HYPHOTHALAMUS AND ITS CONNECTIONS

CHARACTERISTICS: 4. PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS

- Small (0.3% of the total brain) 5. DORSOMEDIAL NUCLEUS
- Controls the ANS and endocrine system 6. VENTROMEDIAL NUCLEUS
- Plays a role in emotional behavior 7. INFUNDIBULAR (ARCUATE) NUCLEUS
- Indirectly controls body homeostasis 8. POSTERIOR NUCLEUS
- Part of diencephalon
- Receives info from the rest of the body through
o Nervous connections
o Bloodstreams
o Cerebrospinal fluid
- Chief center of the brain for maintaining the internal milieu
of the body
3 ROLES
1. Head ganglion of the ANS
2. Circadian and seasonal clock for behavioral and sleep-wake
functions
3. Neural center for the endocrine system

LATERAL ZONE:
FROM ANTERIOR TO POSTERIOR:
1. PART OF PREOPTIC NUCLEUS
2. PART OF SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS
3. SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS
4. LATERAL NUCLEUS
5. TUBEROMAMILLARY NUCLEUS
6. LATERAL TUBERAL NUCLEI

LANDMARKS:
POSTERIOR – mamillary bodies
ANTERIOR – optic chiasm, lamina terminalis
SUPERIOR – hypothalamic sulci
LATERAL – optic tract
INFERIOR – hypophysis AFFERENT PATHWAYS ENTERING THE HYPOTHALAMUS
1. Somatic and visceral afferents. General somatic sensation
and gustatory and visceral sensations reach the
hypothalamus through collateral branches of the lemniscal
afferent fibers and the tractus solitarius and through the
reticular formation.
2. Visual afferents leave the optic chiasma and pass to the
suprachiasmatic nucleus.
3. Olfaction travels through the medial forebrain bundle.
4. Auditory afferents have not been identified, but since
auditory stimuli can influence the activities of the
hypothalamus, they must exist.
5. Corticohypothalamic fibers arise from the frontal lobe of
the cerebral cortex and pass directly to the hypothalamus.
6. Hippocampohypothalamic fibers pass from the
hippocampus through the fornix to the mammillary body.
- The main output pathway of the limbic system.
MEDIAL ZONE: 7. Amygdalohypothalamic fibers pass from the amygdaloid
- FROM ANTERIOR TO POSTERIOR complex to the hypothalamus through the stria terminalis
1. PREOPTIC NUCLEUS and by a route that passes inferior to the lentiform nucleus.
2. ANTERIOR NUCLEUS 8. Thalamohypothalamic fibers arise from the dorsomedial
3. SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS and midline thalamic nuclei.
9. Tegmental fibers arise from the midbrain.
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HYPHOTHALAMUS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
The Main Afferent and Efferent Nervous Connections of the Hypothalamus
Pathway Origin Destination
AFFERENT
Medial and spinal lemnisci,tractus solitarius, Viscera and somatic structures Hypothalamic nuclei
reticular formation
Visual fibers Retina Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Medial forebrain bundle Olfactory mucous membrane
Auditory fibers Inner ear Hypothalamic nuclei
Corticohypothalamic Fibers Frontal lobe of cerebral cortex
Hippocampohypothalamic fibers; possibly Hippocampus Nuclei of mamillary body
main output pathway of limbic system
Amygdalohypothalamic fibers Amygdaloid complex
Thalamohypothalamic fibers Dorsomedial and midline nuclei of thalamus Hypothalamic Nuclei
Tegmental fibers Tegmentum of Midbrain
EFFERENT
Descending fibers in reticular formation to Preoptic, anterior, posterior and lateral Craniosacral parasympathetic and
brainstem and spinal cord nuclei of hypothalamus thoracolumbar sympathetic outflows
Mammillothalamic tract Anterior nucleus of thalamus; relayed to
cingulate gyrus
Nuclei of mammillary body
Mammillotegmental tract Reticular formation in tegmentum of
midbrain
Multiple pathways Hypothalamic nuclei Limbic system

EFFERENT CONNECTIONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS
1. 1. Descending fibers to the brainstem and spinal cord
influence the peripheral neurons of the autonomic nervous
system.
a. They descend through a series of neurons in the
reticular formation.
b. Connected to the parasympathetic nuclei of the
oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus
nerves in the brainstem.
c. reticulospinal fibers connect the hypothalamus
with sympathetic cells of origin in the lateral gray
horns of the first thoracic segment to the second
lumbar segment of the spinal cord and the sacral
parasympathetic outflow at the level of the
second,third, and fourth sacral segments of the
spinal cord
2. The mammillothalamic tract arises in the mammillary body
and terminates in the anterior nucleus of the thalamus;
pathway is relayed to the cingulate gyrus.
3. The mammillotegmental tract from the mammillary body
and terminates in the cells of the reticular formation in the
tegmentum of the midbrain.
4. Multiple pathways to the limbic system.

HYPOTHALAMIC-HYPOPHYSIAL AXIS

1. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSEAL TRACT
ENDOCRINE CONTROL - Vasopressin [ADH] (from supraoptic nucleus) and oxytocin
(from paraventricular nucleus) → pass along with carrier
- Hypothalamic nuclei producing releasing factors or release
protein NEUROPHYSIIN → BLOODSTREAM → fenestrated
inhibiting factors
capillaries of POST PITUITARY GLAND
- Control of the anterior pituitary hormones
- SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS – osmoreceptor
o Direct effects
o ↑ osmotic pressure around nucleus → ↑ ADH →
o Indirect effects
↑ reabsorption of water from the kidney →
o Positive feedback
osmotic pressure returns to normal
o Negative feedback
- VASOPRESSIN
HYPOTHALAMO-PITUITARY CONNECTIONS
o Causes VASOCONSTRICTION
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HYPHOTHALAMUS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
o Has ANTIDIURETIC ACTION – causes ↑ absorption 1. SUPERIOR HYPOPHYSEAL ARTERY – branch of INTERNAL
of H20 in DCT and CT of the kidneys CAROTID a.
- OXYTOCIN a. Enters median eminence → capillary network →
o Produced by PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS vascular sinusoids at anterior lobe of hypophysis
o Stimulates contraction of smooth muscle of uterus secretory cells
▪ End of pregnancy → ↑oxytocin b. Carries releasing hormones and release-inhibiting
production → stimulates labor hormones to secretory anterior lobe hypophysis
o Causes contraction of MYOEPTHELIAL CELLS that
surround the alveoli and ducts of the breast
▪ SUCKLING REFLEX → baby suckles the
nipple → stimulates hypothalamus to ↑
oxytocin production → contraction of
myoepithelial cell → MILK EJECTION
HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMIC MEDIAL ZONE:
- NEUROSECRETORY CELLS
o Secrete releasing hormones and release-inhibitory
hormones → package to granules → axonal
transport → median eminence and infundibulum
→ exocytosis → release of hormones →
fenestrated capillaries of hypophyseal portal
system

RELEASING HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES

- Stimulate production and release of ant. Pit. Lobe secretory
cell hormones
o ACTH
o FSH
o LH
o TSH
o GH
RELEASE-INHIBITORY HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
- Inhibits release of ant pit lobe hormones
o MSH – melanocyte
o LTH – luteotropic; aka. LACTOGENIC HORMONE or
PROLACTIN
▪ Stimulates corpus luteum to secrete
progesterone and mammary gland to
produce milk
o GHIH – SOMATOSTATIN
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
1. AUTONOMIC CONTROL
a. Anterior hypothalamic are and preoptic area –
influence parasympathetic responses
i. Lower blood pressure
ii. Slow heart rate
iii. Bladder contraction
iv. ↑ GIT motility
v. ↑ gastric juice acidity
vi. Salivation
vii. Pupillary constriction
b. Stimulation of posterior and lateral nuclei –
sympathetic response
i. ↑ heart rate
ii. Cessation of GIT peristalsis
iii. Pupillary dilatation
iv. hyperglycemia
2. ENDOCRINE CONTROL
a. Produces releasing factors or releasing-inhibitory
factors
b. Control the hormone production of anterior
pituitary

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HYPHOTHALAMUS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
c. Observes positive and negative feedback
mechanisms
▪ SIMPLE FEEDBACK LOOP
▪ HEIRARCHICAL LOOP
3. NEUROSECRETION
4. TEMPERATURE REGULATION
a. ANTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS
i. Dissipates heat loss
ii. Causes dilation of skin blood vessels
iii. Sweating
iv. ↓ body temp
b. POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS
i. Vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels
ii. Inhibition of sweating
iii. Shivering (skeletal muscles produce
heat)
c. Hypothalamus sets body temp at 98.0F to 98.6F
when measured orally and 1F higher when
measured rectally.
d. EVENTS REQUIRED FOR FEVER INDUCTION
i. Infection, toxins, inflammation mediators,
immune reactions
1. Monocytes, endothelial cells →
pyrogenic cytokines (IL-2 IL-6, THF,
IFN) → circulation
HYPOTHALAMIC ENDOTHELIUM →
PGE2 → cAMP → ↑
thermoregulatory set-point → heat
conservation and production →
FEVER
ii. PGE2 – elevated in hypothalamic tses during
fever; NOT A NEUROTRANSMITTER
1. Highest near circumventricular
vascular organs (ORGANUM
VASCULOSUM of LAMINA
TERMINALIS)
a. Networks of enlarged
capillaries
b. Surrounds the hypothalamic
regulatory center
2. RECEPTORS: EP1, EP2, EP4
a. EP3 – essential for fever
3. HYPOTHALAMIC PGE2 → triggers
glial PGE2 receptor → release camp
→ ↑ thermoregulatory set-point →
heat conservation and production →
FEVER
iii. HYPOTHALAMIC TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS and
IL-1 receptor – similar and distinct receptors
for microbial products in the hypothalamic
endothelium
1. Shares same signaling mechanism
5. EMOTION AND BEHAVIOR
a. Function of limbic system
b. PREFRONTAL CORTEX
c. HYPOTHALAMUS – integrator of afferent
information and brings physical expression of
emotion
d. RAGE – stimulation of LATERAL hypothalamus
6. CONTROL OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHM
a. ANTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS – involved in
SLEEPING & WAKING
b. SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS – control of biologic
rhythms
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i.
Rhythms involved w/ BODY TEMP,
ADRENOCORTICAL, EOSINOPHIL CT,
RENAL SECRETIONS
NEUROSECRETORY TO POST PITUITARY:
1. VASOPRESSIN SECRETION – supraoptic nucleus
2. OXYTOCIN SECRETION – paraventricular nucleus
REGULATION: FOOD AND WATER INTAKE
- Stimulates LATERAL REGION of hypothalamus
o ↑ food intake – hunger center
o Destruction (BILATERAL) – produces ANOREXIA
and severe weight loss
- MEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS – satiety center
o Inhibits eating
o Reduces food intake
o BILATERAL DESTRUCTION – uncontrollable
voracious appetite and extreme obesity
- Other areas in LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS
o Immediate ↑ in desire to drink H20
o SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS – controls osmolarity of
blood through ADH secretion of post hypophysis
ROLE ON SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
- SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS
o Larger in men than in women
→ - INTERSTITIAL NUCLEUS of hypothalamus
o Smaller in homosexual male
- INFUNDINULAR AREA
o HYPERTROPHIC NEURONS – rich in estrogen
receptors
▪ Symptoms of menarche are timed and
mediated by these neurons
▪ AGING, ALZHEIMER’S, SLEEP
DISTURBANCE
CLINICAL NOTES
HYPOTHALAMIC SYNDROME
1. GLOBAL – all or many hypothalamic fxns are disordered
2. PARTIAL – diabetes insipidus, SIADH
FROLICH SYNDROME
- CHROMOPHOBE adenoma of anterior pituitary (AP)
o Space occupying lesion
o Destroys sella turcica of skull
o Compresses optic chiasma – produces
BITEMPORAL HEMIANOPIA
o Compression of hypothalamus – loss of
hypothalamic control on AP
OTHERS
1. SEVERE OBESITY – hypothalamic lesion by atropy or
hyperplasia
2. SEXUAL DISORDER – impotence d/t hypothalamic lesion
after puberty, precocity, retardation
DEVELOPMENTAL HYPOTHALAMIC DYSFUNCTION:
1. KALLMAN SYNDROME – defective gonadotropin-releasing
hormone synthesis
a. Anosmia, hyposnomia, color blindness, optic
atrophy, nerve deafness, cleft palate,
cryptorchidism
2. LEPTIN AND LEPTIN RECEPTOR MUTATION
a. Deficiency of leption or receptor
b. Hyperphagia, obesity, central hypogonadism
c. ↓GnRH and attenuated pituitary FSH and LH
synthesis
HYPOTHALAMIC INFILTRATIVE DISEASE
1. SARCOIDOSIS, HISTIOCYTOSUS, AMYLOIDOSIS,
HEMOCHOMATOSIS d/t
a. Diabetes insipidus
b. Growth retardation
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HYPHOTHALAMUS AND ITS CONNECTIONS
c. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism
d. Hyperprolactinemia
DIABETES INSIPIDUS
- May be caused by severe head injury
o Frequency of micturition
o Large qty of pale urine
o Always thirsty
- Traumatic injury of POST PITUITARY or supraoptic n of
hypothalamus
o Inhibition of vasopressin
- HYDROCEPHALUS – blocked 3rd foramina, cerebral
aqueduct, 3rd ventricle
o Affect sympathetic and parasympathetic – main
subcortical center
OTHER ABNORMALITIES:
1. OBESITY AND WASTING
2. SEXUAL DISORDERS
3. HYPERTHERMIA AND HYPOTHERMIA
4. SLEEP DISTURBANCES
5. EMOTIONAL DISORDERS

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