Lab Manual - Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism (1) - Edit - 1634543425608 - Edit - 1638855374771

COMSATS University Islamabad
Department Of Physics
Lab manual for

Experiments in Thermodynamics,
Electricity and Magnetism
By:
Ansha Tayyab
Muhammad Ammar Khan
Mirza Akbar Ali
Under Supervision of:

Ma’am Zarqa Zahid
We will start off by thanking Allah Almighty, who has given us the power to think. We hope
that these manuals provide you with all the learning that you need for the practical work in
lab. We made these lab manuals by putting a lot of creativity as these are going in the hands
of future physicists who are desiring to learn things and not cramming just for the sake of
marks. We would like to give you all a take home message which is not to cheat but to
answer by learning things by yourself, only in this way shall we be able to compete with the
emerging nations.
2|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Table of Contents
Experiment No 01: Find The Area And Volume Of Circular Coins Using Meter Rule, Vernier
Calipers, And Screw Gauge ................................................................................................................. 4
Experiment No 02: Finding the Conductivity and Resistivity of Copper and Eureka Wires. ..... 10
Experiment No 03: Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Verification ......................................................... 16
Color Code Reading........................................................................................................................ 16
Kirchhoff’s Laws .............................................................................................................................. 19
Part-1: Verification Of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ........................................................................ 20
Part-2: Verification Of Kirchhoff’s Current Law ....................................................................... 24
Experiment No 04: Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter ................................................... 29
Experiment No 05: Conversion Of Galvanometer into Voltmeter ................................................. 32
Experiment No 06: Effect Of Current on Force Experienced by Conductor in Magnetic Field . 35
Experiment No 07: Effect of Length of Wire on the Force Experienced by Current Carrying
Loop...................................................................................................................................................... 39
Experiment No 08: Effect of Magnetic Field Strength on Force Experienced by a Conductor in a
Magnetic Field ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Experiment No 09: Effect of Angle On Force Exerted On A Conductor Kept In A Magnetic
Field ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Experiment No 10: Effect Of Separation On Capacitance Of A Capacitor .................................. 48
Experiment No 11: Effect Of Medium On Capacitor ...................................................................... 52
Experiment No 12: Experiments With Helmholtz Coil ................................................................... 55
Reading: Pressure, Volume and Temperature ................................................................................. 61
Experiment No 13: To Determine The Co-Efficient Of Volume Of Air At Constant Pressure ... 64
Experiment No 14: To Determine The Co-Efficient Of Pressure Of Air At Constant Pressure . 70
Experiment No 15: Find Coefficient Of Thermal Conductivity For Poor Conductors (Insulators)
BY LEE’S DISC .................................................................................................................................. 75
Experiment No 16: Find Coefficient Of Thermal Conductivity Of Copper .................................. 82
Experiment No 17: Determination Of Mechanical Equivalent Of Heat “J” By Electrical Method
(Calendar And Barnes Method) ........................................................................................................ 86
Experiment No 18: To Draw The Calibration Curve For A Copper-Iron Thermocouple By
Using Potentiometer............................................................................................................................ 92

Experiment No 01: Find The Area And Volume Of Circular Coins Using
Meter Rule, Vernier Calipers, And Screw Gauge
Instruments In Lab
We will start with techniques and instruments used in this lab, we will have a brief discussion on
how to use these techniques and how
these instruments work.
Meter Rule
It is the most simple and primary

instrument used everywhere to measure
the length of objects or distance between any two points, these wooden rules may be up to 1m
long but for larger distances to measure inches tapes or measuring tapes are used. Least count is
actually the measure of accuracy up to which we can get a precise reading .from a meter rule we
can measure in centimeters.
See the figure as long as it is the upper pencil which is considered then we can measure it is 5.4
cm, but now see the lower pencil it comes between 5.1 and 5.2 so now we cannot say exactly
what is the length of this ruler. This is the limitation of meter rule, thus 1mm is the smallest
reading that can be taken using a meter scale and we cannot go into divisions of mm, so its least
count is 1 mm.
Of course we can make random guess that if pencil is close to 5.2 end then we can call it 5.18
or 5.19 cm but still it is a guess not accurate, so whenever there is a guess factor involved in a
measurement its precision is
sacrificed and that instrument is not
precise for those type of
measurements ,like we will use meter
rule or inches tape to measure the
length of wall of our room but we
cannot use it to measure the diameter
of lead of our pencil.
Vernier Calipers
we were stuck in measuring diameter of lead of our pencil, so as is the rule in science where
there is a problem there surely is a solution, the solution to measure that diameter is Vernier
calipers. This machine can measure lengths accurate even to millimeter scale, that is we don’t
have to make a guess even if object lies between 5.1 and 5.2, Vernier calipers tells us
accurately the actual length this property of Vernier calipers is due to it movable scale which
divides one millimeter to 10 further parts thus giving us a least count of 0.1mm or 0.01cm.
The formula for its least count is

𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
A Vernier calipers consists of two jaws one jaw is fixes and connected to main scale, other
jaw is movable, and it is attached to movable scale. Main scale has its readings in centimeters
just like ordinary meter rule, while movable scale may have divisions 10 or 20 according to
choose. The object we want to measure is held between the jaws of the Vernier calipers and
thus jaws are closed gently ,the reading on main scale is identified which is near to zero of
the movable scale and then locate the division of moving scale which completely coincides
with that of the main scale multiply this reading with the least count and then add this reading
in the reading of main scale ,this is the answer but our measurement is still not complete ,we
have to check that whether our Vernier calipers is measuring accurately or not, and this
correction factor is zero error ,to check zero error close the jaws of the Vernier calipers and
see if the zero line of main scale concedes with first division of movable scale or not ,if it
coincides then zero error is zero
but if it does not coincides then
zero error exist .If the zero of the
Vernier scale is on the right side
of main scale then zero error is
positive. and when zero error is
positive its value is subtracted
from the measured value, while it
is negative when line is on left.
Thus zero error is added to measured value.
So our problem to measure the diameter of lead of pencil is solved but one asks to find the
diameter of hair, so again there is a problem and solution to this is not Vernier calipers
because it cannot measure to this degree of precision.
Screw Gauge
The problem that how to measure the diameter of hair is solved by using micrometer screw
gauge. A screw gauge has a main scale and on that scale there is a rotating cylinder also
called rotating scale with 50 to 100 divisions, so now compare Vernier calipers with screw
gauge Vernier caliper had 10 to 20 divisions on movable scale while screw gauge had 50 to
100 that’s why it can measure even or the 10th division than a Vernier calipers could do. Its
least count is 0.01mm or 0.001cm.
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Its working is somehow similar to that of vernier callipers ,rather than jaws to hold objects in
between we use stud and spindle and there is a ratchet to increase or decrease the gap
between the two end of the rod (spindle and stud), To find the zero error of screw gauge
rotate the circular scale in clockwise direction. If the zero line of circular scale concides with

the zero line of main scale then zero error is zero and our instrument is perfect. If it goes on
rotation or either stops after or before the zero line of main scale then there is a zero error.
Apparatus
• coin
• Meter rule
• Vernier calipers
• Micrometer screw gauge
Procedure
• Measure the radius and thickness of the coin and find its area and volume.
• Repeat the experiment using Vernier calipers and screw gauge
• Also take in consideration zero errors and zero correction
• Take at least four readings using each scale and then use their average in calculations.
• Before going towards calculations convert readings to SI.
Observations.
Using Meter Rule
Sr no. Radius of coin Area of coin Thickness of coin Volume of coin

1
2
3
4
Avg.
Using Vernier Calipers (Radius)
Sr Main scale Moving L.C (Moving radius Zero Zero Actual

no. reading scale scale) × error correction radius
reading (L.C)
1
2
3
4
Avg.

Using Vernier Calipers (Thickness)
Sr Main Moving L.C (Moving thickness Zero Zero Actual

no. scale scale scale) × error correction thickness
reading reading (L.C)
1
2
3
4
Avg.
Using Screw Gauge (Radius)
Sr Main scale rotating L.C (rotating radius Zero Zero Actual

no. reading scale scale) × error correction radius
reading (L.C)
1
2
3
4
Avg.
Using Screw Gauge (Thickness)
Sr Main rotating L.C (rotating thickness Zero Zero Actual

no. scale scale scale) × error correction thickness
reading reading (L.C)
1
2
3
4
Avg.
Use average values to complete this table and see the difference in each case;
Using meter rule Using Vernier Using screw gauge

calipers
Radius of coin
Area of coin
Thickness of coin
Volume of coin

Questions
Can you explain when zero error would be positive and when we will take it as negative in
case of screw gauge?
Which scale is best in your opinion to measure the volume of coin?
Differentiate between terms precission and accuracy?

If we were asked to find the internal as well as external volume of a cylinder which scale
would you use?
Explain in your own words what is zero error?

Experiment No 02: Finding the Conductivity and Resistivity of Copper and
Eureka Wires.
Electric Current And Resistance
Current is the flow of charges and if we consider the structure of an atom there are electrons
which are revolving around the nucleus. These electrons are involved in bond making process
and thus we can say that in any material there are many atoms bonded together through
electrons. These electrons are free to float throughout the surface of metal; these electrons are
termed as free electrons. These free electrons are the charge carriers.
If free electrons are the reason of current flow, then it is obvious that current will flow more
easily from the materials having more free electrons therefore they are good conductors and
we term this property as conductivity. Non-metals as they had electrons tightly bonded to
them and are not free to wander around, so they are less conductive and even in many cases
they are not conductive. This nonconductive behavior is termed as resistance and property as
resistivity.
Resistance can be quantified using two approaches one is the length and area of cross-section
of wire. It is obvious that more is the area of cross-section more arrays of electrons can pass
through at a time so that wire is more conductive. If we use a crude explanation then replace
the wire with water pipe and electrons with water, water will flow more easily through a fat
pipe, so conductance is directly proportional to the area of cross-section of wire, as resistance
is inverse of conductance so resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section.
1
𝑅 ∝𝐴
More distance to travel more difficult it is same is the case with electrons in a wire, more
length to travel means more complexity thus in short conductance is inversely proportional to
the length of wire, thus resistance is directly related to the length of wire.
𝑅∝𝐿
Combing above two equations give,

𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴
𝑅𝐴
𝜌= 𝐿
Where 𝜌 is the constant of proportionality called resistivity or specific resistance of the

material; it is purely the property of material depending upon availability of free electrons.
Resistance can also be quantified using ohm’s law, voltage is the driving force which pushes
electrons towards the other end of wire, so more is the voltage more easily electrons flow and
thus more is the current flow.
Current passing through a resistor depends on the resistance and the applied voltage.
10 | E x p e r i m e n t s i n T h e r m o d y n a m i c s , E l e c t r i c i t y a n d M a g n e t i s m
1
𝐼∝𝑅 𝐼∝V
Combining above two equations give

𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
Which gives the resistance, when

current and voltage are known.
We need a variable voltage source,

copper and eureka, ammeter to measure voltage and current, Vernier calipers, screw gauge
and meter scale. Measure the length (L) of copper wire using meter scale, take in
consideration that measure the length which would be conducting current.
Copper wire is rectangular in shape so instead of measuring its diameter its area of cross-
section is measured using length (l) and width (w).
A circuit is built connecting ammeter, voltage source, and copper wire.

We keep on increasing the voltage from voltage source initially starting from zero and thus
for everyone volt rise in voltage check the current from ammeter.
Plot a graph for current vs. voltage.
1
Slope of this graph gives𝑅.
Repeat the same procedure using eureka wire, eureka wire is round so its diameter is
measured to find its area of cross-section.
Observations and calculations:
𝑉 𝑅𝐴
Putting 𝑅 = in 𝜌 = gives
𝐼 𝐿
𝑉𝐴
𝜌=
𝐼𝐿
Length of copper wire = L= ------------------------

Area of cross-section of wire = 𝑙 × 𝑤
Area of cross-section of wire =------------------- × ----------------------
𝐼
Slope of the graph =𝑉 = -------------------------
1 𝑉
= =( )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐼
𝑉 𝐴
Resistivity of copper wire =𝜌 = 𝐼 × 𝐿
( )
Resistivity of copper wire=𝜌 = ( )( )
1 1
Conductivity of copper wire =𝜎 = =
𝜌
Length of eureka wire =L = ( )
Diameter of eureka wire =d= ( )
Radius of the wire = r= ( )
Area of cross-section of wire= ( )
𝐼
Slope of the graph=𝑉 = ( )
1 𝑉
= =( )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐼
𝑉 𝐴
Resistivity of eureka wire =𝜌 = 𝐼 × 𝐿
( )
Resistivity of eureka wire =𝜌 = ( )( )
1
Conductivity of eureka wire =𝜎 = 𝜌
Questions:
We say that current flow due to free electrons, and it is obvious that more electrons are
present at negative terminal then why we take positive terminal as high potential?
Which wire is more conductive copper or eureka? Why?
Why are we using inverse of slope can you explain?
If we swap the position of current and voltage in V-I graph would it effect the slope?
From the voltage and current across which we are plotting our data, which one is independent
quantity? And which quantity we will plot on y-axis?
Does making a spring of wire effects its conductivity and resistivity?
Do u expect any errors if the wires were rusted?
Suppose your hand is in contact with wire during the experiment. What errors you expect to
occur?
Is there any systematic error involved in this experiment? If yes figure out where it is and
how to remove it.?
Differentiate between conventional and electronic current.
Experiment No 03: Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Verification
Before we start reading about Kirchhoff’s laws, me must know beforehand how
to measure the resistance of a resistor from its color coding.
Color Code Reading

Resistance is the opposition current face while flowing through any substance, but in general
we consider wires we are using to have negligible resistance. Resistance although it just
consumes power still it is very important because sometimes, we need to reduce the power as
some appliances work at less power so we need something which can consume some power
in order to decrease it, resistors perform this function for us. A resistor is passive two
terminal electrical components that consume power. How much power it consumes, for this a
very wide range of resistors are available and each resistor has a color code on it which tells
the capacity of resistor that how much power it can consume. This color code is in the form
of colored bands and each color represents a different value.
Sr no. Color Value in 1st Value in 2nd Value in 3rd

band band band
1 Black 0 0 × 100
2 Brown 1 1 × 101
3 Red 2 2 × 102
4 Orange 3 3 × 103
5 Yellow 4 4 × 104
6 Green 5 5 × 105
7 Blue 6 6 × 106
8 Violet 7 7 × 107
9 Grey 8 8 × 108
10 White 9 9 × 109
This is a sample resistor with 4 bands. First three bands give the value of resistance while
fourth band gives the tolerance.
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 × 10𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
Using above formula as we know orange represents 3 and red is for 2, we can say
33 × 102
So, it becomes 330Ω now as there is not fourth band, so tolerance is given to be 20%. So, our
resistor is (330Ω± 20%).
Resistance of a resistor can also be measured using DMM. Keeping knob of DMM at Ω
symbol and connecting two terminals of resistor with two wires of DMM gives the digital
and actual reading of resistance. now measure the resistance of unknown resistors first using
color code and then by DMM.
Sr no. Color code value DMM value

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Are both values same?
What is deviation? And have you observed it in this experiment?
What is the use of 4th band on resistor?
In theoretical approach which value of resistance you would use in solving a circuit?
Is there any effect of time on the resistance of resistor, that is with the passage of time does
resistance change?
Kirchhoff’s Laws
There are two basic laws before going to circuits Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law.
Kirchhoff’s current law says that currents entering and leaving a node are same, in other
words the algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a node is always zero. It is a
convention that a current flowing towards a point is taken as positive; and that flowing away
from a point is taken as negative.
In this circuit consider the node A current I1 is going towards it while I2 and I3 are leaving it
so using Kirchhoff’s current law we can say that;
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 and it can also be written as;
𝐼1 + (−𝐼2 ) + (−𝐼3 ) = 0
Kirchhoff’s current law proofs the law of conservation of charge.

If there is no sink or source of charge at a point, total charge flowing towards the point must
be equal to the total charge flowing away from the point.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the voltage drop across a closed loop is always zero. Or
the sum of potential changes in a closed circuit is zero.
It is a convention that a voltage drop is taken as negative and voltage gain is taken as
positive. So;
There is always a voltage drop across passive components (could not generate energy in the
form of voltage or current.) E.g. resistors, capacitors, inductors etc.
There is always a voltage gain across active components (could generate energy) E.g.
batteries, generators etc.
NOTE: Above rules are valid if and only if we take the conventional direction of current that
is from positive terminal of the battery towards the negative terminal; otherwise direction of
sign will be reversed.
As we know that resistors cause a voltage drop so the total voltage drop across all 6 resistors
is exactly equal to the voltage supplied by the battery
𝑉1 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 + 𝑉5 + 𝑉6 + 𝑉7 = 𝑉
And this equation can also be written as;
𝑉1 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 + 𝑉5 + 𝑉6 + 𝑉7 − 𝑉 = 0
Kirchhoff’s voltage law proofs the law of conservation of energy.
Part-1: Verification Of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law the voltage drops across a closed loop are equal to the
total voltage provided by the battery. Thus, in order to verify Kirchhoff’s law, we will have to
check if the sum of voltages across each resistor are equal to the total voltage provided by the
battery. In order to do that we will be applying ohms law and concept of equivalent
resistance. Equivalent resistance is that one resistance by which if all other resistances are
replaced it behaves as if all of them are connected. That is to replace many resistances by one
which is equivalent to all previous resistances. Current provided by the battery reaches all
resistors without any deduction so in this circuit current through all three resistors would be
same;
𝐼220 = 𝐼100 = 𝐼330 = 𝐼
Total voltage supplied by the battery is our choice so to find total current we will use ohm’s
law;
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
For series network; 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
So, voltage across 𝑅220 is given by;
𝑉220 = 𝐼220 𝑅220
Similarly, voltage across 𝑅100 is given by;
𝑉100 = 𝐼100 𝑅100
Similarly, voltage across 𝑅330 is given by;
𝑉330 = 𝐼330 𝑅330
Now final step is that whether Kirchhoff’s law is verified or not?
To check that add all voltage drops and check if they are equal to the total voltage applied by
the battery. 𝑉220 + 𝑉100 + 𝑉330 = 𝑉
Observations
Total voltage supplied by the battery = ( )
Equivalent resistance of the circuit = ( )
Total current = ( )
Current through 𝐼220 = ( )
voltage through 𝑉220 = ( )
voltage through 𝑉100= ( )
now check Kirchhoff’s law by putting values in this equation;
𝑉220 + 𝑉100 + 𝑉330 = → ( )+( )+( )=( )
Till here it was theoretical now to check it use DMM and check if the total voltage applied by
the battery is equal to the sum of voltage drops, so now fill the below spaces by readings
taken through DMM.
Total current = ( )
𝑉220 + 𝑉100 + 𝑉330 = 𝑉 → ( )+( )+( )= ( )
Also check current through each resistor and see whether current remains same or not.
𝐼220 = 𝐼100 = 𝐼330 = 𝐼
( )=( )=( )=( )
Questions
We made a series circuit to check the validity of Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Can we also check
Kirchhoff’s current law using the same circuit? Justify your answer.
Why there is a voltage drop across a resistor but current is not affected?
Was there any difference between theoretical and practical values of currents and voltages?
Is there any significance of doing theoretical work before performing it?
How didi you managed to get 330 and 220 ohms resistors?
You have used ammeter and voltmeter in this experiment, which one to connect in series and
which one in parallel to take readings?
Part-2: Verification Of Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s current law says that current which divides among all resistors is equal to the
total current being provided by the battery, that is no current is created or lost within the
circuit rather it just gets divide among different paths and in the end it is the same amount
which battery was providing, in a parallel circuit since all resistors are directly connected to
the battery thus voltage through all of them is same, but as the circuit is no single loop so
current does not remains same rather it divides into two paths firstly at point E then current
divides into two paths at point D. so to check Kirchhoff’s law we must get;
𝐼220 + 𝐼100 + 𝐼330 = 𝐼
In parallel circuit equivalent resistance is determined by summing up reciprocals of all

resistances.
1 1 1 1
+ + =
𝑅330 𝑅220 𝑅100 𝑅𝑒𝑞
As we know the amount of voltage we are providing, it will be equal to the voltage across
each resistor;
𝑉220 = 𝑉100 = 𝑉330 = 𝑉
So now using ohm’s law we will get the total current being provided by the battery,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑉
𝐼𝑡 = 𝑅
𝑒𝑞
So, in this way we will get total current through the circuit,
To find the individual current through each path we can use

ohm’s law;
𝑉
𝐼220 =
𝑅220
𝑉
𝐼330 =
𝑅330
𝑉
𝐼100 =
𝑅100
Observations
Total current = ( )
𝐼220 + 𝐼100 + 𝐼330 = 𝐼 → ( )+( )+( )= ( )
Till here it was theoretical now to check it use DMM and check if the total current applied by
the battery is equal to the sum of currents through individual resistors, so now fill the below
spaces by readings taken through DMM.
Total current = ( )
Now check Kirchhoff’s law by putting values in this equation;
𝐼220 + 𝐼100 + 𝐼330 = 𝐼 → ( )+( )+( )= ( )
Questions
How will you find the voltage drop across points HB? What is its value?
Since now we had been finding the voltage using two points. What would be the voltage at
point D?
If we connect voltmeter in parallel what would happen with the circuit?
One of the students connected an ammeter in parallel and current through the circuit
increased, does ammeter also behave as a current source?
A student said he could prove both laws (KCL and KVL) using this circuit. Is this statement
justified?
What do you know about grounding a wire?
How is finding voltage across CG different from others?
Can you find voltage across one point only? How ?
Is Kirchhoff’s current law applicable for this circuit? Justify your answer.
Is your calculated reading different from measured one? If yes, then why?
Is there any use of tolerance of resistors here?
How you managed to put 670Ω and 690Ω resistances? Were they available in lab?
What if all resistors be 1Ω?
Experiment No 04: Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter
Galvanometer is an electrical instrument which is used to detect the passage or flow of

current. Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. When a current flow in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic torque.
If it is free to rotate under a controlling torque, it rotates through an angle proportional to the
current flowing through it. A moving coil galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil P
suspended between the concave shaped poles N and S of U shaped magnet by mean of a fine
metallic wire which carries a plane mirror M the coil is used of insulated
copper wire wound on a rectangular frame of some nonmagnetic material
.the suspension wire is also used as one current lead to the coil .the other
terminal of the coil is connected to a loosely wound spiral Q which acts as
the second current lead. The pole pieces of the magnet are made concave
and a soft iron cylinder piece is fixed between the poles. It makes the field
radial and stronger near the coil. When a current pass through the
galvanometer coil, it experiences a magnetic deflecting torque, which tends to rotate it from
its rest position. As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the suspension strip. The twist in the
strip produces an electric restoring torque. The coil rotates until the elastic restoring torque
due to the strip does not equal and cancels the deflecting magnetic torque, then it attains
equilibrium and stops rotating any furthers.
An ammeter is an electrical instrument which is used to measure current

in amperes. This is basically a galvanometer, the portion of the
galvanometer whose motion causes the needle of the device to move
across the scale is usually known as meter – movement. Most meter
movements are very sensitive and full-scale deflection is obtained with a
current of few milli amperes only. So, an ordinary galvanometer cannot be
used for measuring large currents without proper modification. To convert
a galvanometer to ammeter a shunt resistance is connected in parallel to
the galvanometer, and the resulting device works as an ammeter. The
value of shunt resistance specifies the maximum capacity of an ammeter, so choosing which
resistance to be connected in parallel is most important task in converting a galvanometer into
an ammeter. To find out the value of that shunt resistance following procedure is adopted.
Procedure to find Shunt Resistance
• Make the following circuit on bread board.

• You can check the internal resistance of galvanometer using DMM.
• A 1000-ohm resistance is connected with the battery source so the shunt resistance
may not burnt out.
• As the shunt resistance and galvanometer are in parallel;
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉𝑠
• Connect the circuit to a 10V battery the current flowing in the circuit would be about
10mA.
• Thus, total current is I = 10mA.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝑉𝐺 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑆
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 )𝑅𝑆
• Using this equation, we can find the value of shunt resistance, connecting the shunt
resistance in parallel with galvanometer will make it an ammeter.
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺
= 𝑅𝑆
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 )
• Shunt resistance is a very small resistance and hence we can get that resistance by
combining other resistances in parallel or series will make that required resistance.
• Also check the current for which it gives full scale deflection, now find out that
deflection of division is equivalent to how much current , you will need this when you
will be using your ammeter to find current
in circuit.
Now we must check that whether our ammeter is

working properly so we will have to compare it to
one which is known accurately, like a DMM we
have in lab. So, for that we will make a simple
circuit and will check the current from different
paths and we will compare it from the readings
obtained from DMM. Make the followin circuit at
bread board and fill the table below.
Sr no. Value from Value from Difference

DMM ammeter
A-B
B-C
C-D
H-G
G-F
F-E
Questions
Why is the shunt resistance very small?
Why ammeter is always connected in series and not in parallel?
If an ammeter is connected in parallel what effect it will do to the circuit?
Experiment No 05: Conversion Of Galvanometer into Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an electrical device which measures the potential difference in volts, between
two points. This two, is made by modifying a galvanometer since a voltmeter is always
connected in parallel it must have a very high resistance so that it will not short the circuit
Across which the voltage is to be measured this is achieved by connecting a very high
resistance Rh placed in series with a meter-movement. Suppose you want to make a
voltmeter from a galvanometer you will have to connect a very high resistance with the
galvanometer in series. That value of resistance specifies the limiting voltage of voltmeter so
obviously it is crucial to choose which resistance to be used as high
resistance in series with galvanometer. Following procedure could be
adopted to check for that high resistance value.
• Make a circuit like this on bread board connect it to 10V

battery source.
• Check internal resistance of galvanometer using DMM.
Using KVL
𝑉 = 𝑉ℎ + 𝑉𝑔
𝑉 = 𝐼ℎ 𝑅ℎ + 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
As in series current remains same so (Ig=Ih)
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅ℎ + 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
Using this equation, we can find the value of high resistance which in series with
galvanometer make up a voltmeter.
𝑉
𝑅ℎ = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
Now check the voltage for which it gives full scale deflection and then calculate the division
equivalent to voltage.
Is our voltmeter accurate, we can check it by

comparing it to one more accurate which is DMM?
So we will make a simple circuit and then find
voltage at different points first using DMM then our
voltmeter and this way we will know how accurate
our voltmeter is,
Sr no. Voltage using DMM Voltage using difference
voltmeter
A-B
A-C
A-D
B-C
C
Questions
Why is voltmeter always connected in parallel in a circuit?
Why is the resistance kept very high for a voltmeter?
If voltmeter is connected in series what it will do to the circuit?
Can we make an ohmmeter using galvanometer?
You had used DMM if you keep knob at DC while you are checking AC would you get the
correct reading?
Connecting DMM to galvanometer causes deflection in it. Why?
Experiment No 06: Effect Of Current on Force Experienced by Conductor
in Magnetic Field
Magnetism
A current carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force that is usually referred to as a
magnetic force. The magnitude and direction of this force depend on four variables:
• The magnitude and direction of the current (I);

• the strength of the magnetic field (B);
• the length of the wire (L);
• the angle between the field and the wire ().
This magnetic force can be described mathematically by the vector cross product:
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿 × 𝐵
Or in scalar form;
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Using the equipment included in the Magnetic Forces on Wires Experiment, all four
variables (I, B, L, and ) can be varied while measuring the resulting magnetic force.
Magnets are mounted on an iron yoke and placed on

a balance (resolution of at least 0.01g). One of the
conducting paths is suspended between the magnets.
The balance is used to measure the mass of the
magnets and yoke prior to any current passing
through the conducting path. Current is then passed
through the conducting path, producing a force. The
change in reading on the balance can be converted to
find the magnetic force between the conductor and
magnetic field. Conductors of different length are
included to measure the effect of length on magnetic
force. Magnetic field can be varied by changing the
number of magnets in the yoke. The power source is
used to change the current supplied to the conductor. The Current Balance Accessory
includes all the components needed to test the effect of angle on magnetic force.
To set up the Current Balance:
• Mount the Main Unit on a lab stand having with a rod 3/8 inch (1.1 cm) in diameter or
smaller.
• Select a Current Loop and plug it into the ends of the arms of the Main Unit, with the
foil extending down.
• Place the Magnet Assembly on a balance with at least 0.01 gram sensitivity. Position
the lab stand so the horizontal portion of the conductive foil on the Current Loop
passes through the pole region of the magnets. The Current Loop shouldn't touch the
magnets.
• Connect the power supply and
ammeter as shown above.
• Insert 4 – 6 magnets into the
magnet holder to provide a
constant magnetic field. Enter
the number of magnets used
above Table.
• Choose one of the current
loops to use throughout the
experiment and record the
length of the current loop
above Table.
• Setup the current balance as shown above.
• Determine the mass of the magnet holder and magnets with no current flowing.
Record this value in the column under “Mass” in Table below.
• Turn on the power supply and set the current to 0.5 A. Determine the new “Mass” of
the magnet assembly. Record this value under “Mass” in Table below.
• Increase the current in 0.5 A increments to a maximum of 5.0 A, each time measuring
the new “mass” of the magnet assembly and recording this value in Table below.
Observations
No. of magnets used = (__________)
Current loop used = (___________)
Sr. no. Current (A) Mass (grams)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
• Subtract the “Mass” value for each of the currents from the “Mass” value for zero
current to get the “Force” for each current.
• Plot a graph between force and current.
QUESTIONS
What relationship exists between the magnetic force and current through the conductor?
What is the physical meaning of the slope of the Force vs. Current graph?
What is the physical meaning of the vertical intercept of the Force vs. Current graph?
Can the vertical intercept be attributed to measurement error? Explain.
Write a proportionality expression that represents the relationship between Magnetic Force
and Current.
Experiment No 07: Effect of Length of Wire on the Force Experienced by
Current Carrying Loop
• Insert between 4 – 6 magnets into the magnet holder to provide a constant magnetic
field. Be sure to center the magnets in the holder.
• Enter the number of magnets used above Table.
• Choose the shortest current loop to begin the experiment.
Record this value above Table below.
• Turn on the power supply and set the current between 2.0
and 3.0 Amps. Record this value above Table.
• Determine the new “Mass” of the magnet assembly. Record
this value under “Mass” in Table below.
• Swing the arm of the main unit up, to raise the present
current loop out of the magnetic field gap
• Pull the current loop gently from the arms of the base unit.
Replace it with the next current loop and carefully lower the
arm to reposition the current loop in the magnetic field.
• Repeat steps 6-8 for each of the current loops and enter the
appropriate data in Table.
OBSERVATIONS
No. of magnets used = ( )
Current used = ( )
Mass with I=0 = ( )
Sr.no. Length (cm) Mass (grams)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Subtract the “Mass” value for each of the currents from the “Mass” value for zero current to
get the “Force” for each length
Plot a graph between force vs length.
Questions
What relationship exists between the magnetic force and length of conductor in the magnetic
field?
What is the physical meaning of the slope of the Force vs. Length graph?
What is the physical meaning of the vertical intercept of the Force vs. Length graph?
Can the vertical intercept be attributed to measurement error? Explain?
and Length.
Experiment No 08: Effect of Magnetic Field Strength on Force Experienced
by a Conductor in a Magnetic Field
• Insert one magnet into the magnet holder and center the magnet in the holder.
• Choose one of the current loops to use throughout the experiment and record the
length of the current loop above Table.
Record this value in the “Mass” I = 0 column in Table.
• Turn on the power supply and set the current between 2.0 and 3.0 Amps. Record this
value below Table.
• Determine the new “Mass” of the magnet assembly. Record this value under “Mass” I
> 0 in Table below.
• Turn off the power supply to change the current to zero.
• Swing the arm of the main unit up, to raise the current loop out of the magnetic field
gap.
• Place an additional magnet into the magnet holder aligning the like poles of the
magnets.
• Place the holder in the back on the balance pan with the North and South poles in the
same orientation as the last measurement.
• Lower the arm of the main unit and reposition the current loop inside the magnetic
field gap. Be certain the current loop isn’t touching the magnet holder.
Record this value in the “Mass” I = 0 column in Table.
• Turn the power supply on to provide current through the loop.
• Measure the new “Mass” of the magnet assembly and record this value in the “Mass”
I >0 column in Table.
• Repeat steps 7-14 for 3, 4, 5 and 6 magnets.
Observations
Current used = ( )
Current loop used = ( )
Sr no. Magnetic field of Mass (grams) Mass (grams)

magnets I=0 I>0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Subtract the “Mass” value for each Magnetic Field from the “Mass” value for zero current to
get the “Force” for each field strength.
Plot a graph between force and magnetic field.
Questions;
What relationship exists between the Magnetic Force and Magnetic Field?
What is the physical meaning of the slope of the Force vs. Magnetic Field graph?
What is the physical meaning of the vertical intercept of the Force vs. Magnetic Field graph?
Can the vertical intercept be attributed to measurement error? Explain.
and Magnetic Field
Experiment No 09: Effect of Angle On Force Exerted On A Conductor
Kept In A Magnetic Field
• Place the smaller magnet holder from the Current

Balance Accessory on the mass tray of the balance.
• Attach the Current Balance Accessory to the arm of
the current balance and lower the coil into the
magnetic field of the magnet holder. The coil should
not be touching the magnet holder.
• Set the angle to 0º such that the coils are facing the
shorter dimension of the magnet holder (see photo).
• 5. Determine the mass of the magnet holder and
magnets with no current flowing. Record this value
above Table.
• Turn on the power supply and set the current
between 2.0 and 3.0 Amps. Record this value above
Table.
• Determine the new “Mass” of the magnet assembly.
Record this value under “Mass” I > 0 in Table
below.
• Change the angle by 10º increments up to 90º, each
time repeating steps 5 – 7. Record the measurements in Table 4.
• Repeat steps 5 – 7 for angles between 0° and −90° and record the measurements in
Table.
Observations
Mass with I = 0 = ( )
Current loop = ( )
Current used = ( )
Angles (degrees) Mass (grams) I>0 Force (grams)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Subtract the “Mass” value for each Magnetic Field from the “Mass” value for zero current to get the
“Force” for each angle.
Plot a graph between force and angle.
QUESTIONS
Describe the relationship between Magnetic Force and Angle.
Which trigonometric function best fits the data? Explain your choice.
Draw this fit on the printout of the graph and write the proportionality expression between Magnetic
Force and Angle.
Combine the proportionality expressions for all four experiments into one expression. Force should be
on the left side of the expression and the other variables on the right side of the expression.
Write a few sentences explaining the relationship between Magnetic Force, Length, Current, Magnetic
Field and Angle.
How would you convert this expression into an equation?
What is the constant of proportionality for this equation? Explain. 5. How could such an equation be
used?
Experiment No 10: Effect Of Separation On Capacitance Of A Capacitor
Capacitors
Capacitor is a device we use to store charge, capacitor actually consists of two parallel plates
which are separated by air or some insulator material which is too small in thickness and
usually termed as dielectric. A capacitor can be made with any two conductors kept insulated
from each other. If the conductors are connected to a potential difference, V, as in for
example the opposite terminals of a battery, then the two conductors are charged with equal
but opposite amount of charge Q, which is then referred to as the “charge in the capacitor.”
The actual net charge on the capacitor is zero. Charge stored on plates is directly proportional
to the voltage applied across its plates’ ends;
𝑄∝𝑉
It is obvious that more you apply the voltage the more charge is stored on plates but to a
limit, this limit defines how maximum a plate can store charge on itself and we call it the
capacitance denoted by “C”. The capacitance of the device is defined as the amount of charge
Q stored in each conductor after a potential difference V is applied
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
capacitance, ability to store charge , thus depends upon the area of plates, the permeability of
medium placed between the plates and the separation
betw een plates.
The simplest form of a capacitor consists of two parallel

conducting plates, each with area A, separated by a
distance d. The charge is uniformly distributed on the
surface of the plates. The capacitance of the parallel-plate
capacitor is given by:
𝑘𝜀° 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Where  is the dielectric constant of the insulating material between the plates ( =1 for a
vacuum; other values are measured experimentally and can be found in tables), and 0 is the
permittivity constant, of universal value𝜀° = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1 . The SI unit of capacitance
is the Farad (F). The system we use is more complex. In addition to the two moveable
parallel plates, the connecting wires and the electrometer also have some capacitance. This
capacitance is roughly equal to the capacitance of the moveable plates when the plates are 1
cm apart and cannot be ignored. Including this gives:
𝑘𝜀° 𝐴
𝐶= + 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑑
𝑄
As 𝑉 = 𝐶 ;
𝑄𝑑
𝑉= + 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑘𝜀° 𝐴
Any material placed between the plates of a capacitor will increase its capacitance by a factor
 called the dielectric constant where:
𝐶 = 𝑘𝐶°
with 𝐶° being the capacitance when there is a vacuum between the plates of the capacitor.
Dielectric materials are non-conductive. Any dielectric material can be used to keep the
plates in a capacitor insulated from each other (preventing them from touching and
discharging). To three significant figures,  = 1.00 for air. For all materials,  > 1. If the
charge on a capacitor is kept constant while a dielectric is inserted between the plates;
𝐶
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶° 𝑉° = ( ) 𝑉°
𝑘
𝑉°
𝑉=
𝑘
Where 𝑉° is the voltage before inserting the dielectric and V is the voltage after insertion.
Since  > 1 always, we have
𝑉 < 𝑉°
Instructions for apparatus
• Move the Variable Capacitor plates so they are about 2

mm apart. Use the adjustment screws on the back of
the moveable plate to make the plates parallel. Easiest
way to do this is to look directly down from above the
plates and adjust the horizontal adjust until the gap
looks uniform, then look at the gap from the side and
even with the center of the plates and adjust the
vertical screw. May need to repeat the process a few
times.
• Position the movable plate so the leading edge of the
indicator foot is at the 0.2 cm position. The gap
between the two plates should be 0.2 mm all the way
around. Check it with a ruler. If the gap varies repeat
step 1. If the gap is not 0.2 mm, release the holding
screw on the nonmoving plate and move it until the
gap is 0.2 mm and then tighten the screw back down.
• Attach the twin lead (red & black) connector to the Signal Input jack on the Basic
Electrometer. Route the wires as far away from where your hand and your body will be as
possible. The charges in this experiment all small so static discharge will foul things up.
Also, people are conducting plates and have a significant amount of capacitance. You can
foul things up just by being close. It is best to make the fixed plate ground by attaching
the black wire’s spade lug to it. Attach the red spade lug to the terminal on the moving
plate. The wire must be free to move when the plate moves.
• If you have a black banana/banana wire (not included) attach it as shown from the
common (com) terminal on the Electrostatic Voltage Source to the ground terminal on the
Electrometer. Alternately, use the provided banana/spade wire and connect the spade lead
to the terminal on the fixed plate where the other ground lead is already attached. Attach
the red banana/spade lead to the +30V terminal and leave the spade end free. Plug in the
transformer and apply power to the Electrostatic Voltage Source. Shift the switch on the
back to the On position. The green Power On light should glow.
• Use the supplied adaptor cable to attach from the Signal Output on the Electrometer to the
A Analog Input on the 850 Universal Interface. It is important that it be the A input!
• Set the capacitor plates 0.3 cm apart by setting the movable plate so leading edge of its
indicator foot is at the 0.3 cm mark.
• Turn on the electrometer and set the range button to the 100 V scale.
• Remove any charge from the capacitor by momentarily touching both plates at the same
time with your hand.
• Zero the electrometer by pressing the ‘ZERO’ button until the needle goes to zero.
• Momentarily connect a cable from the +30-V outlet in the voltage source to the stud on
the back of the movable capacitor plate. This will charge the capacitor. Remove the
charging cable.
• Read the following steps. They need to be performed quickly since the charge will slowly
escape from the electrometer, especially if the humidity is high. One person should run
the computer while one moves the capacitor plate. Everyone else should stay back.
Everyone should try to be in the same position for each reading. Anybody who is close is
a significant part of the system and can make the readings change.
• Open the Data Tab, but read the rest of this page first.
• Slide the movable plate so it is at 8.0 cm (leading edge of the indicator foot). Once the
plate is in position, the person moving the plate should move away 50 cm or so and try to
be in the same position for each measurement.
• Click the PREVIEW button at the lower left to begin collecting data. Colored numbers
will appear in first row of the table. The person doing the computer should click the Keep
Sample (red checkmark in the lower left) button. The number in the first row will turn
black and the colored number will move to the second row. The person at the computer
should read the next separation (7 cm) out loud and wait.
• Move the plate to 7.0 cm and repeat the process until 0.3 cm.
• Click the STOP button to end the data collection.
• Examine the graph. If it looks like a smooth curve, you are done. If not, repeat the process
until you get a nice-looking run.
Analysis
𝑄𝑑
𝑉= + 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑘𝜀° 𝐴
Examination of equation show that if 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 0, then V is directly proportional to d and

the Voltage. Separation graph on the Data page should be a straight line. This is
clearly not the case. To verify Equation 3 for the case where 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠 is not zero, we need
to know Q and 𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠 . We determine these by fitting the math model to the data.
First, we note that;
𝑘𝜀° 𝐴 = (1.00) × (8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1 )(2.46 × 10−2 𝑚2 )
= 2.18 × 10−13 𝐹𝑚 = 2.18 × 10−11 𝐹𝑐𝑚
So, the parallel plate capacitance when d = 1 cm is 𝐶1.0 = 2.18 × 10−9 𝐶. Note that
this value is entered in line 2 of the Calculator.
When d is small (0.3 cm) the first term in the denominator dominates and
𝑉0.3 (𝑘𝜀° 𝐴) 2.18 × 10−11 𝐹𝑐𝑚
𝑄~ = (30𝑉) ×
𝑑 0.3𝑐𝑚
= 2.2 × 10−9 𝐶
This value is entered as an initial guess for the value of Q in line 1 of the calculator. Q
is constant so when d becomes large, 𝑪𝒔𝒚𝒔 dominates in the denominator and we have:
𝑄 2.2 × 10−9 𝐶
𝐶𝑠𝑦𝑠 ~ ~ = 2.7 × 10−11 𝐹
𝑉8 80𝑉
Where 𝑉8 is the voltage when d = 8 cm. This is taken as the initial guess for 𝑪𝒔𝒚𝒔
(=C1) on line 3 of the calculator. Note that 𝑪𝒔𝒚𝒔 is about equal to 𝑪𝟏.𝟎 at 1.0 cm. At
0.3 cm, 𝑪𝟎.𝟑 = 7x10-11F so 𝑪𝟎.𝟑 ~ 3𝑪𝒔𝒚𝒔 and the approximation above is decent but
𝑪𝒔𝒚𝒔
not great. At 8 cm; 𝑪𝟖 = 2.7 × 10−12 F = 𝟏𝟎 ,
so, the approximation is good, but not perfect.
• Click open the Curve Fit page.
• Use the Data Display button ( ) to select your best run.
• Adjust the values for Q on line 1 of the Calculator and for 𝑪𝟏 on line 2
to make the model match the experimental curve as well as possible.
Experiment No 11: Effect Of Medium On Capacitor
• You will use paper as the dielectric to be inserted between the plates. Get a stack of paper
about 1 cm thick.
• Position the movable plate of the capacitor at 8 cm.
• Turn on the electrometer and set the range button to the 100 V scale.
• Remove any charge from the capacitor by momentarily touching both plates at the same
time with your hand.
• Zero the electrometer by pressing the ‘ZERO’ button. The needle must be at zero.
• Momentarily connect a cable from the +30-V outlet in the voltage source to the stud on
the back of the movable capacitor plate. This will charge the capacitor. Remove the
charging cable.
• Click on the PREVIEW button below.
• One student holds the stack of paper directly above the gap between the capacitor plates
so that the long side of the paper is vertical. Hold the paper with one hand and keep the
other hand on the metal connector attached to the signal input of the Electrometer so that
there is no static charge on the student holding the paper. Press the Keep Sample button to
record the voltage when the paper is not between the plates.
• Lower the paper between the two plates until it touches the base. Do not let the paper
touch either plate! Keep your hand as far above the plates as possible. Press the Keep
Sample button to record the voltage when the paper is between the plates.
• Pull the paper back above the plates and repeat steps 8 and 9 several times.
• Click the STOP button to stop monitoring the data.
• If the final voltage with the paper out is much different from the initial paper out value,
you probably touched the plates and should repeat the experiment.
Questions
What happened to the voltage as the plates got closer together (d decreasing)?
Explain logically how changing the distance effects the capacitance.
What were your best fit values for the charge Q and Csys?
How well did your model fit the data? Try to explain any discrepancy. Hint: what
approximations are made when deriving the parallel plate capacitance (C = 0A/d) from
Gauss’ Law?
Briefly discuss the value of computer modeling.
What is a di electric medium, and what is its role in capacitance?
Examine the Paper Dielectric Data table under the Procedure B tab. Does the data agree with
Equation 5 (Theory B tab)? What does a dielectric do?
Experiment No 12: Experiments With Helmholtz Coil
Single Coil
For a coil of wire having radius R and N turns of wire, the

magnetic field along the perpendicular axis through the center of
the coil is given by;
𝜇° 𝑁𝐼𝑅 2
𝐵= 3
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 )2
Two Coils
For two coils, the total magnetic field is the sum of the magnetic fields from each of the coils.
On the axis we have:
𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
𝜇° 𝑁𝐼𝑅 2 𝑑 3 𝑑 2
𝐵=( ) [(𝑋 − )2 + 𝑅 2 ]1−2 + [(𝑋 + )
2 2 2
3
+ 𝑅 2 ]1−2
where x is measured from the geometric center.
For Helmholtz coils, the coil separation (d) equals the radius (R) of the coils. This coil
separation gives a uniform magnetic field between the coils. Plugging in x = 0 gives the
magnetic field at a point on the x-axis centered between the two coils
8𝜇° 𝑁𝐼
𝑩= 𝒙
√125𝑅
For a Long Solenoid
For a long solenoid with n turns per unit length, the

magnetic field is
𝐵 = 𝜇° 𝑛𝐼
The direction of the field is straight down the axis of the

solenoid.
• Attach a single coil to the Helmholtz Base so it is

aligned with the white rectangle on the base and thus
perpendicular to the base. Connect Output #1 of the
850 Universal Interface directly across the coil.
• Pass the optics track through the coil and support the
two ends of the track with the support rods. One end
of the optics track should be close to the edge of the table so when you hang a mass over
the Rotary Motion Sensor, it will hang freely over the edge of the table.
• Level the track and adjust the height so the
Magnetic Field Sensor probe will pass through the
center of the coil when it is pushed along the
surface of the track against the side with the yellow
metric scale. An accurate way to do this is shown
in Figure. The coil diameter is 23.4 cm. The height
is adjusted (while maintaining level) so that a thin
metric ruler lies just below the holes in the side of
the coil holder and 0 cm is at the edge of the coil.
The track is adjusted so that the white dot marking
the axial sensor is at the 11.7 cm mark. The bottom
of the sensor probe is even with the ruler. The coil
base needs to be parallel with the optics track. Note that the coil is 2 cm wide, so the exact
coil center is 1 cm from the edge of the ruler (at 17 cm). When the white dot on the side of
the magnetic probe is at this point (17 cm on the yellow scale), the sensor is very close to
the coil center.
• Attach the Rotary Motion Sensor to the track using the bracket as in Figure. Cut a piece of
thread long enough to reach from the floor to the track. Tie a loop in one end of the thread
and slide the sensor probe of the Magnetic Field Sensor through it. Pass the other end of
the thread over the middle step of the Rotary Motion Sensor pulley and attach the 20-g
mass. Place the Magnetic Field Sensor against the side of the track with the yellow scale
and adjust the position of the Rotary Motion Sensor so the thread is aligned with the
middle step pulley.
• Plug the Magnetic Field Sensor and the Rotary Motion Sensor into any two of the Port
inputs on the 850 Universal Interface.
Single Coil Procedure
• Find the radius of the coil by measuring the diameter from the center of the windings
on one side across to the center of the windings on the other side. Enter the value in
the Coil Properties table on the Analysis 1 page.
• Slide the Magnetic Field Sensor along the track until the probe sensor is in the middle
of the coil (see the italicized note on the previous page). Press the tare button on the
Magnetic Field Sensor. Click on Data Summary at the left of the page. Open the
properties of the Rotary Motion Sensor (RMS) by clicking on the gear symbol to the
right of the Rotary Motion Sensor label. De-select “Zero Sensor Measurement at
Start”. Click on "Zero Sensor Now". This will make zero on the x-axis be at the center
of the coil. Click OK. Click Data Summary to close the panel.
• Slide the Magnetic Field Sensor back away from the coil until it is about 15 cm from
the coil.
• Click on Signal Generator at the left of the screen. Verify that the DC voltage is set to
15 V and click On.
• Click RECORD and slowly move the Magnetic Field Sensor along the track, keeping
it against the side with the yellow scale, until the end of the sensor is about 15 cm past
the coil. Then click STOP.
• Click the DC current off in the Signal Generator. Click Data Summary. Double click
Run #1 and re-label it “Single Coil”.
• Record the Coil Current (see below) in the Coil Properties table on the Analysis 1
page.
Analysis of Single Coil
• For each graph, click the black triangle by the Run Select icon and select “Single
Coil”. Click the Scale to Fit icon.
• For the Axial Field graph, click on the black triangle by the Curve Fit icon and select
User Defined. Click on the User Defined box that appears on the graph. The Curve Fit
Editor will appear on the Tools bar at the left of the screen.
• Click on the Curve Fit Editor and type in the theoretical equation for the magnetic
field (Equation 1 from Theory) into the equation line where y = magnetic field
strength (B) and the other symbol are as written in Equation 1 except let m = 0.
Click Apply. Enter m = 0 = 1.257e-6, the current, the coil radius, and number of
turns in the coil and lock all parameters. Click Update Fit.
• Discuss any differences between the experimental axial curve and the theoretical fit.
• The perpendicular field should be zero everywhere on the axis. If it isn’t, why not?
Helmholtz Coil Setup
• Attach a second coil to the Helmholtz Base at a distance from the other coil equal to
the radius of the coil. Note that you cannot just use the white
rectangles on the base since it was designed for the 200 turn
coils and the 500 tern coils are have a slightly larger diameter.
Make sure the coils are parallel to each other (the white
rectangles do help). See Figure 6. The left coil is about 15 cm
from the end of the track. Align coils & track as before.
• Connect the second coil in series with the first coil. See Figures
6 & 7. Note that the connectors on the coil all face outward and that the black jumper
cable between the coils goes from black connector to black connector. The other black
cable goes from the white connector to the black connector on the 850.
• With the DC power off, slide the magnetic field sensor along the track until the end of
the Magnetic Field Sensor in the halfway between the two coils. Press the tare button.
Also, open the properties of the Rotary Motion Sensor in the Data Summary and click
on "Zero Sensor Now". This will make zero on the x-axis be at the center between the
coils. "Zero on Start" should still be unchecked
Helmholtz coil Procedure
• Slide the Magnetic Field Sensor back away from the coils until it is about 15 cm from
the first coil. Turn on Signal Generator #1 (15 V). Start recording and slowly move
the Magnetic Field Sensor along the center of the track, keeping the probe parallel to
the track, until the end of the sensor is about 15 cm past the second coil. Then stop
recording. 2.
• Click open Data Summary. Double click on this run and re-label it "Helmholtz Coil".
3.
• Click open the Signal Generator. Click the DC voltage Off. Click Signal Generator to
close the panel. 4.
• Click Calculator and verify that line 1 matches Equation 2 from Theory. Change line
4 to match the current shown in the Helmholtz Coil Current box. Change line 5 & 6 to
match your measured coil radius (see table on Single Coil page). d from line 6 should
be the same as R from line 5.
• Does the theoretical equation fit everywhere? If not, why not?
• Now change the separation between the coils to 1.5 times the radius of the coils.
Repeat the scan. Click open Data Summary and label this run "1.5 R".
• Now change the separation between the coils to half the radius of the coils. Repeat the
scan. Label this run "0.5 R".
• How does changing the coil spacing affect the magnetic field?
Solenoid Procedure
• Setup as shown in Figure 8 by setting the solenoid on the optics track. Note that the
magnetic sensor probe goes just past halfway thru the coil when fully inserted. The 2-
axis Magnetic Field sensor is still connected to the Rotary Motion Sensor.
• Connect the 850 Output #1 DC power to the solenoid.
• With the DC power off, put the Magnetic Field Sensor all the way inside the solenoid.
Press the Tare button. Click open Data Summary. Click Rotary Motion Sensor
properties and click “Zero Sensor Now”. Click OK. Note the position of the solenoid
on the track and try not to move it during the rest of the experiment.
• Click open Signal Generator. Output 1 should be set for a DC Voltage of 1 V. Click
the DC Voltage on. Click RECORD and adjust the DC Voltage until the Solenoid
Current reads about 100 mA. Click STOP. Click Delete Last Run. Click the Signal
Generator closed.
• Click RECORD. Move the sensor around inside the solenoid staying within a few cm
of the center but moving from the axis to the edge of the coils and back. Click STOP.
• Examine the Central Field graph. Click the Scale to Fit icon. Is the field inside the
solenoid the same everywhere?
• Measure the length of the coil (between the end blocks). PASCO specs list the coil as
having 2920 turns. Using this information and Equation 4 from Theory calculate the
theoretical value of the magnetic field. Click on the black triangle by the Statistics
icon and select “mean”. Click on the Statistics icon. The mean value should appear on
the left of the graph. Compare this value to the theory value.
• When you go to the next page the program will ask if you want to turn off the Signal
Generator. Click “Leave On”.
Solenoid Field:
• Insert the magnetic sensor probe fully into the solenoid.

• Click RECORD. Move the probe slowly out of the solenoid and about 5 cm beyond.
Click STOP.
• Note that the sensor is about 7 cm from the body of the 2 Axis Magnetic Field Sensor,
so the sensor exits the coil when the position is about 7 cm.
Is the perpendicular field equal to zero?
What happens to the axial field as you approach the ends of the coil?
Does the field go to zero outside the coil?
Magnetic Field across a Single Coil
• Set up the single coil as before except instead of putting the track through the coil, set
up the track so it is parallel to the face of the coil. Make sure the elevation of the
track is set so the magnetic probe is at the height of the center of the coil.
• Create a graph of the Axial Magnetic Field vs. Position and then add a second plot
area for the Perpendicular Magnetic Field vs. Position.
• With the DC power off, slide the magnetic field sensor along the track until the end
of the Magnetic Field Sensor in the middle of the coil. Press the tare button. Also,
open the properties of the Rotary Motion Sensor in the Data Summary and click on
"Zero Sensor Now". This will make zero on the x-axis be at the center of the coil.
Also uncheck "Zero on Start".
• Slide the Magnetic Field Sensor back so it is about 15 cm away from the edge of the
coil. Turn on Signal Generator #1. Start recording and slowly move the Magnetic
Field Sensor along the center of the track, keeping the probe parallel to the track,
until the end of the sensor is about 15 cm past the other edge of the coil. Then stop
recording.
• Explain the shape and magnitude of the plots of the parallel and perpendicular
magnetic fields.
Reading: Pressure, Volume and Temperature
Pressure
Definition: The force applied by the moving atoms (molecules) in a fluid on the walls of the
container is called pressure.
Explanation: On the microscopic level if we observe the gases in a container, their

molecules, as they don’t have any interaction in between, are far apart and they tend to fill the
whole space provided, secondly they are always in motion and while moving they usually
collide the walls of the container the force they apply when they collide the walls is actually
pressure.
For example if we take the example of balloon when we pump air in it the molecules of air
rush into it with relatively larger velocity thus they push the walls of balloon with a force
larger than the force being exerted by outsider molecules (because they are at normal
velocity) thus as a result insider molecules successfully push the outsider ones and the
balloon is inflated, its area increases.
P = F/A
In SI base units: 1 N/m2, 1 kg/(m·s2).
Dimension: M L−1 T−2
Volume
Definition: Volume in simple words is the space occupied by any substance.
Explanation: For example, if a block is placed on some floor and it covers 100cm3 space it is
its volume. But how to find the volume of irregular substances and what is the volume for
fluids.
For gases volume is the whole space in which that gas is kept, but that is apparent volume
actual volume of the gas is negligible as compared to apparent volume because if you had just
10 molecules in a container and 100 in other case both will occupy the whole container, and
that’s the reason if we block the opening of syringe and then push the piston after some push
it resists further pushing although it had some empty space (that space which seems empty to
us is the gas at a very high pressure and having maximum density because the volume is
decreased to extreme level and it cannot be decreased further).
Temperature
Temperature is the average measure of kinetic energy of individual molecules or particles in a

substance.
The terms we use hot or cold are the kinetic energy of these molecules or we can also say the
relative motion of these molecules. The faster the molecules move the more collisions they
face, we had no limit of high temperature it can reach infinity the temperature in cores of
stars but there exists a lower limit we call absolute temperature, the temperature we cannot
reach and if we reach that temperature the system kept in that temperature will seize to move,
not the electrons will stop rotating but the molecules will stop vibrating, translating and
rotating.
By international agreement, absolute zero is defined as precisely; 0 K on the Kelvin scale,

which is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale; and –273.15 degrees Celsius on the
Celsius scale.
SI unit: Kelvin (K)
Other Units: ℃ , ℉
Internal energy
The total energy of all the molecules in a system is total internal energy of the system.
Internal energy is never zero because the molecules always remain in motion, when we say
the temperature of the system is raised or heat is provided actually the internal energy is
increased which results in increased motion of molecules. Along with heat there are other
forms of energy which adds up in the total internal energy of the system.
Other form of energy includes:
Translational kinetic energy; due to the motion of molecules.
Rotational kinetic energy; due to the rotatory motion of molecules about their own axis
Vibrational kinetic energy; the energy due to and fro notion of molecules
Potential kinetic energy; due to the interactions among molecules these may be
intermolecular forces which again could be hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions etc.
HEAT
Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one object to another.
Heat flow is simultaneous and whenever two systems with one at higher temperature and
other at lower come in contact this heat transfer starts without any need of activation energy.
Transfer of heat is denoted by Q.
Heat transfer Q is given by;
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝜟𝑻
Relation between pressure, volume and temperature:
At molecular level these pressure, volume and temperature are closely related.
Condition 1:
Keeping the pressure constant, we know that more is the temperature more will the
molecular speed thus having more energy they will scatter more and thus their volume
increases.
We can say that temperature is directly proportional to internal energy of molecule, more
internal energy means more volume to occupy (more scattering) thus temperature is directly
proportional to volume at constant pressure.
𝑻∝𝑽 (at constant pressure) ……(1)
Condition 2:
Reversing the situation now keeping the volume constant more is the temperature eventually
molecules will move faster thus they will hit the walls of container with more velocities, thus
more momentum and eventually more force. As we know that pressure is the force exerted on
the walls of container, so more force simply means more pressure, so in short at constant
volume increasing the temperature causes increase in pressure.
𝑻∝𝑷 (at constant volume) ……(2)
In upcoming two experiments we will observe this fact.
Experiment No 13: To Determine The Co-Efficient Of Volume Of Air At
Constant Pressure
COEFFICIENT OF INCREASE OF VOLUME OF AIR AT CONSTANT PRESSURE:
From equation (1):
𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒) × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑇
At temperature “T=0 0C”; pressure is “V0”:
𝑉0
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇0
At temperature “T=t 0C”; pressure is “Vt”:
𝑉𝑡
𝑇
Comparing the previous two equations:
𝑉0 𝑉𝑡
=
𝑇0 𝑇
𝑃𝑡 𝑇
=
𝑃° 𝑇°
In Kelvin scale:
𝑉𝑡 𝑇 𝑡 + 273
= =
𝑉° 𝑇° 0 + 273
𝑉𝑡 1
= 𝑡+1
𝑉° 273
Here;
𝟏
𝜸𝒑 =
𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜸𝒑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆.
𝑉𝑡 −𝑉°
So, we get = 𝛾𝑝
𝑉° 𝑡
Apparatus
• Graduated glass tube (closed at left top and is open at
right so that water can be filled in it).
• Glass chamber (sealed from bottom but having a narrow
escape passage for steam and having two inlets at top
one for steam and other for thermometer).
• Rubber pipe (To connect both glass tubes.)
• Thermometer.
Procedure
• Instructions for performing the experiment:

• Put the color water/ mercury in the graduated tube.
• Set the apparatus vertically and suspend a plumb line in the front of the scale.
• Adjust the leveling screws at the base so that the plumb line is parallel to the edge of the
scale and equidistant from it all points.
• Find the atmospheric pressure.
• Put the water in the heating mental and start heating it. Do not connect it with the inlet
tube in the very beginning.
• Adjust the position of open tube D so that the upper surface of color water/ mercury in it
and in the closed graduated tube stands at the same level. Note the volume of air V1
enclosed in graduated tube and also the temperature t1 as record by the thermometer.
• Raise the open tube to its highest point and connect the steam generator to the inlet tube L
at the top.
• Pass steam and wait for about 15 min so that the air in the graduated tube attains the
temperature of steam.
• Lower the tube D till color water/ mercury stands at the same level in both tubs and again
waits for few minutes in which the air in the graduated tube has attained the temperature
of steam, color water/ mercury level in both tubs will remain stationary.
• Note the reading of the volume V2 of air from the graduation of the tube and also note the
temperature t2 from thermometer.
Finally note the atmospheric pressure again. Find the co-efficient of increase of volume from
the formula:
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑉1 𝑡2 − 𝑉2 𝑡1
Observations
Initial volume of air 𝑉1 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ1 =( )( )2 ( )
Initial temperature of air 𝑡1 =…………………
Final volume of air 𝑉2 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ2 =( )( )2 ( )
=……………………….
Final temperature of air 𝑡2 =…………………
𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏
Co-efficient of increase of volume = 𝑽
𝟏 𝒕𝟐 −𝑽𝟐 𝒕𝟏
Co-efficient of increase of volume = …….....
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error = × 10
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
( )−( )
= × 100
( )
Percentage error = ( )
Precautions
The volume should be measured when the temperature remains constant for several minutes
and water in two tubes stands at same level. The initial and final pressure should be same.
Steam should be passing from above.
Questions
Can you now guess the unit and dimension of volume?
How to measure the volume of irregular objects? Discuss it with your fellows and come out
with some procedure we can measure volume of irregular shaped objects stone for example.
The faster the molecules are moving the more is the temperature, hot, can you explain why?
Can you now explain what type of energies would be in gas molecules at 0K?
What did you concluded after performing this experiment?
What is the actual working substance in experiment air or water?
Apart from filling the tube with water is there any reason for keeping one end of tube open?
What will happen if your apparatus is not straight and tubes are not perpendicular to ground?
What will happen if we connect a pump at open end of tube and perform the same experiment
at different pressures? Will it affect the slope?
If we plot a graph for temperature vs volume would slope be affected for above condition?
Why are we using water and not glycerin? Can we?
Experiment No 14: To Determine The Co-Efficient Of Pressure Of Air At
Constant Pressure
From equation (2):
𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) × 𝑃
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
𝑇
At temperature “T=0 0C”; pressure is “P0”:
𝑃0
𝑇0
At temperature “T=t 0C”; pressure is “Pt”:
𝑃𝑡
𝑇
Comparing the above two equations:
𝑃0 𝑃𝑡
=
𝑇0 𝑇
𝑃𝑡 𝑇
=
𝑃° 𝑇°
In Kelvin scale:
𝑃𝑡 𝑇 𝑡 + 273
= =
𝑃° 𝑇° 0 + 273
𝑃𝑡 1
= 𝑡+1
𝑃° 273
Here;
𝟏
𝜸𝒗 =
𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜸𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆.

𝑃𝑡 −𝑃°
So, we get, = 𝛾𝑣
𝑃° 𝑡
Apparatus:
• Wooden board with scale.

• Capillary tube.
• Thermometer.
• Test tube.
• Rubber tubing.
Procedure:
Set the apparatus vertical with the help of plumb

line and leveling screws.
Make a fixed mark F below the bend on the capillary tube using a marker. The mark is below
the bend so that water/mercury may not enter the bulb C due to negligence.
Note the atmospheric pressure.
Bring the open tube D to the lowest level. Place a glass funnel below the bulb C. Take some
cold water in a beaker. Surround the bulb completely with the cold water and suspend from a
clamp a thermometer with its bulb dipping in the cold water near the glass bulb. Wait for
about 5 minutes so that the air in the bulb attains the temperature of the cold water. Raise the
tube D till the water level in the capillary tube stands at the fixed mark F.
Wait for few minutes. If the air in the bulb has attained the temperature of water and there is
no leakage in the apparatus, then the water level will remain stationary at F. In order to note
the reading of the upper meniscus of color water/ mercury in the open tube D place a set
square such that one of its perpendicular sides is horizontal and the other presses against the
side of the meter scale.
Remove the beaker containing cold water surrounding the bulb C. Place the bulb in the warm
water. When the bulb remains surrounded with warm water for about 5 minutes the air in the
bulb will attain the temperature of the warm water. See that the thermometer records a
constant temperature. Raise the tube D so that water in the capillary tube again stands at the
fixed mark F. Wait for a few minutes more. If the air in the bulb has attained the temperature
of the warm the water level/mercury will remain stationary at F. Note the scale reading
against the level of water level/ mercury in the tube D, with the help of a set square. Bring the
tube D to its lowest position and then remove the burner.
Note the atmospheric pressure again and find the temperature of air at this pressure.
Observations And Calculations
Reading of the water at fixed point = x =…………….
Temperature = 𝑡1 =……………
Temperature =𝑡2 =……………
Reading of the water at open end = 𝑑1 =……………
Reading of the water at open end = 𝑑2 =……………
Pressure = 𝑃1 =…………...
Pressure = 𝑃2 =…………...
𝑃 𝑃
Co-efficient of increase of pressure = 𝑃 𝑡𝑡 -𝑃 °𝑡
° °
( ) ( )
= -
( )( ) ( )( )
=( )
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
( )−( )
= × 100
( )
Percentage error = ( )
Precautions:
• The reading of water level should be taken when the temperature remains constant for
several minutes and the/color water/ mercury remains at the fixed mark F.
• The open tube should be considerably lowered after the reading at the steam
temperature has been taken otherwise water will rush into the bulb.
• The bulb should be surrounded by steam and should not be immersed in boiling
water.
Conclusion:
Questions:
Why the bulb should not be immersed in boiling water?
Why we are preventing water to enter the bulb?
Why is the other end of tube open?
We had to heat up air, but water also heats up does it effects our readings?
Is your percentage error greater than 4%? What are the reasons for this error?
Experiment No 15: Find Coefficient Of Thermal Conductivity For Poor
Conductors (Insulators) BY LEE’S DISC
Heat Transfer from Different Materials;
What is heat? Heat is an energy and as we know we cannot create energy nor destroy it so
how a fire cools down and water heats up (while boiling the water).
If we consider the source of fire to be woods then woods are composed of cellulose,
carbohydrate; sui gas which is supplied to our homes is also a carbohydrate, methane,
remaining forms of fuels are also carbohydrates in nature, and carbohydrates had carbon
hydrogen bonds in them when these bonds break energy is released, fire continues to blow
until any bond is left to be broken down. Now see that the energy is in very higher
concentration in fire so it has to flow to the region of lower concentration (pot and water) so
when this energy is supplied to pot it causes the atoms of solid to go into excited state, as
these atoms are tightly bound so they just vibrate about their positions and colloid with each
other but in excited state these collisions increase and thus temperature of the pot increase
due to friction. Now this energy is to be transferred to water in the same order water
molecules are excited and some molecules which get more excited and thus get more energy
go into vapors state (steam on boiling water) rest just increase their temperature due to
collisions.
Ways through which energy is transferred is divided into three types:
Conduction (heat transfer through solids)
Convection (heat transfer through liquids)
Radiation (heat transfer through air)
Conduction is the transfer of heat from solid objects, conduction is represented by H and is
defined as the rate at which heat is transferred per unit time,
H=Q/dt
SI unit of H (conduction) is joules per second and it is equivalent to watt.
Different experiments show that:
Conduction is directly proportional to area (surface area in contact with the heat source ) It is
obvious that more is the area in contact more is the number of atoms directly exposed to
heat source and thus more readily they will go to excited state.
Conduction is inversely proportional to the thickness of conducting material.
We can treat it as distance more is the distance to be travelled more time it will take and thus
lesser the rate of conduction.
Conduction is directly proportional to the temperature difference between two ends of
conducting substance.
Consider this difference is potential; higher is the temperature difference more higher is the
potential at higher reservoir thus more efficiently the heat will flow which increases the
conduction rate.
Combining the three results gives that:
H = kA(ΔT/Δx)
k is the constant of proportionality and is called thermal conductivity,
Its SI unit is watt per meter kelvin.
A value with large value of k is a good conductor of heat.
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝐻 = 𝑘𝐴 → 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝐿
𝑄
𝐻= → 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑑𝑇
Comparing equation 1 and 2;
𝑑𝑇 𝑄
−𝑘𝐴 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇 𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑇 °
−𝑘𝐴 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑐 𝑑𝑇 °
𝑘= ×
𝐴𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑡
• m is the mass of insulator disc

• c is the heatcapacity of metal
• d thickness of the disk
• A area of the disk using πr^2
• dT is the differece of steady state temperatures of of disk and chamber
𝑑𝑇 °
• slope of the graph
𝑑𝑡
OBJECTIVE:
Our objective is to check the validity of this expression and find a numerical value of k.
Apparatus:
Apparatus used for this experiment is called Lee’s Disk apparatus, which consists of:
• Metallic Disk.
• Metallic Chamber.
• Cardboard.
• Two Thermometers.
• Delivery Pipe.
• Cork.
• Round bottom Flask.
• Heating Mantle.
• Water.
Procedure:
Turn on the heating mantle. Steam is let in through one opening of chamber and it comes out
from the other, it causes the
chamber to heat up.
By heating up the chamber

the heat fom the chamber
flows to the disk but at a very
lower rate because of an
insulator (cardboard) which
seprates them.
There are two thermometers;

one is inserted through the
chamber and other through
the disc to note down temperature increase in both.
Allow the entire system to reach steady state (no change in temperature by more than 0.5
degrees in 10 minutes).
Record the temperature T1 (temperature of chamber) and T2 (temperature of disc) once steady
state is reached.
At this stage remove the steam from inlet and also the cardboard.
Place the steam chamber on top of the disc and allow its temperature to rise above its steady
state temperature by 10-15 0C. Then remove the heat source which is hot chamber in this
case. Allow the lower disc to cool down.
When the disc approaches T2 (temperature of disc at steady state), begin recording the time
for fall of each degree. Plot a temperature vs time graph.
Observations:
Mass of the lee’s= M =_____________.
Specific heat of iron= C =1.08×10-1 cal/gm.
Diameter of the lee’s disk = D =_____________ (by verneir calliper).
Radius of lee’s disk = r= D/2 =______________
Thickness of the lee’s disk=d=_____________ (by screw gauge)
Steady temperature of thermometers:
𝑇1 = (i) ______ (ii) ________ (iii) ________
𝑇2 = (i) _______ (ii) ________ (iii) ________
Mean temperature (upper) = ____________
Mean temperature (lower) = ____________
Table for Vernier Caliper:
Zero error= ________ Least count = 0.05cm.
No. of obs. Main scale Vernier Fraction to Observed Final reading

scale(V) be added reading
(M)
(n. v) (M + n. v)
1.
2.
3.
Mean diameter of disc= D =_________.
Then radius= r =_______
Table for Screw Gauge:
Zero error =_______ least count = 0.01mm.
No of obs. Main Circular Fraction to Observed Final

scale(M) scale(C) be added reading reading
(n.C) (M +n.C)
1.
2.
3.
Mean thickness=d=__________.
Table of reading:
No of obs. Time (s) Temperature (C)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Calculations:
𝑀𝑐𝑑
K =𝜋𝑟 2(𝜃1−𝜃2) 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡
From graph: (Temperature v/s Time graph)
𝑑𝜃
Slope = 𝑑𝑡 =_______
K=__________ cal/cm s°C.
Precautions:
• Thickness of the disc of material should be measured at number of places on its

surface.
• The diameter of disc should be equal to that of the cylindrical vessel and the metallic
disc and should measure in two perpendicular directions.
• Thermometers should be placed closed to the face of the disc of the specimen.
• There should be good thermal contact between the disc and the lower case.
• The steady state temperature should be recorded only when the readings of T1 and T2
remain constant after an interval of five minutes.
Conclusion
Questions:
What is lee’s disc?
What is difference between variable and steady state temperature?
Can this method have used for good conductors? Justify your answer.
Enlist factors on which thermal conductivity depends. Write its units.
Experiment No 16: Find Coefficient Of Thermal Conductivity Of Copper
Convection
It takes place when heated molecules move from one place to another, taking the heat with
them. It is common in both the atmosphere as well as in oceans.
Working of Searle’s Apparatus:
When a chamber S of the Searle’s conductivity apparatus is connected to a steam generator;

heat is conducted from hot end A to cold end B of the bar whose coefficient of thermal
conductivity is to be determined.
The flow of water through the coil C is when the chamber S of the Searle’s conductivity
apparatus is connected to a steam generator heat is regulated that a steady state of
temperature is reached.
In this state as the bar is thermally insulated it does not lose heat by radiation and further
there will be no more absorption of heat anywhere along the bar, so the quantity of heat
flowing through any section of bar in the given time is the same.
Derivation
Let 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 be the temperatures indicated by thermometers T1 and T2 respectively. If A

is the area of cross-section of the bar, d is the distance between two thermometers and k is the
coefficient of thermal conductivity. Then the amount of heat Q passing through these points
in one second is given by:
(𝜃1−𝜃2)𝑡
Q =−𝑘𝐴 eq no 1.2.1
𝑑
This heat is absorbed by water flowing per second through the coil C .To find this let m be
the mass of water flowing per second and 𝜃4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃3 be the temperatures of outgoing and
incoming water, then.
Q = mc (𝜃4 − 𝜃3) eq no 1.2.2
By equating above equations:
𝑘𝐴(𝜃1−𝜃2)𝑡
− = mc (𝜃4-𝜃3)
𝑑
𝑚(𝜃4−𝜃3)𝑑
k= − eq no 1.2.3
𝐴(𝜃1−𝜃2)𝑡
Apparatus
• Searle’s Apparatus.
• 2 half degree thermometers
• Heating Mantle
Procedure:
•Firstly, adjust the constant

head device to give a
steady flow of water
through the coiled tube.
• Then, Pass steam from the
electric kettle, wait until the
thermometers have reached
steady state (no significant increase or reduction of temperature for 10 minutes).
• Measure T1, T2, T3 and T4. Measure the rate of water flow through the spiral by
measuring the amount of water(m) collected in a measuring cylinder in a given time
(t).
Observations:
Distance =5.9cm=0.059m
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4.91𝑐𝑚2 = 4.91 × 10−4 𝑚
Mass of beaker (empty) = 𝑚1 = ________g
Specific heat = c = 4200J/kg. K
Mass of beaker with water = 𝑚2 =_______g
Total mass collected in a beaker = m = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 =__________g
Table No 1
Thermometers 30 min 35min 40min 45min 50 min 55min
T1
T2
T3
T4
Table No 2
No. of mass(g) Time(min) Mass steady T2 T3 T4

Obs. collected state T1
(𝜃2) (𝜃3) (𝜃4)
(𝜃1)
(gm)
Calculations
For final calculations, must convert temperatures into KELVIN SCALE.
T(K)= T©+273=_________K
(𝜃4−𝜃3)𝑑
k =−𝑚𝑐 𝐴(𝜃1−𝜃2)𝑡
k = ______________ W/m .K
Precautions
• Water should be allowed to flow at a uniform rate and a more trickle of water should
issue from the outlet Y of the copper spiral. So that the rise of temperature may be
constant and sufficient.
• The temperature should be recorded only when a steady state has been reached.
• The diameter of the bar should be measured at a number of places and at every place
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
• The rod should be insulated thermally to avoid loss of heat due to radiation.
Result:
Questions
what is thermal conductivity?
If rod is not thermally insulated, then what happens?
what is thermal conductivity coefficient?
what do you mean by steady flow of water?
Experiment No 17: Determination Of Mechanical Equivalent Of Heat “J”
By Electrical Method (Calendar And Barnes Method)
Radiation
It is also a method of heat transfer which takes place without any medium , radiation actually
don’t requires any medium because heat from sun reaches us from vacuum ,then what effect
does air in our surrounding had on radiation ?
radiation is emitted from all sides of a heating body so can you design an experiment to
calculate how much heat is radiated in unit time ,does it depends on temperature of heat
reservoir , does it depends on distance of sensor or the medium in between .
James Prescott Joule found that the mechanical work done on a system is directly
proportional to heat produced, Heat produced in a system is directly proportional to the work
done on the system
𝑊∝𝑄
J is the constant of proportionately known as mechanical equivalent of heat,
𝑊 = 𝐽𝑄
We know that power is the rate of change of work done , that is how much work is being
done in unit time.
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
Putting the value of work done in equation of power.
𝐽𝑄
𝑃=
𝑡
While we know that electrical power is equal to the product of voltage and current being
applied, the source of power in this experiment is electrical power and according to joule’s
law it is given by;
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
As the source of power is electricity and there is no other source connected so according to
the law of conservation of energy this electric power is being converted into thermal power;
𝐽𝑄
𝑉𝐼 =
𝑡
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐽=
𝑄
Heat absorbed by a body is equal to the product of mass, specific heat capacity and change in
temperature.
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐽=
𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐽=
𝑚∆𝑇
𝑉𝐼𝑡
= 𝑚∆𝑇
𝐽
When a potential difference is applied at ends and current flows through the wire heat is
produced and a fraction of this heat is lost as radiation represented by dQ;
𝑉𝐼𝑡
= 𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑑𝑄
𝐽
𝑉 ° 𝐼° 𝑡
= 𝑀° (𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 ) + 𝑑𝑄 °
𝐽
If we suppose that the temperature at both ends is same then heat radiated at both ends would
be same and its effect could be neglected.
𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑉 ° 𝐼 ° 𝑡
− = 𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑑𝑄 − [𝑀° (𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 ) + 𝑑𝑄 ° ]
𝐽 𝐽
1
(𝑉𝐼𝑡−𝑉 ° 𝐼 ° 𝑡) = 𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − 𝑀° (𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 )
𝐽
After rearranging equation we get an equation for the mechanical equivalent of heat where M
is the mass of water collected V is the voltage applied, I is the current passing through the
circuit , t is the time for which water is collected.
(𝑉𝐼𝑡−𝑉 ° 𝐼 ° 𝑡)
𝐽=
𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − 𝑀° (𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 )
Apparatus
• Water reservoir
• Connecting wires
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Thermometers
• Beaker
• Stopwatch
• Measuring balance
• Power source
Procedure
• Make the connection according to the diagram by connecting battery B, ammeter a,

plug key and a rheostat R in series with the terminal of the calorimeter.
• Put a voltmeter V of suitable range across the terminals of wire W.
• Place the flow arrangement a little higher than the glass tube in which water level
remains constant.
• Open the tap and adjust the flow rate through the glass tube containing wire. Note the
initial readings of thermometers T1 and T2.
• Plug the key and adjust the current through the wire round which water flow and
adjust the water flow through pinch cock so that the temperature difference (Ø2-Ø1)
is less than 5◦C.
• When the flow of water, ammeter, and voltmeter readings and difference in
temperature readings remain steady for some time collect water in a weighted beaker
for 3-10 minutes.
• Note the reading of temperatures, ammeter and voltmeter. Also note the time and
weight of water in beaker.
• Increase the water flow, Adjust the current so that the the temperature difference is
same Find the mass of water with the same time and note the corresponding readings.
• Calculate the value of J by the relation.
Observations
Time = t = ( )
Mass of beaker = m = ( )
1st Readings
Mass of water = M = ( ) Voltage = V = ( )
Current = I = ( ) 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = ( )
2nd Readings
Mass of water = 𝑀° = ( ) Voltage = 𝑉 ° = ( )
Current = 𝐼 ° = ( ) 𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 = ( )
(𝑉𝐼𝑡−𝑉 ° 𝐼 ° 𝑡)
𝐽=
𝑀(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − 𝑀° (𝑇 ° 2 − 𝑇 °1 )
[( )( )( )−( )( )( )]
J= ( )[( )−( )]−( )[( )−( )]
J=( )
Questions
Why the flow of water should be slow and uniform?
The temperature difference should not exceed 5◦C. why?
Are we going to face any complications if we collect Water when temperature difference was
not constant?
Why the turns of wire should not touch the sides of glass tube?
Define in your own words what is mechanical equivalent of heat?
How would you maintain the temperature at ends with water flow, suppose you have to
increase the temperature at output end what would you do?
Can we perform the same experiment at very high temperatures keeping the difference less
than 5 degree?
Experiment No 18: To Draw The Calibration Curve For A Copper-Iron
Thermocouple By Using Potentiometer
Thermoelectric Effect
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences

to electric voltage and vice-versa. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage
when there is a different temperature on each side.(seebeck effect)
Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature
difference.(Peltier effect). Here we will only discuss the seebeck effect.
Seebeck effect
When the difference of temperature is maintained between the two junctions.

The voltage produced is known as thermo electric current. The voltage that
produce is DC in nature. Seebeck effect is caused by two phenomenon
Charge carrier diffusion &Phonon drag.
Charge carrier diffusion
Charge carriers in the materials will diffuse when one end of a conductor is at a different temperature
than the other. Hot carriers diffuse from the hot end to the cold end, since there is a lower density of
hot carriers at the cold end of the conductor, and vice versa.If the conductor were left to reach
thermodynamic equilibrium, this process would result in heat being distributed evenly throughout the
conductor. The movement of heat (in the form of hot charge carriers) from one end to the other is a
heat current and an electric current as charge carriers are moving.
Apparatus
• Galvanometer
• Potentiometer
• Funnel
• Beaker
• Thermometer
• Connecting wires
• Jockey
• Stands
• Test tube
• Resistance box
• Rechargeable cell
• Copper-iron thermocouple.
Procedure
• Determine the resistance of the potentiometer by ohm’s law.

• Find the EMF of the cell. (cadmium cell of 1.0183 volts).
• Draw the neat circuit diagram.
• Make the connections tight and clean. Removing all insulations.
• Connect the thermocouple to be potentiometer.
• The copper wire of the couple should go to the terminal where the +ive end of the cell is
connected.
• One end of the junction is kept in a test tube containing oil which in turn is placed in water
bath.
• The other junction is surrounded by smashed ice, placed in a funnel held in a stand.
• Connect the copper end of the couple at cold junction to the jockey through the sensitive
galvanometer.
• Heat the water bath to bring the water at boiling temperature. Take out the resistance of 2000
ohm from resistance box.
• Plug the key and look for the balance point.
• Similarly find the balance point at temperature 80°C,70°C, 60°C and so on.
• Find the EMF of the cell used once again at the end of the experiment.
• Plot the graph b/w temperature of the hot junction and the thermo electro-motive force in
micro volts.
Precautions
• Connection should be clean and tight.

• Value of “R” should be so adjusted that the balance point lies on the last wire.
• Water in the water bath should be stirred off and on to ensure uniformality of temperature.
Observations
Resistance of potentiometer wire = r= ( )
E.M.F of the cell =E= ( )
Resistance taken out from resistance box= R = ( )
Length of the potentiometer wire =L= ( )
Fall of potential per cm.of wire=e= ( )
No. of observations. Temperature of hot Balance point L( cm ) Thermo E.M.F =e × L

junction
This page is intentionally left blank.
After you had gone through these manuals you would have noticed some mistakes, some
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room for improvement so we would be pleased to listen to your reviews, for any query or
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Looking forward for your review.
Thank You.
THE END.

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COMSATS University Islamabad

Lab manual for

Under Supervision of:

2|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

3|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

It is the most simple and primary

4|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

5|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Using Meter Rule

Sr no. Radius of coin Area of coin Thickness of coin Volume of coin

Using Vernier Calipers (Radius)

Sr Main scale Moving L.C (Moving radius Zero Zero Actual

6|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Sr Main Moving L.C (Moving thickness Zero Zero Actual

Using Screw Gauge (Radius)

Sr Main scale rotating L.C (rotating radius Zero Zero Actual

Using Screw Gauge (Thickness)

Sr Main rotating L.C (rotating thickness Zero Zero Actual

Using meter rule Using Vernier Using screw gauge

7|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Which scale is best in your opinion to measure the volume of coin?

Differentiate between terms precission and accuracy?

8|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Explain in your own words what is zero error?

9|Experiments in Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism

Electric Current And Resistance

Combing above two equations give,

Where 𝜌 is the constant of proportionality called resistivity or specific resistance of the

Combining above two equations give

Which gives the resistance, when

We need a variable voltage source,

A circuit is built connecting ammeter, voltage source, and copper wire.

Observations and calculations:

Length of copper wire = L= ------------------------

Length of eureka wire =L = ( )

Which wire is more conductive copper or eureka? Why?

Do u expect any errors if the wires were rusted?

Differentiate between conventional and electronic current.

Color Code Reading

Sr no. Color Value in 1st Value in 2nd Value in 3rd

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 × 10𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑

Sr no. Color code value DMM value

Are both values same?

What is deviation? And have you observed it in this experiment?

Kirchhoff’s current law proofs the law of conservation of charge.

And this equation can also be written as;

Kirchhoff’s voltage law proofs the law of conservation of energy.

Part-1: Verification Of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

For series network; 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

So, voltage across 𝑅220 is given by;

𝑉220 = 𝐼220 𝑅220

Similarly, voltage across 𝑅100 is given by;

𝑉100 = 𝐼100 𝑅100

Similarly, voltage across 𝑅330 is given by;

𝑉330 = 𝐼330 𝑅330

Now final step is that whether Kirchhoff’s law is verified or not?

Total voltage supplied by the battery = ( )

Equivalent resistance of the circuit = ( )

Current through 𝐼220 = ( )

Current through 𝐼100 = ( )

Current through 𝐼330 = ( )