Memory and information processing

How does information enter your brain? How is this processed?

Information is input via your 5 senses:

• Sight
• Hearing
• Touch
• Taste
• Smell

This information is processed in a process called encoding. This is where sensory information is turned into a form that
can be used and stored by the brain. Storing or storage is the retention of information in the brain. The three main
ways in which information is encoding is via:

• Acoustic encoding – holding sound information

• Visual encoding – holding information of what we see
• Semantic encoding – holding the meaning of information

How is information output?

The process of recalling the information we store is called retrieval. Once we retrieve this information, we carry out a
behavourial response. This is called the output. Example – retrieving a question that we have been asked and giving an
answer in response.
Memory stores: short-term and long-term memory

The 2 main memory stores have been differentiated based on two factors:

• The duration – the length of time information is stored for

• The capacity – the amount of information that can be stored

The short-term memory store (STM)

In this memory store, information is held for roughly 18 seconds. The STM can hold 7 items of information. Information
is encoded acoustically. The information in the STM must be rehearsed for it to be transferred into the LTM. Rehearsal is
the process in which information is continuously repeated until we remember it.

The long-term memory store (LTM)

In this memory store, information is held for a lifetime. The LTM can hold an unlimited amount of information.
Information is encoded semantically.

Why do we forget things?

Short-term memory - Displacement – the process in which the STM

becomes full and new information gets pushed
out to replace it
Long-term memory - Decay – the process of a memory trace getting
erased due to it not being used
- Interference – the process in which new
information overwrites older information
- Retrieval failure – the process in which we lose
the meaning of a memory
What is amnesia?

Amnesia is the word used to describe memory loss. This could be due to an accident or post-surgery. There are 2 main
types of amnesia:

1. Anterograde amnesia

• New long-term memories cannot be made as the ability to transfer information from the STM to the
LTM is damaged
• Memories prior to the accident are intact
• Research has found that damage to the part of the brain called the hippocampus, which is responsible
for memory and learning, leads to anterograde amnesia.
• Symptoms include:
- Difficulty learning new information
- Forgetting the names of people you met recently
- Forgetting what you had for a previous meal

2. Retrograde amnesia

• Information prior to the accident cannot be remembered

• Fragments of memories may be forgotten, including skill sets and childhood memories
• It is possible to regain past lost memories
• Symptoms include:
- Forgetting names, people, places, facts
- Forgetting skills
- Forgetting family members
Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of reconstructive memory

Active reconstruction and schemas

A schema is a packet of knowledge a person has about people, a place or experiences, that influences what we
remember. The schemas we have result in changes in our perceptions and interpretations. Schemas are formed through
out our life as we come across various experiences and grow.

This concept is called active reconstruction, which means that our memory is not an exact copy of what we experience
but rather an interpretation of events influenced by our schemas.

How do our schemas influence our memory?

Omission Unfamiliar, irrelevant, or unpleasant information is left
out
Transformations Details are changed to make them more familiar and
rational
Familiarization Unfamiliar details are changed to align with our schemas
Rationalization Details are added into our recall to give reasons for
something that might have not originally fitted

Evaluation
STRENGTHS
1. REAL WORLD APPLICATION
The understanding of memory distortions has led to the
creation of the cognitive interview process. This is an
interview process to ensure that eyewitness memory of a
crime is not distorted
2. ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
The use of a story in the Bartlett (1932) study is a realistic
method of testing and studying reconstructive memory
WEAKNESSES
1. SUBJECTIVE INTERPRETATIONS
Bartletts understanding on memory is based on his own
opinion. His research is unscientific making his theory
weak
2. UNSCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE
Bartletts study did not follow standardized procedure,
undermining the validity of his study
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Based on the fact that memory stores differ from each other in terms of capacity, duration and the way in which
information is encoded, Atkinson and Shiffrin identified three different stores:

1. The sensory register/memory

• This is the memory store that receives all the sensory information around us and holds it very briefly
• If we pay attention, some information gets transferred into the STM
• If we do not pay attention, the information decays
• We have different sensory registers for each of our senses:
- Iconic memory – holds visual information for 1 second until it delays
- Echoic memory – holds sound information for a few seconds
- Gustatory memory – holds taste information for a few seconds
- Olfactory memory – holds smell information for a few seconds
- Tactile memory – holds tactile information for a few seconds

2. Short term memory

• Information can be held in this part for 15-30 seconds

• Rehearsal can result in the information being held for longer. If rehearsed long enough, information will
get transferred into the LTM
• The short-term memory is modality free, meaning that it can store all types of sensory information (not
linked to a specific type)
• Miller (1956) found that the STM can hold between 5 and 9 chunks (groups) of information

3. Long term memory

• Information can be held for a lifetime

• The LTM has a limitless capacity
• Information is held semantically (based on meaning)
Evaluation
STRENGTHS
1. EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THE THEORY
Cases of amnesia show that when LTM is damaged the
STM is intact and vice versa (Ex- HM)
2. PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECT
Murdock (1962) found that words at the beginning of the
list are remembered better as they have been rehearsed
and sent to the LTM and words at the end are
remembered better as they are still in the STM. Words in
the middle are forgotten as they could not rehearsed and
were displaced
WEAKNESSES
1. ROLE OF REHEARSAL HAS BEEN OVERSTATED
Rather than rehearsal, we remember some things due to
the meaning they hold rather than repeating the piece of
information
2. WE MAY NOT HAVE ONLY ONE LONG TERM MEMORY
Cases of amnesia show that some parts of the LTM can
be intact whereas others may not be
STUDY: BARTLETT (1932) WAR OF THE GHOSTS
AIM To test the nature of reconstructive memory using an
unfamiliar story
PROCEDURE SAMPLE
20 British people – 7 women, 13 men

The participants were told to read the story twice. They

were then grouped into 2 categories:

1. REPEATED REPRODUCTION
- Some participants were asked to recall the story
repeatedly in time intervals such as 15 minutes,
1 hour, 1 day, a week, etc.

2. SERIAL REPRODUCTION
- Some participants were asked to retell the story to
other participants and so forth in a chain. They did this in
15–30-minute gaps
RESULTS - After carrying out qualitative analysis Bartlett
found that stories in repeated reproduction
followed a similar pattern
- In both groups, omission, rationalization, and
other processes took place
CONCLUSION Participants did not recall the story accurately providing
proof for reconstructive memory
EVALUATION STRENGTHS
- ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
The use of a story to test reconstructive memory
is a naturalistic method
- RELIABILITY
The same findings were found across all
participants, allowing us to establish to reliability
- QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
This method allowed Bartlett to obtain in-depth
knowledge into how memory works and the
factors that influence memory along with trends
and patterns

WEAKNESSES
- THE STORY WAS UNFAMILIAR, ILLOGICAL AND
WAS STRANGE
- LACKED STANDARDIZED PROCEDURES
The timings for participants varied and strict
controls were not in place
- UNSCIENTIFIC
Bartlett interpreted what the participants said
according to his own opinions
Peterson and Peterson (1959) Short-term retention of individual verbal items

AIM To test the true duration of STM

PROCEDURE Both experiment 1 and 2 used a trigram (three
consonants, ex – GLR, BWM, etc.)

Sample
24 students

Experiment 1
- The student was asked to repeat outload a set of
trigrams they heard
- Immediately afterwards they were asked to say
out load a three-digit number and count
backwards in threes or fours
- When the red light lit-up they had to recall the
trigram
- They recalled the trigram 8 times with 3, 6, 9, 12,
15 and 18 seconds intervals
- The procedure was repeated 48 times

Experiment 2
- The same procedure was followed except the
participants were given some to repeat the
trigram before counting backwards
RESULTS - The longer the student counted backwards, the
less they were able to recall the trigram
- When asked to count backwards after 3 seconds,
80% correctly recalled
- After 18 seconds, less than 10% correctly recalled
- Experiment 2 showed better recall but a similar
pattern in decline
CONCLUSION Information held in the STM fades rapidly and only 10%
can be recalled after 18 seconds
EVALUATION STRENGTHS

1. STANDARDIZED PROCEDURES AND CONTROLS

They used fixed timings, eliminated noise, and made sure
all the participants experienced the same process.
Therefore, it is scientific, and reliability can be established

2. PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Demonstrates how distractions affect retention

3. TRIGRAMS ARE USEFUL AS WORDS CARRY

SEMANTISM
The use of trigrams controls the extraneous variable

WEAKNESSES

1. PROCEDURE LACKS MUNDANE REALISM

The use of trigrams is unlikely in everyday life

2. FINDINGS LACK ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY AS THEY

PROCEDURE WAS DONE IN A LAB ENVIRONMENT
ISSUES AND DEBATES – REDUCTIONISM VS HOLISM
REDUCTIONISM
DEFINITION The theory of explaining something
using its basic constituent parts
FEATURES Behaviour is reduced into simpler
parts as it is easier to establish
causality
A behaviour can be isolated and
tested under controlled conditions
ADVANTAGES Appropriate where behaviour has
one single, clear explanation
DISADVANTAGES Overly simplistic
Ignores other causes of behaviour
and the interaction between multiple
factors
HOLISM
The theory of explaining something
as a whole
Different factors working together
are considered
The use of qualitative methods is
found as it enables the researcher to
gain in depth insight
Appropriate where one behaviour
has multiple causes
Difficult to investigate numerous
variables
Unscientific as single variables cannot
be tested

REDUCTIONISM VS HOLISM – How does it apply to memory?

• Most memory research is reductionist (Bartlett is an exception)
• Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) experiment is reductionist as it breaks down memory into 3 basic parts
• Bartlett (1932) used a holistic approach as he used qualitative analysis to explore reconstructive memory