the main events happened and that continued up to that
point. This tense focuses on the continuation of an activity.

Just like in the present continuous, when we use the past continuous tense with the adverb
“always” we want to show annoyance on the part of the speaker and persistence on the part of
the doer of the action.
My boss was always yelling at me - that’s why I quit! (=I was annoyed by my boss’ yelling)

We can use used to and would to emphasize the repeated or continuous nature of an action
or situation that is not true any more. Check the chart below:

USED TO + INFINITIVE WOULD + INFINITIVE

● To talk about past states: I ● To talk about repeated

used to love going to the
USES AND office.
EXAMPLES ● To talk about past habits: I
used to go swimming every
Thursday when I was in
actions that don’t happen
any more: I would hold
feedback meetings once a
week before the pandemic.
 college.

The mere difference between the two of them is that describing past habits with would implies a
hint of nostalgia or reminiscing from the speaker.

Neither used to or would can be used to refer to single actions in the past.
In 1993 I moved to Ukraine. In 1993 I would move to Ukraine.

10. Modal verbs

Modal verbs are very common in English. They are used to show the speaker’s attitude and
make a statement or question more formal or informal and produce a certain effect.

REQUESTS, OFFERS AND ABILITY

FORM

Requests Can + Could + Will/Would +

infinitive infinitive infinitive

Making an offer Can + Would + infinitive

infinitive

Ability in the present and past Can + Could +

infinitive infinitive
Be able to+
infinitive

“Was (or) were able to” suggest effort. They mean someone succeeded in doing something
that was a challenge or took a special effort. Therefore, it can’t be used to express general
abilities in the past but rather a specific situation or when noting a specific achievement.

USES
 ● We use can, could and will/would to make a request. The last three options are more
polite and formal than asking with ‘can’.
Can you help me? / Could you say that again, please?
Will you open the door for me? / Would you repeat that, please?
● We use can and would to make an offer to someone and to volunteer to do something
for someone else.
Can I help you? / Would you like a cup of coffee?
● We use can to describe ability in the present. We use could to describe an ability from the
past.
I can speak Polish and Russian. / She could read and write before she was
three.
If we are making a positive statement about a single event in the past or asking a question
about it, we use was/were able to NOT could: I was able to transfer my money to my savings’
account. I could transfer my money.

OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY + HAVE TO VS MUST

FORM

It’s necessary / obligatory need to + inf have to + inf Must + inf

It’s not necessary don’t have to + inf don’t need to + inf

It’s possible / permitted Can + inf Be allowed to + inf

It’s not possible / permitted Can’t + inf Not be allowed to + inf Mustn’t + inf

USES

● Necessary/not necessary → need to/have to don’t need to/don’t have to

We use either need or have to when something is necessary (=a requirement for something). If it
is in the negative, the meaning changes to that of something being not necessary.
You have to bring your own device for the conference.
I don’t need to wear a suit and tie at the office.

● Obligation → must/have to
Have to describes things that our employers, government, etc. ask us to do and/or to show a
rule. We want to show that the obligation comes from another person or institution, not the
speaker.
I have to work 39 hours a week.
We have to pay tax three times a year.

Must describes things that are urgent or personally important for us. We use it also to provide
strong advice.
We must pay our tax bill this week.
I must try to work harder.
You must be aware of cultural differences when meeting with the Chinese
team.

The question form is usually with have to:

Do I have to wear a uniform? Must I wear a uniform?

● Possibility/permission → can/be allowed to

We use can to show possibility (apart from its usual use to talk about ability in the present).
I can work from the office or home. (there are two possibilities mentioned
here)

In order to show permission, we can use can and be allowed to. The second one is more formal.
Can I park here? Yes, you can.
Customers are allowed to use the toilets in our store departments.

● Prohibition/not permitted/not possible → mustn’t/can’t/not be allowed to

We use can/can’t or be not allowed to when we talk about lack of permission in rules and laws.
Passengers are not allowed to use their electronic devices during take-off.
Customers can’t return an item without the bill.

We use mustn’t to indicate that something is forbidden (=prohibited) when talking about
instructions or rules.
We mustn’t eat at our desks.
We mustn’t smoke inside the building.

GIVING ADVICE

FORM

Form
 POS Subject + should+ infinitive

NEG Subject + shouldn’t + infinitive

Should + subject + infinitive…?

QUES
Yes, you should/No, you shouldn’t.

You shouldn’t use your own office for the interview.

You should discuss if the employee has achieved last year’s goals or not
Examples
first.
Should I give negative feedback at the beginning of the session?

USE

● To give or ask for advice: Should I wear this for the interview?

We often use should after the verbs suggest and think.

They suggested he should start in February.
I think you should consider applying to a higher position in the company.

WILL FOR HOPES, PROMISES, OFFERS AND REQUESTS

FORM

POS Subject + will + infinitive

Form NEG Subject + won’t + infinitive

QUES Will+ Subject + infinitive…?

You will get the job at Google.

Examples You won’t have to submit the papers before Friday.
Will you get there on time for the presentation?
 USES

● Beliefs/Wishes: We hope that the actions above will improve morale at the agency.
I hope you’ll feel comfortable in your new position.

● Promises: I promise I will do my best.

● Offers: I’ll help you with your presentation for Thursday.

● Requests (to ask for something in a polite way): Will you proofread the email before
sending it, please?

PRESENT DEDUCTION

We can use modals in order to make a guess about something.

FORM

When you are certain about When you are less certain
something about something

Must be Might be
Can’t be May be
Form Might not be
May not be
Could be

USES AND EXAMPLES

● Must/can’t: if we’re certain that what we say is correct.

Matt can’t be late today. He has a meeting in ten minutes!

They must be exhausted after such a day.
 The opposite of must is can’t, not mustn’t.

He made her redundant.

She can’t be working today. She mustn’t be working today.

● Might/could/may/might not: when we are less certain that our guess is correct: I haven’t
seen John at the office today. He might be having some personal problems…

PAST DEDUCTION
We can also make guesses about situations in the past (that usually have led to another event).

FORM

When you are certain about When you are less certain about
something something

➔ Must have + past participle ➔ May (not) have + past

➔ Can’t have + past participle participle
➔ Couldn’t have + past ➔ Might (not) have + past
Form
participle participle
➔ Could have + past
participle

USES

● Must have/can’t have/couldn’t have: we use these modals + past participle when we are
certain that our guess about a past situation is correct: I can’t have left my keys at the
office - I remember grabbing them!

● May/Might/Could have + past participle: we use these modals (or their negative forms)
when we are less certain: Susan may not have known that it was the boss’s birthday today
- that’s probably why she didn’t say anything.

11. Future forms

 FORMS AND USES

will + infinitive

a) I believe that my children will get better qualifications than I did.

b) A: Is that my phone ringing?
B: Yes, no problem. I will answer it.

We use will:
- To make a prediction or promise for the future based on your beliefs, how certain
you are something will happen, etc.
- To make on-the-spot decisions
- For promises, offers, polite requests, wishes.

going to + infinitive

c) I am going to start a course on Project Management to improve my managing skills.

d) Look at these numbers! We are going to have a deep plunge in our sales next
semester.

We use be going to:

- To talk about plans/intentions for the future
- To make a prediction that is based on evidence of some kind

will be + ing (future continuous)

e) I think I will be living the life I want in ten years’ time.

We use will be + -ing:

- To talk about an activity that will be in progress at some point in the future.

will + have + past participle (future perfect)

f) I am sure I will have saved enough money to buy a car by the end of next year.

We use will + future perfect:

- To talk about an activity that will be completed by a certain point/time in the future.

12. Conditionals zero, 1, 2, 3 and mixed

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations and
their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (often
referred to as the if-clause) and the consequence.

If clause (condition) + main clause (result)

If you study, you pass the exam

FORM

CONDITIONAL STRUCTURE EXAMPLE

if + simple present, simple present When you talk to your boss,

Type 0
he understands.

if + simple present, will/may/might/can If you do well at the

Type 1 + infinitive interview, you will get the
job.

if + past simple, would + infinitive If I were you, I would submit

Type 2
the papers before Friday.

if + past perfect, would+have+past If I had known the company

participle was filing for bankruptcy, I
Type 3
would have looked for a job
earlier.

Mixed past to present conditional If you hadn’t woken me up, I

if + past perfect, would + infinitive
Mixed
Mixed present to past conditional
if +past simple, could/would + have+
past participle
might still be in bed.
If they didn’t like your job,
they would have fired you a
long time ago.

USES

CONDITIONAL TYPE 0
● We use this conditional to describe real situations that can happen at any time, or one
event that always follows another: If it doesn't rain for a long time, the earth gets very dry.

With this use, we can use when instead of if.

When you call, they answer right away.
 ● We can also use this conditional with the imperative: If you write the minutes of the
meeting, email them.

We can’t use when with this use

If a red light comes on, call the technician. When the red light comes on, call the
technician.

CONDITIONAL TYPE 1
● We use this conditional to talk about the results of a possible future condition, one we
think is likely to happen: If you study for the interview, you will get the job.

You can place the result clause before the condition clause. When you do it, there is no
comma separating the clauses.
You will get the job if you study for the interview.

We can use the present continuous in the if clause and may/might in the result clause.
If it’s raining tomorrow, we might not make it to the meeting on time.

With the conditional type 1 we can use other alternatives to if which slightly change the
meaning also. Check the chart below!

Unless I won’t help you with your job unless you bring me coffee everyday.
(if you bring me coffee everyday)

In case Take an umbrella in case it rains.

(It might/might not rain but you will be prepared)

Even if I will attend your presentation even if you don’t want me to.
(If you want me or not)

Provided/as long as You can borrow the car provided I have it back by 6 o’clock.
(I must have the car back by 6 o’clock)

CONDITIONAL TYPE 2
● We use this conditional to talk about the results of a possible future condition, one we
think is unlikely to happen: If I got a pay rise, I would get a car. (I don’t think I will get one).
● We also use this conditional to talk about present situations that are imaginary, not
real:We wouldn’t outsource our production if it was cheap to do it here. (It is not cheap so
we have to outsource our production).
● We can also use conditional type 2 to give advice: If I were you, I would go to the doctor.
 We can introduce unlikely/unreal situations with alternatives to if. Check out the chart
below.

Unless I wouldn’t ask for your help unless I needed it.

We can only use unless for unlikely situations.

Imagine/Suppose Imagine you had a million dollars, what would you spend it on?
(You don’t have a million dollars and it is very unlikely to happen)

CONDITIONAL TYPE 3
● We use this conditional to imagine situations or actions in the past that we know are the
opposite of the facts: If he had stolen the company plans, he wouldn’t have kept them in
his office. (We know he didn’t steal the company plans, but we imagine a past where he
did this)

If the past condition happened, we use a negative verb. If it didn’t happen we use a
positive one.
If I hadn’t got the job, I might have stayed in London.
(The condition happened. I did get the job).
If I had got the job, I couldn’t have stayed in London.
(The condition didn’t happen. I didn’t get the job).

● We also use the third conditional to talk about regrets from our past (often with could
have): I could have got a better job if I hadn’t left college. (I regret dropping out)

MIXED PAST TO PRESENT CONDITIONAL

We use this conditional to talk about present results of an imagined past condition/action:
- If we had missed the train, we wouldn’t be here for the presentation.
(We didn’t miss the train, so we got to the presentation on time. We’re talking about a
hypothetical present situation of an imaginary past condition)

We can use could/might + infinitive in the result clase.

We might be in a better financial position if you hadn’t taken that job!

MIXED PRESENT TO PAST CONDITIONAL

We use this conditional to talk about past results of a present condition/situation.
- If they didn’t like your job, they would have fired you a long time ago!
(They like your job so they didn’t fire you)
 We can also use could have/might have+ past participle in the result clause:
- You could have gone to university if you were a better student.
(You aren’t a good student)

13. Wishes and regrets

FORM

Form Example

Wish + past simple My boss wishes he were taller.

*the same subject can be used

Wish + person/thing + would/wouldn’t I wish my husband wouldn’t have to travel to

the conference in Amsterdam.
*the “person” can’t be the same as the one in subject
position

Wish + past perfect I wish I had applied to that job position.

He wishes he hadn’t turned that job offer

down.

Should/shouldn’t + have + past participle They shouldn’t have used that color palette for
the product launch.

Ought/oughtn’t to + have + past participle He ought to have discussed the matter with
HR.
 USES

● We use wish + past simple to talk about things you would like to be different from what
they are now (present) or in the future (but it is usually something that is impossible or
unlikely to happen): I wish I didn’t have to commute so much these days.

After wish you can use was/were indistinctly with pronouns I/she/he/it: I wish I were better
at communicating my concerns.

● We use wish + person/thing + would to talk about things that we want to happen or stop
happening because they annoy us or make us angry. However, you can’t use would for a
wish about yourself in this sense.

I wish he would stop laughing so loud every time the manager says a bad joke.
I wish I would stop paying attention to him.

● We use wish + past perfect to talk about things that happened or didn’t happen in the
past but we regret the fact that they happened (or didn’t happen): I wish she hadn’t
decided to quit her job.

You can also use the expression “If only” instead of “..wish” with the same meanings that
were listed previously.

If only he would stop smoking.

If only I hadn’t sent that email.

You can also use a that-clause after “I wish”: I wish that I had said what I thought to my
boss on my last day in the company.

● We use should/shouldn’t + have + past participle to say that somebody didn’t do the right
thing, or to express regret or criticism.

He shouldn’t have snapped like that in front of the manager.

I should have shown her how to use the system on her first day.

● Ought/oughtn’t to + have + past participle can be used with the same meaning (although
it is a bit more formal): He ought to have made a harder effort in his manager role.
 14. Reported speech

When we repeat another person’s words, we can use direct speech or reported speech.

When we use direct speech, we use the exact words and we put quotation marks (“ “) or
inverted commas (´´) around them: “I’m really excited about the launching tomorrow”, said John.

When we use reported speech we use reporting verbs (e.g. said, mentioned,..) to introduce
what another person says/said and we make a few changes to the sentence we are reporting:
He said he wanted an upgrade.

FORM

ORIGINAL WORDS REPORTED SPEECH

Present simple: “We work for the town Past simple: They said they worked for the
council” town council.

Present continuous: “I’m working on a new Past continuous: He said he was working on a
project” new project.

Past simple: “They had a meeting.” Past perfect: He said they’ve had a meeting.

Past continuous: “She wasn’t telling the truth.” Past perfect continuous: Thom said she
hadn’t been telling the truth.

Present perfect simple: “My colleagues Past perfect continuous: Jennifer said her
haven’t arrived yet.” colleagues hadn’t arrived yet.

Present perfect continuous: “We’ve been Past perfect continuous: They said they’d
waiting for ages!” been waiting for ages.

Be going to: “We’re going to work from home Was/were going to: They said they were going
today. “ to work from home that day.

Modal verbs (e.g. can, will, must) Could, would, had to

“I can’t say any more” She said she couldn’t say any more.
“The results will be available tomorrow” They mentioned the results would be available
“You must stop what you’re doing” the next day.
She said I had to stop doing what I was doing.
 When we report someone’s words in the present we use the same tenses but we have to
change the pronouns and verb forms when necessary: Anna says she’s not coming to the
meeting.

When we report someone’s words some time after he/she said them, we usually use a
past tense verb to introduce them, and we change the tense of the verbs as well: Anna said she
wasn’t coming to today’s meeting.

We can use that after the reporting verb but we often leave it out: Jack said (that) he would
meet us here.

Some verb forms don’t change.

- Past perfect: “I hadn’t met your boss before”- She said she hadn’t met my boss before.
- Modal verbs would, could, should and mustn’t: “You mustn’t interrupt during the
meeting”- He said that we mustn’t interrupt during the meeting.

OTHER CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH

PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVES

DIRECT INDIRECT

I he/she

me him/her

my his/her

mine his/hers

you I/we

your my/our

yours mine/ours

we they

us them

our their

ours theirs
 WORDS FOR TIME AND PLACE

DIRECT INDIRECT

today that day

tonight that night

tomorrow the next day/the following day

next (week, month, etc) the next/the following (week, month, etc)

ago before

yesterday the day before/the previous day

last (week, month, etc) the last/previous (week, month, etc)

now then

here there

this (place) that (place)

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM IN REPORTED SPEECH

Subjunctive form is the same as the infinitive but without to. Subjunctive form does not show
any marking for tense and it can refer to events in the past, present or future. It is formal
language so we use it in formal contexts (such as legal documents.)

We use it to express the idea that something is necessary or important most often in
that-clauses after certain verbs that usually have a Latin origin.

Subjunctive form Examples

VERBS: Advise, ask, demand, insist, propose, He insisted that he pay for the inconveniences
recommend, require, request, suggest caused.

His lawyer suggested that he remain silent.

ADJECTIVES: Advisable, anxious, desirable, They said it would be advisable that the
eager, essential, important, necessary, company provide details about the campaign
preferable, urgent, vital, willing on its website.
 15. Passive voice

The passive voice is used when we want to focus on the person or object that experiences an
action rather than the person or object that performs the action. You can see this when
contrasting active voice vs passive voice.

FORM

Active voice Passive voice

The recruiter hired Tom. Tom was hired (by the recruiter)

As you can see, the object of the active sentence (Tom) becomes the subject of the passive
voice sentence.

Form Subject + verb to be (in the correct tense) + past participle

The XO laptop is aimed at children in underdeveloped countries.

Present simple
The computers are produced by Quanta Computers in Taiwan.

The project is being discussed at the headquarters.

Present continuous
Big discounts are being provided to senior customers.

A laptop was given to the customer and the other was sent to a child in
Afghanistan.
Past simple
All the offices were cleaned on Sunday morning.

The presentation was being displayed in the meeting room.

Past continuous
While the new employees were being shown the offices, they met the
CEO.
 New staff has been hired.
Present perfect
simple Certificates of attendance have been sent to all those who attended
the meeting.

Past perfect The rooms had been organized before the CEOs arrived.

Dates will be announced soon.

Future simple
All jobs in the agency will be evaluated so that people are doing jobs
for which they are qualified, but not over-qualified.

USE AND EXAMPLES

● To omit the doer of the action (because it is too obvious, irrelevant or unimportant):
New staff will be recruited (the focus is on the recruiting process instead of the person in
charge of it.)
● To express general feelings/beliefs: The employees are expected to submit their
Employee Climate Survey before Monday.
● To express politeness/formality: Your application will be assessed by the manager.

When we want to say who has done something in a passive sentence, we use the
preposition by + the subject of the active voice:

- The IT team have supervised the computers. (ACTIVE)

- Computers have been supervised by the IT team. (PASSIVE)

However, the subject can be omitted when it is not relevant: The CEO has been arrested. (it is
obvious that the police did this.)

16. Defining and non-defining relative clauses

 FORM

Defining relative clauses

That/which — things
Who — people
Where — places
Whose — possession

a) The big picture is the basic idea that describes what we’re going to do.

b) The overall goal is something which tells us what the organization wants to receive.

c) The people (who) we want to reach are the target audience.

d) That’s the part of the process (that) I most enjoy.

Non-defining relative clauses

Which — things
Who — people
Where — places
Whose — possession

e) The slogan, which is a phrase or a sentence, should be short and memorable.

f) Her co-worker, whose car is always parked next to mine, caused big distress
yesterday.

Reduced relative clauses

No relative pronoun is used

g) You need to look at the competitors operating in the same areas.

h) You were responsible for adverts seen by millions.

USES

● Defining relative clauses identify or classify a noun/pronoun from the main clause. The
information provided in defining relative clauses is necessary for the whole sense of the
sentence. Thus, we can use these clauses to describe an important quality of
someone/something.
Is this the email that you were talking about? (a specific email – you’re identifying it)

Passengers who have Premium Access will start boarding soon. (the passengers that have
something – you’re classifying them.)

In defining relative clauses we can omit the relative pronoun that/which/who when it is the
object of the relative clause. When it is the subject, we can’t omit it: That’s the part of the
process (that) I most enjoy.

● Non-defining relative clauses give extra information about a noun/pronoun from the
main clause (or the whole clause). However, and in contrast to defining relative clauses,
non-defining relative clauses do not define or classify something: the main clause can
stand on its own and still make sense without it. The extra information is written
between commas.

Example: Steve Jobs founded Apple in 1976.

Extra information: Steve Jobs was born in the USA.
→ Steve Jobs, who was born in the USA, founded Apple in 1976.

● Reduced relative clauses refer to those relative clauses that do not have a relative
adverb or pronoun.

The competitors that are operating in the same areas → The competitors operating in the
same areas.

17. Inversion

We use inversion for emphasis, dramatic purposes or formality, especially in writing. This type
of inversion uses negative and limiting adverbs (e.g. seldom, rarely, etc). Inversion involves
changing the structure of a statement (Subject + verb) by placing the auxiliary/verb before the
subject. Check the chart below.

STATEMENT INVERSION

I had never met someone so interesting. Never had I met someone so interesting.
 USING NEGATIVE ADVERBS OR ADVERBIAL PHRASES FOR INVERSION
Usually, we put the expression at the beginning of the sentence to emphasize what we're saying.
It makes our sentences sound surprising or striking or unusual as well as very formal, too:
Seldom have I seen such beautiful work. (Seldom is at the beginning, so we use inversion. This
sentence emphasizes what beautiful work is).

NEGATIVE INVERTED SENTENCE EXAMPLE

ADVERB/ADVERBIAL
PHRASES

Hardly Hardly had I been late to work when it rained.

Never Never had she done such an amazing piece of work before.

Seldom Seldom do we see such an outstanding presentation.

Rarely Rarely will you see the boss yelling at the staff.

Only then Only then did I understand why the tragedy had happened.

Not only…but Not only does he know how to lead but he also knows how to be a
team player.

No sooner No sooner had we arrived at the office than we were called into a
meeting.

Scarcely Scarcely had I got off the bus when they called me for the
interview.

Only later Only later did she really think about the situation.

Nowhere Nowhere have I ever had such bad service.

Little Little did she know!

Only in this way Only in this way could John earn enough money to survive.

In no way In no way do I agree with what you’re saying.

On no account On no account should you do anything without asking me first.

In the following expressions, the inversion comes in the second part of the sentence.
- Not until: Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe what he was telling
me.
 - Not since: Not since Lucy left college had she had such a wonderful time.
- Only after: Only after I’d seen her flat did I understand why she wanted to live there.
- Only when: Only when we’d all arrived home did I feel calm.
- Only by: Only by working extremely hard could we afford to buy a car.

USING INVERSION INSTEAD OF “IF” IN CONDITIONALS WITH

“HAD/WERE/SHOULD”

NORMAL CONDITIONAL CONDITIONAL WITH INVERSION

If I had been there, this problem Had I been there, this problem wouldn’t have
wouldn’t have happened. happened.

If we had arrived sooner, we could Had we arrived sooner, this tragedy could’ve been
have prevented this tragedy. prevented.

USING INVERSION WITH AN ADVERBIAL EXPRESSION OF PLACE

NORMAL SENTENCE INVERTED SENTENCE WITH ADVERBIAL

EXPRESSION OF PLACE

The papers were at his desk. At his desk were the papers.

The business men came around the Around the corner came the business men.
corner.

USING INVERSION AFTER “SO” + ADJECTIVE… THAT:

NORMAL SENTENCE INVERTED SENTENCE EXAMPLE

The girl was so smart that So smart was the girl that nobody could talk of anything else.
nobody could talk of
anything else.

The food was so delicious So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite.
that we ate every last bite.
 18. Cleft sentences

Cleft means divided. A cleft sentence is one which is divided into two parts. They are used to
create focus or emphasis on part of a sentence.

Cleft sentence form Examples

Wh-words + be + noun What I love is their office layout.

Wh-words + be + verb
What makes established companies successful is their
day-to-day conflict management.

What we did was hire a new consultant.

It + is/was + (the language we It’s the smallest disagreements that can grow into the biggest
want to emphasize) + problems.
who/that-relative clause
It’s Bill Roberts (who) you need to talk to.

The thing/the thing to do The thing I don’t have time for is email.
(=this places emphasis on the The thing to do is find an expert.
noun or verb)

The place where/the reason The reason why two is the perfect number is that fewer
why/the person who co-founders means fewer arguments.
(to emphasize information about
a person, place or give a reason) The place where meetings are held is around the corner.

The way + verb The way to get to know people is by going to conferences.
(to say how something is/was
done)

19. Verb patterns

Verb patterns refer to what follows a verb.

The meaning of the verb is often in the whole pattern, not just in the verb. We will focus now on
verbs followed by -ing or to-infinitive.
- Some verbs can be followed by to + infinitive or -ing without any real difference in
meaning. Some verbs in this group are: begin, cease, continue, start.
Example: I began wondering / to wonder what the point of it all was.

- Some verbs can be followed by to + infinitive or -ing and the meaning changes
according to the pattern used. Some verbs in this group are: go on, mean, remember,
stop, try.
Examples: I don’t mean to be rude. (=don’t intend to be)
Living abroad means learning another language. (=involves learning)
Please remember to switch off the lights. (=don’t forget to do it)
I remember meeting her once before. (=to recall an experience)
Try to be more careful. (=make an effort)
Try clicking on the button twice and see what happens. (= experiment with)

There are seven main types of verb pattern:

Verb + -ing Verbs in this group include: avoid, consider, deny, forget, like, mean,
miss, remember, risk, stop, suggest.

Example: He denied doing anything wrong.

Verb + object Discuss something/gerund

Mention something/gerund
Stress something/gerund

Example: He mentioned calling Maria before the meeting.

Verb + object + Verbs in this group include: hear, let, make, notice.
infinitive
Example: The company let me take some time off.

Verb + object + to Verbs in this group include: allow, ask, cause, enable, force, invite,
persuade, order, tell

Example: I asked them to consider my personal situation.

Verb + to infinitive Verbs in this group include: agree, decide, fail, long, offer, pretend,
promise, refuse, threaten, promise.

Example: I offered to help him.

Verb + different Verbs in this group include: admit to, apologize for, disapprove of,
prepositions + insist on, resort to, succeed in, agree on, complain about
 noun/-ing Example: He insisted on doing it himself.

Verb + object + Verbs in this group include: prevent … from, accuse … of, thank … for,
preposition + -ing congratulate … on.

Example: Commentators accused him of behaving badly.

20. Verb adjective patterns

There are two main types of adjective pattern:

adjective + to infinitive adjective + preposition + -ing

Adjectives in this group include: able, difficult,
eager, free, impossible, pleased , reluctant,
willing.
Examples:
I’m willing to stay at the party for a little while.
I find it difficult to follow.
Adjectives in this group include: afraid of,
good at, happy about, hopeful of, intent on,
involved in, keen on, satisfied with, successful
in, suited to, tired of, upset about.
Example: I’m not keen on spending the
weekend at the conference.

There are a few adjectives that describe

whether an activity is likely to have the
expected or desired result. In these cases we
use adjective + -ing without a preposition.

Examples: It’s worth giving him a call.

It’s hopeless trying to convince him.

However, there are other options with specific uses.

Adjective + infinitive and adjective + ing

Some adjectives (e.g keen, interested) are followed by the infinitive when we talk about a
specific situation, but are followed by a preposition + ing or noun when we talk about a
general situation.

Examples: I’m keen to go to the conference

I’m keen on swimming.
I’m interested to know what you think.
I’m interested in learning languages.
Some adjectives (e.g. afraid, pleased) can be used with either infinitive or preposition + -ing
or noun with little difference in meaning.

Examples: I was pleased to have been asked to attend.

I was pleased about being asked to attend.

It + be + adjective + -ing or infinitive

Adjectives which describe the way we feel about a situation can be followed by either to +
infinitive or -ing without any real difference in meaning.

Examples: It was nice talking / to talk to you.

It’s good being / to be home.

Adjectives which don’t describe feelings in such sentences are followed by one form (usually
the infinitive).

Examples: It’s not polite to stare.

It’s easy to make that kind of mistake.

Patterns using adjectives + that-clauses

There are many adjectives describing feelings that can be followed by a that-clause. These
adjectives include: amazed, annoyed, certain, disappointed, happy, surprised, sorry, upset.

Examples: I was surprised that the shop didn’t have the item I wanted. (or I was surprised
about the shop not having…)
She was determined that she wouldn’t miss the celebration. (or She was determined not to
miss…)

21. List of verbs

Infinitive Past form Past participle Infinitive Past form Past participle

be was/were been leave left left

become became become lend lent lent

begin began begun let let let

blow blew blown lose lost lost

break broke broken make made made

bring brought brought mean meant meant

build built built meet met met

buy bought bought pay paid paid

catch caught caught put put put

choose chose chosen read read read

come came come ride rode ridden

cost cost cost ring rang rung

cut cut cut rise rose risen

deal dealt dealt run ran run

do did done sink sank sunk

draw drew drawn say said said

dream dreamt dreamt see saw seen

drink drank drunk sell sold sold

drive drove driven send sent sent

eat ate eaten set set set

fall fell fallen sit sat sat

feel felt felt shine shone shone

fight fought fought sing sang sung

find found found sleep slept slept

fly flew flown speak spoke spoken

forget forgot forgotten spend spent spent

forgive forgave forgiven stand stood stood

get got got/gotten steal stole stolen

(AmE)
give gave given swim swam swum

go went gone take took taken

grow grew grown teach taught taught

have had had tell told told

hear heard heard think thought thought

hide hid hid throw threw thrown

hit hit hit understand understood understood

hold held held wake woke woken

keep kept kept wear wore worn

know knew known win won won

lead led led write wrote written

learn learnt/learned learnt/learned

VOCABULARY
 1. Business expressions

The following expressions might prove useful within a business environment.

ADDRESS An issue BUILD Employee loyalty

(to give (to create and
attention to or A concern develop Good rapport
deal with a something over
matter or a long period of
problem) time)

A problem REVAMP The web image

(to change or
A question arrange Your appearance
something
again, in order
to improve it)

COPE WITH A problem DEAL WITH customers

(to deal (to take action
successfully A difficulty in order to employees
with a difficult achieve
situation) stress/anxiety something or in pressure
order to solve a
disability problem) A problem/difficult situation

DEVISE A plan FACE A challenge

(to invent a (a synonym for
plan, system, A way dealing with A problem/a difficult
object, etc., something) situation
usually using
your
intelligence or
imagination)

LOOK OUT Your employees Your opponent

FOR
(to try to notice Your children The future
someone or
something) yourself Charges

CONCENTRA COMMITTED
TE ON TO DOING
(to direct your SOMETHING
attention or (having
your efforts
towards a promised to be
particular involved in a
activity, plan of action)
subject, or
problem)

COORDINATE A campaign CREATE A product

(to make many A group of people (to make A slogan
different things something new, A brand
work or invent
effectively as a something)
whole)

BE HELP With the costs

INTERESTED (to make A co-worker
IN something
(when you want easier for
to give your something or
attention to someone)
something and
discover more
about it)

BE INVOLVED Your work BE Your job

IN A project PASSIONATE Soccer
(interested in ABOUT
something you (to like
are doing) something very
much)

BE The running of a place

RESPONSIBL The annual party
E FOR
(to have control
and authority
over something
or someone
and the duty of
taking care of
it, him, or her)

2. Idioms, words and expressions related to money

 IDIOMS

What is an idiom? They are certain phrases that are common to a specific population. They are
not typically literal in the meaning they convey and you cannot grasp the meaning based solely
on the words from the phrase.

In this section you will find some common idioms related to money.

● A cash cow: used to refer to a business or a part of a business that always makes a lot
of profit.
→ The Football industry is a cash cow.

● Balance the books: to try and make up the deficit in a given budget by increasing
revenue or income.
→ The company implemented a new marketing campaign to try to balance the
books by increasing sales.

● Ballpark figure: used to refer to an approximate number, an estimate.

● Beggars can't be choosers: this is used to say that you must accept what is given to you,
especially if you don't have the means or money to get it by yourself.
→ That suit wasn't exactly what I would have picked for myself, but I practically got
it for free (which was great since I don’t have extra money right now). Beggars can't be
choosers.

● Coining it in: to be earning a lot of money quickly

→ Competition in the market was so strong, we decided to cut our losses and
close the business.

● Cook the books: when someone doctors or falsifies the financial records of a company.

● Crunch the numbers: to do mathematical work involving large amounts of information or

numbers

● Cut your losses: when you decide to stop spending time, energy, or money on an activity
or situation in which you have already spent a lot without having any success.

● (Don't) put all your eggs in one basket: we say this when we want the other person to
have different courses of action/plans (instead of focusing only on one and then run the
risk of losing everything).
→ If you're going to invest the money, my advice would be not to put all your eggs
in one basket.

● Don't throw good money after bad: when you waste money by spending more money on
something you have already spent money on that is/was no good.
● Fool’s gold: something that seems good but in reality is not likely to be successful or of
good quality

● Give someone a run for their money: when you challenge someone’s abilities, skills or
patience.
→ In the latest match, Argentina did definitely give the opposing team a run for
their money.

● Go bust: If a company goes bust, it is forced to close because it is financially

unsuccessful.
→ More than 20 companies in the district went bust during the last three months.

● Golden handshake: this refers to a generous severance pay to an employee, often as an

incentive for early retirement.

● Grease somebody’s palms: give somebody money in order to persuade them to do

something dishonest (this idiom is a bit old-fashioned)

● He who pays the piper calls the tune: something that you say which means that the
person who provides the money for something can decide how it should be done.
→ You may not agree with Mr Brown’s ways, but he started off this business by
himself, and he who pays the piper calls the tune.

● If you pay peanuts, you only get monkeys: this idiom is used to say that if an employer
pays very low wages, they cannot expect to find good staff.

● Lend your money and lose a friend: this idiom means that by lending money to a friend
you can run the risk of losing him/her as many other problems may arise because of that
act.
→ A: Marian still owes me $50 from lunch the other day. She hasn’t even thanked
me!
B: I told you - lend your money and lose a friend.

● Live from hand to mouth: when someone is extremely poor or lives in poor
circumstances.
→ We lived from hand to mouth during the war. Things were very difficult.

● Mint money: to earn a lot of money by doing something that is really successful.
→ JK Rowling, who is the author of “Harry Potter” books, has minted money for
years.

● Money doesn’t grow on trees: something that you say which means you should be
careful how much money you spend because there is only a limited amount

● Money talks: said about people or organizations that are rich, and can therefore get or
do what they want. It means that people with money have a lot of power.
 → You can say all that you want about his business, but he gets everything he
wants in his position. Money talks.

● Money to burn: to have a lot of money and spend large amounts on things that are not
necessary.
→ She is always bringing new shoes to the office! I don’t know how she does to
have so much money to burn.

● Nest egg: money that you are saving for some purpose in the future.
→ I know that college is expensive, and I want my three children to pursue a career.
That’s why I have a nest egg stored for them.

● Nickel and dime: something is not important or serious, or involves only small amounts
of money.

→ You may leave now - the last topics to be covered in this meeting are nickel and
dime.

● Out of debt, out of danger: this means that once you pay off your debts, your life will
become easier (thus, you will be out of debt/problems).

● Take someone to the cleaners: If someone takes you to the cleaners, they make you lose
a lot of money in an unfair or dishonest way.

→ Paul was really taken to the cleaner's on that deal.

● You have to speculate to accumulate: it means that you need to take chances to win big.

EXPRESSIONS

● A debtor: this is the name given to a person who owes money.

● A dividend: this is a payment that is part of a profit paid to shareholders.
● A grant: money that you are given that does not need to be repaid
● A return: this is how much profit you get back after making an investment
● Go into liquidation: when a company does not operate any longer due to financial
difficulties.
● Bankruptcy: a situation in which a company or individual goes bankrupt (=not able to pay
debts)
● Be in the black: this means that you are in credit (and that you do not have any debts)
● Cash Flow problems: this term refers to some problems that could arise from the
amount of money that comes in and out of a business.
● Collateral: if you don’t pay a debt, collateral is money or other kind of asset that can be
sold in order to pay for the debt (it would be security for a loan to be paid)
 ● Equity capital: the capital that a company gets from selling shares rather than borrowing
money
● Interest rate: the interest percent that a bank or other financial company charges you
when you borrow money, or the interest percent it pays you when you keep money in an
account.
● Liabilities: they are the total amounts of money owed by businesses
● Major asset: something valuable belonging to a person or organization that can be used
for the payment of debts
● Mortgage: an agreement that allows you to borrow money from a bank or similar
organization, especially in order to buy a house, or the amount of money itself
● Principal: an amount of money that someone has invested in a bank or lent to a person
or organization so that they will receive interest on it from the bank, person, or
organization
● Risk or venture capital: money that is invested or is available for investment in a new
company, especially one that involves risk.
● To go into administration: When a company goes into administration an appointed
administrator takes control with the primary goal of utilising assets to pay creditors as
quickly as possible.
● To miss an installment of a loan: this happens when you do not pay part of what you
owe for a loan.

4. Idioms about communication

● Can’t make heads nor tails of it: to fail to understand anything

● To be like talking to a brick wall: to try to communicate with an unresponsive person
● To be on the same wavelength: to share similar opinions and ideas
● To beat about the bush: to delay talking about something
● To get it straight from the horse’s mouth: to be told something by someone who has
direct knowledge of it
● To get straight to the point: to talk about the most important thing
● To get the wrong end of the stick: to not understand something.
● To hear it on the grapevine: to hear about something because the information has been
passed from one person to another in conversation
● To keep someone in the loop: to include someone in group communication
● To put it in a nutshell: to give the main facts in a short, clear way.
● To put someone in the picture: to give the latest information.
● To talk at cross-purposes: to not understand someone.
 5. Idioms about judgement and decision-making

● A no-brainer: something that requires or involves little or no mental effort

● Against my better judgement: contrary to what one feels to be wise or sensible
● Better the devil you know: used to say that it is better to deal with a difficult person or
situation one knows than with a new person or situation that could be worse
● Sit on the fence: when you avoid making a decision/choice
● Cherry-pick: to choose something very carefully to ensure that the best option is chosen,
perhaps through means that provide one an unfair advantage
● Hedge my bets: to avoid committing oneself when faced with a difficult choice
● Take the plunge: to commit oneself to a course of action that makes you nervous about;
not easy to follow
● The lesser of two evils: the less harmful or unpleasant of two bad choices or
possibilities
● The line of least resistance: an option avoiding difficulty or unpleasantness; the easiest
course of action
● To be spoilt for choice: to have so many options that it is difficult to make a choice

6. Expressing preference

We use the following expressions to express preference. The grammatical structure after each
of the expressions is different as it changes its meaning, too.

● would sooner/rather:
When the clauses have the SAME SUBJECT, it can be followed by the infinitive or
perfect infinitive : I'd rather play football than golf./I'd rather have stayed at home.

When the clauses have a DIFFERENT SUBJECT, it can be followed by a Past Tense
with present or future meaning: Shall I open the window? I'd rather you didn't.
However, if it’s followed by the past perfect, it has a past meaning: I'd rather you hadn't
called him “disgusting.”
 ● prefer + -ing:
We use this to express general preferences. I prefer walking to running.
You can also use the formula prefer + noun + to noun in order to show preference over
something: I prefer coffee to tea.

● Had better to + bare infinitive:

This structure expresses preference but it is usually used to provide advice. You’d better
not take out a loan; I won't be able to pay it back.

7. Linkers

Linkers is the name given to those words or expressions that “link” (join, connect) ideas within a
sentence or text. They are cohesive devices that can enrich your pieces of writing and make it
clearer for your reader.

According to the nature of the linker, we can find different meanings associated with them.

● LINKERS OF CONTRAST: however, although, in spite of (sth/doing sth), despite

(sth/doing sth), even though, in contrast to, but, nevertheless, whereas
● LINKERS OF CONSEQUENCE: as a result of, as a consequence, consequently
● LINKERS OF CAUSE/RESULT: because of, owing to the fact that, when we finally…, due
to, since…
● LINKERS OF CONCLUSION: overall, in conclusion, all things considered, finally

8. Linking words of cause and result

The linking words of cause are used in sentences when we want to introduce a clause that tells
the cause or reason why an action occurs. In contrast, the linking words of result introduce a
sentence that expresses the consequence or effect of such a cause.
According to the nature of the cause or result, we can say that some linking words are positive
or negative.
 Linking words of cause Linking words of result

Due to To be the result of

Cause Lead to
Arise from (as a) Result from
Stem from Foster
because Bring about
consequently/as a
consequence

EXAMPLES IN A TEXT

Research carried out by a UK-based organization to find common causes for absenteeism in
the workplace shows that over three quarters of working days missed are the result of
minor illness. Unscheduled days off by some members of a team can force their already
busy colleagues to take on more work, which can, in turn, kill motivation or lead to delays
and missed deadlines.
The research found that another ten perfect days in manual jobs result from injury (but only
three percent in non-manual jobs which is presumably due to the lower physical risks at
work). Stress and mental ill-health cause another six percent of missed work days; one
percent arise from home and family responsibilities such as caring for a sick relative; and
‘other’ causes, including ‘pulling a sickie’ account for another two percent.
Poor employee attendance sometimes stems from low morale. Many companies have
found that a flexible working schedule can foster good will and bring about improved
employee attendance.

9. Comparisons

In previous levels we have studied comparatives and superlatives. There are some more
expressions related to them that can compare two things/situations.

● Better or worse:
One way isn’t necessarily better or worse than another.
● Much more… than…/ far less… than…:
You see a way of doing something that seems much more sensible than the way you’ve
been used to.
● (nearly) as… as:
They don’t suffer nearly as much from back problems as we seem to in America.
 ● By far the…:
This is by far the best business trip I’ve ever had.
● A little/a whole…:
It takes up a little more room than my old bed, but I sleep a whole better.
● The less/more…, the less/more…
The more you read, the more you know.
The less you practice, the more difficult it will be for you.

10. Describing quantity and numbers

NOUNS

● We can use nouns describing quantity and number:

- to describe countable things, e.g. a number of, a majority of, a minority of, a
handful of. We also use phrases such as one in four and four out of every five (for
example).
- to describe uncountable things, e.g. an amount of, a quantity of, a good deal of
- to describe both countables and uncountables (with some words that describe
parts of a whole), e.g. a portion of, a percentage of, a fraction of

● We use percentages with countable and uncountable nouns, e.g. ninety per cent of the
companies, thirty percent of the time.

ADJECTIVES

There are many collocations to describe quantity and number.

● adjective + noun collocations: a significant/ substantial number; the vast majority; a

large/enormous quantity; a good/small/sizeable/significant proportion; a
negligible/significant/small/maximum amount; a small/tiny minority; a tiny fraction

● adverb + adjective collocations: relatively/very few; surprisingly/very little

 11. Gradability and modifiers

Gradable adjectives refer to a point on a scale. If we think of nice and bad, these are adjectives
on the scale of ‘how good something is’.
Ungradable adjectives, on the contrary, refer to the limits of a scale. Following the previous
example, if I say incredible or terrible, I’m talking about two extremes regarding how good
something is.

In order to make gradable adjectives stronger or weaker, we use the following words:

very - extremely - most - pretty (informal) - rather - really - so - terribly - fairly

Examples:
The distribution of the Internet is still extremely unequal.
They have a very limited supply of electricity.
Its impact on the economy is still fairly modest.
IT and business analysts are rather prone to getting higher salaries.

In order to make ungradable adjectives stronger or weaker, we use the following:

absolutely - quite - almost - practically - virtually - nearly

Examples:
I’m absolutely certain it will have a positive impact.
The window’s open - oh, it’s practically freezing in here!
Her latest speech was quite amazing.

Most adjectives in English are gradable. We can make comparative and superlative forms
from all gradable adjectives, but we don’t usually do so with ungradable adjectives (except for
some cases in spoken English). For instance, this is the best match I’ve ever seen.

We don’t use “very” with ungradable adjectives.

This is very delicious. → This is absolutely delicious.

Your house is very incredible. → This is absolutely incredible.

The adverbs quite/pretty/very/really/incredibly/a bit/rather can be used to modify

adjectives of personality. In this case, they are referred to as modifiers.

● With positive adjectives/traits, we use them in the following way:

 quite/pretty (+) She’s quite responsive via email.
very (++) Everybody loves Theo. He’s very attentive to everyone’s needs.
really/incredibly (++)

● With negative adjectives/traits, we use the same adverbs in the following way:

A bit (+-) He’s a bit shy, but still works well in teams.
rather/quite/pretty/ (+) Michelle’s rather absent-minded so I prefer not involving her in
this project.
very (++) My boss can be very ambitious.
really/incredibly (++) I can’t believe he wouldn’t chip in with Ann’s gift! He’s incredibly
tight-fisted!

12. Word families

Verb Noun Adjective

to market marketer marketing

to develop development developing

to enter entry -

to shape shape -

to practise practice practical

to assign assignment -

to report report -

to present presentation -

to brief brief / briefing brief

13. Marketing word partnership

mix the combination of actions a company

uses when selling a product or service.
These are often described as the four Ps (=
product, price, place, and promotion)

plan It’s an operational document that shows

Marketing how an organization is planning to use
advertising and outreach to target a
specific market.

strategy a plan of action designed to promote and

sell a product or service

adaptation Adaptation occurs when any element of

the marketing strategy is modified to
achieve a competitive advantage when
entering a foreign market

penetration the degree to which a product or brand is

Market bought, used, or known by a particular
group of customers

segmentation the dividing of all possible customers into

groups based on their needs, age,
education, income, etc.

feature Product features are a product's traits or

attributes that deliver value to end-users
and differentiate a product in the market
For instance, the battery life of a cell phone
could be considered a good feature.
Product
placement a way of advertising a product by supplying
it for use in films or television programmes

portfolio A product portfolio refers to the complete

list of products offered by a company.
 base The people who buy/use a particular
product/service

profile a description typical customers from a

Customer business

retention the fact of keeping a customer for a period

of time

extension the process of using an existing brand

name to introduce new products or
services

identity a set of qualities that people connect with

a particular company or a product sold
Brand under a particular name, that make it
different from other companies or
products

positioning a company's decision about how a product

is marketed in relation to its other
products, and to competitors' products

14. Adjectives and Prefixes/word families

Adjective Opposite Adjective Noun Form

considerate inconsiderate consideration

creative uncreative creativity

decisive indecisive decisiveness

diplomatic undiplomatic diplomacy

efficient inefficient efficiency

 flexible inflexible flexibility

inspiring uninspiring inspiration

interested disinterested / interest

uninterested

logical illogical logic

organized disorganized organization

rational irrational rationality

responsible irresponsible responsibility

sociable unsociable sociability

supportive unsupportive support

15. Adjective + noun collocations

The following chart shows some of the most common adjectives that collocate with the chosen
nouns as seen in the last levels.

home, away, opposing, rival, decent, strong, winning, weak, dream, junior, team
senior, mixed, men’s, women’s, (in)experienced, highly-productive,
(un)skilled, fast-learning, (un)aligned, heterogeneous

senior, direct, immediate, strict, (un)demanding, laissez-faire, carefree, boss

authoritarian, (un)successful, sympathetic, understanding, (un)supportive,
dis/encouraging,energy-intensive, fault-finding, persnickety

challenging, daunting, Herculean, monumental, arduous, (un)demanding, task

difficult, exacting, exhausting, hard, time-consuming, tough, uphill,
dangerous, hazardous, easy, simple, repetitive, tedious, complex,
mind-boggling, tricky, day-to-day, menial, fundamental, major, urgent,
(un)enviable, immediate, (un)pleasant, administrative, household,
self-appointed

immediate, short-term, long-term, ultimate, main, major, primary, specific, goal

ambitious, modest, desirable, (un)achievable, (un)attainable, (un)realistic,
common, twin, strategic

calculated, strategic, creative, fixed, growth, financial, political, commercial, mindset

marketing, positive, negative, uptight, institutional, narrow, legalistic,
 simplistic, traditional, modern

big, considerable, enormous, great, huge, real, serious, significant, difficult, challenge
tough, major, main, fresh, new, exciting, interesting, economic,
environmental, intellectual, political, technical, technological

damaging, devastating, considerable, high, huge, major, powerful, impact

significant, substantial, increasing, added, uneven, short-term, lasting,
far-reaching, potential, beneficial, cultural, economic

exhausting, amazing, challenging, (un)interesting, worthwhile, decent, job

dream, ideal, top, high-powered, plum, (un)demanding, satisfying,
unrewarding, innovative, meaningful, well-paid, highly-paid, badly-paid,
low-paid, boring, dead-end, monotonous, routine, menial, full-time,
part-time, 9-to-5, regular, steady, (in)formal, summer, vacation, permanent,
temporary, evening/morning/weekend/Saturday

friendly, good, happy, harmonious, healthy, strong, broken, difficult, failed, relationship
fragile, poor, stormy, strained, troubled, uneasy, close, intense, intimate,
special, enduring, lasting, long-standing, long-term, permanent, serious,
stable, steady, brief, casual, family, human, interpersonal, one-to-one,
personal, doctor-patient, parent-child,business, contractual, formal, marital,
physical, professional, sexual, social, working, caring, love-hate, loving

basic, cardinal, first, fundamental, golden, ground, general, (in)formal, rule

official, (un)written, rigid, strict, stringent, absolute, hard and fast, clear,
simple, arbitrary, petty, club, company, competition, school, union, cultural,
ethical, legal, moral, social, disciplinary, immigration, safety, tax, grammar

16. Multi-words

Multi-words are verbs that consist of more than one word. According to the words that make the,
we can distinguish between prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs or phrasal prepositional verbs.
Within the upper-intermediate and advanced levels, you have seen the following examples.

Prepositional verbs
Verb + preposition
(the preposition introduces a prepositional phrase, which consists of the preposition and an object)

● Fawn over: grovel, continually compliment

● Get ahead: be successful in the work that you do
● Go over: examine or explain in detail
● Head up: be in charge of
● Let down: disappoint
● Look into: investigate something
● Step down: resign
● To bring down: to cause the collapse of something
● To carry on: to continue doing something
● Turn down: to refuse/reject an offer, request or invitation

Phrasal verb
Verb + particle
(particles don’t have meaning on their own and they depend on the main verb to get it)

● Bail out: to help someone or an organization who is having financial problems.

● Bet against: to take a financial risk
● Bring off/pull off: succeed in doing something difficult
● Buy out: to take over a company or to purchase shares from others
● Call off: to cancel something
● Dress down: rebuke, tell off, criticise somebody’s conduct
● Give away: to give something without asking for money rather than selling it to them
● Pay out: to pay or give money
● Put off: postpone
● Put together: assemble, build
● Rip somebody off: to cheat someone by charging too much money
● See something through: continue something until finished
● Splash out: to spend a lot of money on something
● Take off: to suddenly start being successful

Phrasal-prepositional verb
Verb + particle + preposition

● Cling on to: to try very hard to keep something

● Come up with: invent, think of, produce
● Come up with: to suggest or think of an idea or plan
● Cut back on something: to spend or do less
● Cut down on: reduce
● Get away with: not to be caught or punished when you have done something wrong
● Get on with: perform or make progress in a specified way.
 ● Hold on to something/somebody: to keep something or someone that is important or
useful
● Keep in with: to continue to try to be friendly with someone, especially because they
can help you
● Look out for: to take care of someone and make sure that they are treated well
● Look up to: respect and admire
● Move on to: to get a better job or improve your life in some way
● Pull out of: to retreat from something, after a period of initial interest
● Sit in on: observe a meeting or conversation
● Stand out from: to be much better than other similar things or people
● Stand up for: to defend or support a particular idea or a person who is being criticized
or attacked
● Stand up to something: to not be changed or damaged by something
● Stay ahead of: to complete all or more than is required of some task in order to be
prepared to face more work
● Stick up for: to support or defend something or someone

PRONUNCIATION TIPS

Phonemic Symbols

Vowel sounds

Short

/ə/ /æ/ /ʊ/ /ɒ/ /ɪ/ /i/ /e/ /ʌ/

teacher man put got chip happy men but

Long

/ɜː/ /ɑː/ /uː/ /ɔː/ /iː/

shirt park who walk cheap
Diphthongs (two vowel sounds)

/eə/ /ɪə/ /əʊ/ /eɪ/ /aɪ/ /eɪ/ /ʊə/ /aʊ/

hair year low bay eyes late tour now

Consonants

/p/ /b/ /t/ /f/ /v/ /d/ /k/ /g/

pill book time face van dog cold go

/θ/ /ð/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/

thirty they change jeans say zero shop usually

/m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /h/ /l/ /r/ /w/ /j/

me nose king hot late red went yes

1. Pronunciation of letter “a”

The letter a (pronounced /eɪ/), as most vowel letters in English, has various pronunciations. In
British and American English these are the most common pronunciations:

How to produce the Sound Usual spellings

Examples
sound

The tongue needs to “short a”: /æ/ a trap, bat, ad, marry.
be low and at the
back of your mouth.
Then, you have to
make a voiced sound
with your mouth wide
open, as if you were
smiling.
Begin with the tongue “long a”: /eɪ/ a, ai, ay face, facing or
pushed somewhat famous.
forward but in a But also: ea, eight, ey great, break, weight,
neutral position in the
obey, grey
mouth. Then, when
the jaw closes
slightly, move the
body of the tongue
upward until it is near
the tooth
ridge--similar to the
position of a 'y sound'
/y/. The front sides of
the tongue touch the
inside of the top teeth
at the end of the
sound.

The tongue needs to “broad a”: /ɑː/ a, ar bark, smart, sarcastic

be low and at the chance, grant, staff,
back of your mouth. advantage
Then, you have to
make a long voiced
sound with your
mouth wide.

“short o”: /ɒ/ a want, wander

This is a short sound.
The teeth should be
about the width of a
thumb apart, with
your lips pushed
forward. The tip of
the tongue lies on the
bottom of the mouth.

Your tongue should “short i”: /ɪ/ a Percentage, village,

be positioned high in leverage
your mouth, and
shifted toward the
front. Your lips
should be relaxed,
and only slightly
open.
 Lower your tongue The /ɔː/ sound a, al Talk, install
and pull it backwards.
Make a circle with
your lips. Tighten
your tongue and
breathe out to
pronounce the vowel.

Very relaxed lips, schwa sound: /ə/ Many different assertive, relative,
mouth slightly open. spellings- ALWAYS practical, challenging,
It sounds like the kind UNSTRESSED member, opinion,
of grunt that a moody profession, stubborn,
teenager might make successful
first thing in the (the underlined
morning – ‘Uh’. syllables are the
stressed ones)

2. Pronunciation of letter “o”

The letter o (pronounced /əʊ/), as most vowel letters in English, has various pronunciations. In
British and American English there are currently three most common pronunciations for the
letter o.
● So-called “short o”, IPA phoneme /ɒ/, as in lot, hop or cloth.
● So-called “long o”, IPA phoneme /əʊ/, as in go, hope, or most.
● Long "or" monophthong, IPA phoneme /ɔː/, as in north, horse or born.

It also can be pronounced /ʌ/ as in love, come, tough. In order to make this sound, you shouldn’t
open your mouth too much, but rather drop your jaw ever so slightly in a relaxed way. Letter o
can also be pronounced with other, less common pronunciations, sometimes in combination
with other letters, and, of course, it can be used as schwa (for example, computer →
/kəmˈpjuːtər/ )

3. Pronunciation of /s/ and /z/ sounds

These two sounds are particularly difficult for some non-native speakers of English, especially
for Spanish ones. The truth is that the voiced sound /z/ is non-existent in their phonemic
alphabet and so it brings about extra effort to produce it and distinguish it from the voiceless
/s/.

There are some spelling rules on which we can rely in order to predict which sound will be the
appropriate one:

/s/ /z/

common spellings: s/ss, ce, ci, sc, and x. common spellings: z/zz, s, x.

Letter s is typically voiceless (=your vocal
cords won’t vibrate when you pronounce it) at
the end of utterances and when a voiceless
sound precedes or follows it: it’s, its, she’s
stressed out
The x spelling can be pronounced in two
different ways depending on whether the x is
followed by a stressed vowel or not:
/k/ + /s/ sound = fix, fox, next

/g/ + /z/ sound = example, exist

Letter S is sometimes pronounced /z/ when it comes between two vowel sounds either in
the same word or across words in a sentence.

visit, busy, delays and...

4. Pronunciation of weak forms in question words

In informal speech, do you is often pronounced /djə/ or /ʤə/.

Did /Could / Would you are often pronounced /dɪdjə/, /kʊdjə/, /wʊdjə/ or /dɪʤə/, /kʊʤə/,
/wʊʤə/.
You may choose not to use such weak forms and contractions yourself, but being aware of
them will help you improve your listening skills and understand native speakers better.

Try saying the following sentences using strong forms and weak forms to see the difference.
Do you have change for a £10 note? /dʒə hæv ʧeɪnʤ fər ə tɛn bɪl nəʊt/

Could you bring us the bill? /kʊd juː brɪŋ ʌs ðə bɪl/

/kʊʤə/
 5. Word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and question intonation

WORD STRESS

Due to rhythmical reasons, the vowels in Spanish and English words behave in a different way.
Let us compare the Spanish word “desinteresado” and its English counterpart ‘uninterested’. In
Spanish, the stress pattern is

Desinteresado ••••••

The English pattern is quite different. There is a very strong syllable before the primary stress
which should not be overlooked. A stress, be it primary or secondary, requires a strong vowel.
There cannot be two unstressed syllables together.

Uninterested ••••

SENTENCE STRESS

We can make a difference between content and function words. Content words are those words
that carry substantial meaning (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs) whereas function words are
those that “bind” elements together (prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, articles, pronouns).
English speakers and listeners rely on stress to decipher what is relevant in a message. Take a
look at the following example (the red words are the content words, thus, the ones that should
be stressed when said)

There was a launch. Were you free to watch it?

Noun adjective verb

INTONATION PATTERNS

Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. There are three main patterns of
intonation in English: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.

● Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase
or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.
Where’s the consumers’ ↘spreadsheet?
 What time does the the new venue o↘pen?
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite (like at the end of a list), or when
we want to be very clear about something:
I think we are completely l↘ost.
OK, here’s the sand↘wich you wanted.

● Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising
intonation is common in yes-no questions:

So, are you the new se↗cretary?

Is it t↗rue?

● Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise
intonation at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when
we may have more to add:

I do↘n’t support any football team at the m↘om↗ent. (=but I may change my mind in
future).
It rained every day in the firs↘t w↗eek. Then, it got be↘tter.

We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or invite
somebody to do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the questions sound more
polite:

Is this your cam↘er↗a?

Would you like another co↘ff↗ee?

6. Intonation: Polite vs assertive intonation and requests

Intonation is a really important aspect of the language since it is what really gives life and
intention to our speech. We might be using the right words but if our intonation is not the right
one, we must face a communication breakdown or we may come across as rude or impolite.

When we want to sound polite, a more high-pitched, fall-rise intonation is the most appropriate.
That is to say that we first go down and then up.

Excuse me, | would you like to ↘join↗ us?

When we want to sound more assertive, a low-pitched, fall intonation is the most appropriate.
Stressed words tend to be even more stressed in an assertive sentence.

Send it to my ↘office.

To make requests, which are usually formal and polite, our voice should rise at the end.

‘Can you send me the ↗memo, please?

7. Emphasis and de-emphasis

The process of emphasizing and de-emphasizing words or whole phrases in English is always
tied to the specific context and the intention the speaker has. The same sentence can be said in
a number of ways, of course, also because you can opt for rising or falling intonations in order
to express different emotions, but the emphasis we place on words definitely plays a decisive
role in meaning.

Some basic tips for emphasis are:

- When we use do / does in an affirmative clause, we are usually emphasizing the

verb, and do / does takes the emphatic stress.

- We always stress really when it is used for emphasis, either to strengthen the
proposition, or to tone it down.

- The adverb quite can mean different things according to whether it is stressed or not. When it
is unstressed, it has the meaning of fairly / rather. When it is stressed, it weakens the adjective
and means ‘not very much’.

• I have to say this is rEALLY not what I expected.

• It’s qUITE the opposite.

• Please DO send your report asap.

8. Prepositions as weak forms and elision

We usually use weak forms when we use grammar words, such as prepositions, conjunctions
and articles. Weak forms usually sound like /ə/, the schwa sound. So, when we say most of all,
we usually say /məʊst əv ɔːl/. The grammar word (of) is not pronounced fully - it is unstressed.

This is also known as elision (the intended omission of a sound in fast speech) and it is very
common in spoken, casual conversations.

More specifically, elision may refer to the omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant, or
syllable. This omission is often indicated in print by an apostrophe.

Elision of sounds can be seen clearly in contracted forms like isn't (is not), I'll (I shall/will), who's
(who is/has), they'd (they had, they should, or they would), haven't (have not) and so on. We see
from these examples that vowels or/and consonants can be elided.

You don’t have to use elision in English, still – it’s equally acceptable to say going to or gonna.
However, in some cases, e.g. in words such as comfortable /ˈkʌmfətəbl/, vegetable /ˈveʤɪtəbl/,
temperature /ˈtemprɪʧə/, it’s essential.

It is easy to find examples of elision, but very difficult to state rules that govern which sounds
may be elided and which may not. Elision of vowels in English usually happens when a short,
unstressed vowel occurs between voiceless consonants, e.g. in the first syllable of perhaps,
potato, the second syllable of bicycle, or the third syllable of philosophy, for example.

9. Elision of /t/ and /d/

In rapid speech, /t/ and /d/ often disappear when they are between two other consonants. This
is called elision, and it is quite usual in the English language.

● Elision of /t/ sound: we usually release the final t sound when the next word/letter
begins with a consonant, either within a word or in the next word. In this case, we make
the /t/ sound “disappear” by placing the tip of the tongue behind the upper teeth, with
no release of air; or by closing the vocal cords as you say the sound (glottal stop).

For example: “nightmare” → nigh_mare

“can’t complain” → can_complain
 Also, you need to hold the /t/ sound before an unstressed syllable that will usually carry
a schwa sound /ə/. The following examples show how you would pronounce the words (they
are not in phonemic transcription in order to help you see and hear them better).

For example: “mountain” → moun_ən

“I’ve forgotten about this” → aiv fəgo_ən əbaut…

● Elision of /d/ sound: we often drop sound /d/ when a word ending in /nd/ is followed by
a consonant sound. As a result, the remaining /n/ sound must link to the beginning
consonant sound of the following word.

For example: and‿said

Weekend‿project

10. Linking with /w/

Linking is a way of joining the pronunciation of two words so that they are easy to say and flow
together smoothly. When we speak naturally, we do not pronounce a word, stop, then say the
next word in the sentence.Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each
other. To make speech flow smoothly the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some
words can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and end of those words.These
changes are described as features of connected speech.
In English there are different ways in which linking takes place, but we will focus now on those
examples in which we naturally add a /w/ sound in between.

When the first word ends in an o, u vowel sound (/əʊ / u:/), our lips are round. So, we tend to
insert a /w/ sound at the beginning of the next word.

go out → /əʊ/ → gowout

too often → /u:/ → toowoften

These are more examples in which you will hear the sound /w/ in between words. It is very
subtle, but because your lips will be in a round position, the sound will come out naturally when
you try to link both words.

● no other, show off, grow up

● you are, too often, throw it
 11. Linking in discourse markers

Discourse markers are words and phrases used in speaking and writing to 'signpost' discourse.
Discourse markers do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing attitude, and
generally controlling communication.

Words like 'actually', 'so', 'OK', 'right?' and 'anyway' all function as discourse markers as they help
the speaker to manage the conversation and mark when it changes.

Discourse markers are an important feature of both formal and informal native speaker
language. The skilful use of discourse markers often indicates a higher level of fluency and an
ability to produce and understand authentic language. One important characteristic of these
‘pointers’ in conversation is that they are often spoken quite quickly, some vowels are reduced
and some links are made between words to the point that you hear the whole discourse marker
as only one word.

In speaking, the following discourse markers are very common:

Anyway, like, right, you know/y’know, fine, now, so, I mean, good, oh, well, as I say, great, okay,
mind you, for a start

12. Confusing sounds (/ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/) and linking across words

In English, there are certain sounds that are difficult to tell apart, mainly their most salient
difference lies in whether they are voiced or voiceless. In order to tell which sound is voiceless
or voiced, you should place two fingers on top of your throat’s skin, where your vocal cords are
underneath, and pronounce the sounds. If the sound is voiced, you will notice how your cords
vibrate under your touch.
Try doing this to feel the difference between the following voiced and unvoiced sounds:

Lightly hold that area between a thumb and finger and say the phonemes /b/, /v/ and /z/. Do you
feel a vibration in the vocal cords?
Now say these unvoiced consonants: /p/, /f/ and /s/. Do you feel any vibration?

Exactly, for the last three there should be no vibration.

An accurate distinction between voiced and voiceless sounds is essential when we are aiming
at proficiency in our pronunciation of the target language.

Now, take a look at the following confusing sounds: /ʃ/ vs /ʒ/ and /tʃ/ vs /dʒ/.
Look at the examples below, each carrying one of these sounds.
· option: carrying the voiceless sound /ʃ/
· decision: carrying the voiced sound /ʒ/
· cheap: carrying the voiceless sound /tʃ/
· joint: carrying the voiced sound /dʒ/

SOUND USUAL SPELLING ! BUT ALSO

/ʃ/=shower sh→ shower, rash sugar

(voiceless, post-alveolar,
fricative) ti (+ vowel) → addiction, sure
operation
chef
ci (+ vowel) → species,
crucial cliché

anxious

pressure

/ʒ/=television An unusual sound that appears in words like: invasion,

(voiced, post-alveolar, conclusion, pleasure, casualties, massage
fricative)

/ʧ/=chess ch→ charge, crunch

(voiceless, post-alveolar,
affricate) tch→ switched, match

t(+ure) → capture, sculpture

/ʤ/=jazz j→ juggle, enjoyable soldier

(voiced, lingua-dental,
fricative) ge→ cage, beige suggest

dg→ edgy, gadget

 13. Regular verbs in the past (-ed ending)

The pronunciation of words ending in -ed depends on the final consonant sound. There are
three ways to pronounce -ed at the end of a word in English: /t/, /d/ or /əd/.

Let’s look at the following rules:

● If the verb ends in a vowel sound or a voiced consonant (l, n, r, b, g, m, z, s, v), then the
–ed ending sounds like a /d/ and does not create a new syllable.
● If the verb ends in a voiceless consonant (p, k, f, gh, sh, ch, ss, c, x), then the –ed ending
sounds like a /t/ and does not create a new syllable.
● If the verb ends in a –d or a –t, the –ed ending is pronounced as a new syllable, /id/.

/d/ /t/ /ɪd/

Received /rɪˈsiːvd/ Stopped /stɒpt/ Invested /ɪnˈvɛstɪd/

Played /pleɪd/ Worked /wɜːkt/ Tested /ˈtɛstɪd/
Tried /traɪd/ Launched /lɔːnʧt/ Decided /dɪˈsaɪdɪd/