01

PLANNING DATA Data analysis and

types
ANALYSIS 02 Steps and levels in the
process of data analysis
CONTENTS
Dr. Fardina Rahman Omi 03 Descriptive and
inferential analysis
04 Reporting the results

ↀThe goal of data analysis is to provide answers to the

research questions.

ↀThe plan for data analysis comes directly from the

question, the design, the method of data collection, and the
level of measurement of the data.

ↀThe choices you have made in these areas will both direct
and limit what you can do to analyze your data

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

  Score data by assigning numeric codes to responses
Preparing the data for analysis  Create a codebook
Conducting the data analysis  Use information from instruments
 Create a data file in data grid
Reporting the results
 Create variable, value labels
Interpreting the results  Clean database, missing values

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

CODING & DATA DATA

EDITING MISSING DATA
ENTRY TRANSFORM
▓Statistical Package for social sciences (SPSS) most
• Data must be • Elimination of • Involves • Changing data
inspected for questionnaire quantification into new format. popular
completeness (missing >10% (process of E.g. reduce 5
and consistency. of the total converting data Likert-type
▓Other programs
• E.g. a response) into numerical Scale into 3 ▓Minitab
respondent may form) categories ▓SAS
not answer the • E.g. Male – 1,
question on Female – 2 ▓STATA
marriage. ▓And so on

@Fardina Rahman Omi 7 @Fardina Rahman Omi

• Level I
Step 1: Content analysis of unstructured data. ♯ The basic differentiation in plans for analysis lies between
Step 2: Descriptive summaries of data categories.
descriptive and inferential analysis.
Step 3: Placing the data in charts, graphs, and tables.
Step 4: Tests of association between sample characteristics and ♯ Descriptive analysis provides a description of the data from the
data categories.
particular sample. Therefore, conclusions must refer only to the
• Level II
Step 1: Placing the data in charts, graphs, and tables. sample.
Step 2: Correlational analysis of relationship among the
variables. ♯ Inferential analysis, on the other hand, provides statistical support
• Level III for the answer to the research question, allowing you to draw
Step 1: Placing data into charts, graphs, and tables. inferences about the larger population from which the sample is
Step 2: Analysis of the differences among the groups on the
dependent variable @Fardina Rahman Omi drawn. @Fardina Rahman Omi

☻Inferential analysis always involves the use of statistical tests,

◙ Descriptive analysis includes content analysis of
either to test for significant relationships among variables or to
unstructured data,which results in summarizing the data into
test for differences between groups in an experimental or quasi-
categories,
experimental design.
◙ It also includes presenting categories of data in tables or
graphs that provide a pictorial description of the sample, ☻In either case, your purpose is to support your explanation of the
relationships among your variables, or differences between
◙ It further describe individual variables, and the use of
statistical analysis for the purpose of looking for relationships groups, thus testing the conceptual or theoretical framework
among categories or variables. behind your study.

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

 Type of statistic Level of measurement Statistics
Measures of central tendency Nominal scale Mode

►Summarization of the data Ordinal scale Median

►Content analysis Interval/ratio scale Mean

Measures of variation Nominal scale Number of categories

►Frequency distributions
Ordinal scale Range
►Measures of central tendency
Interval/ratio scale Standard deviation
Tests of relationships Nominal scale Chi-square
►Looking for statistical relationships among categories
Ordinal scale Spearman rank
or variables.
Interval/ratio scale Pearson r
@Fardina Rahman Omi
@Fardina Rahman Omi

Measures of Central Tendency Measuring Central Tendency (cont’)

Present data in form of an average:
Age GPA Gender Hours
1 Dick 20 1.9 M 1 AGE OF RESPONDENTS
2 Edward 19 1.5 M 1
3 Emmett 20 2.1 M 2
4 Lauren 20 2.4 F 3 Mean = Sum
1. Mean = 5 Mike 19 2.75 M 4 N
6 Benjie 18 3 M 4
7 Joe 19 2.85 M 5 = 251
8 Larry 17 2.75 M 5 13
9 Rose 18 3.3 F 5
10 Bob 18 3.1 M 6
2. Mode = most frequently occurring attribute 11 Kate 19 3.4 F 7 Mode = Most frequent
12
13
Sally
Sylvia
21
23
4
3.9
F
F
8
8
value
Sum 251 36.95 59 = age 19 (4)
3. Median = Middle attribute in the ranked Mean 19.308 2.8423 4.5385
Variance 2.3974 0.5437 5.6026
distribution of observed attribute Std Dev 1.5484 0.7374 2.367 Median = 19
Median 19 2.85 5

15 16
@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi
 Measures of Variability Relational Analysis
• One variable • Two variables
• Distribution of values around some central value, such • several variables
an average. (Univariate) (Bivariate)
• E.g. Age, gender, (Multivariate)
• Example measure of dispersion: income etc. • E.g. gender &
CGPA • E.g. Age,
education, and
Range: Income
The distance separating the highest from the lowest value.
Variance
To describe the variability of the distribution.
Standard deviation:
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data. Higher SD
means data are more dispersed. UNIVARIATE BIVARIATE MULTIVARIATE
ANALYSIS ANALYSIS ANALYSIS
Lower SD means that they are more bunched together. 17
@Fardina Rahman Omi
@Fardina Rahman Omi

• Measure of the strength of Correlation Strength ◘ Techniques that allow us to study samples and then make
some relationship generalizations about the population
between two variables, but 0.8 to 1.0 Very strong ◘ Inferential statistics are a very crucial part of scientific
not causality. research in that these techniques are used to test hypotheses
0.6 to 0.8 Strong
• Correlations can be ◘ Statistics for determining differences between experimental
positive, negative, or zero. 0.4 to 0.6 Moderate and control groups in experimental research
• Strength of relationship ◘ Statistics used in descriptive research when comparisons are
depends on coefficient. 0.2 to 0.4 Weak made between different groups
◘ These statistics enable the researcher to evaluate the effects of
0.0 to 0.2 Very weak an independent variable on a dependent variable.

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

  Hypothesis testing
A procedure for making decisions about results by
comparing an observed value of a sample with a
population value to determine if no difference or
relationship exists between the values
 Sampling Error
Differences between a sample statistic and a population
parameter because the sample is not perfectly
representative of the population

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

ↀState the hypothesis (H0)

ↀSelect the probability level (alpha)
ↀDetermine the value needed for significance
ↀCalculate the test statistic
ↀAccept or reject H0

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

 @Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

Parametric Test Non parametric Test

Difference between Two Groups
t test Fisher exact test (small groups) (nominal
▬Parametric tests are those tests for which we have prior data)
knowledge of the population distribution (i.e, normal), or if Mann-Whitney U test (ordinal data)
not then we can easily approximate it to a normal Two Sets of Scores for the Same Group (Before and After)
distribution which is possible with the help of the Central
Limit Theorem. Parameters for using the normal t test McNemar Chi-square test for nominal
distribution is – data
• Mean Sign test or Wilcoxon test for ordinal data
• Standard Deviation Differences among Multiple Groups
One-way analysis of variance (F test) Chi-square test for nominal data
▬In Non-Parametric tests, we don’t make any assumption Kruskall-Wallis one-way analysis of
about the parameters for the given population or the variance for ordinal data
population we are studying. In fact, these tests don’t
depend on the population. Correlations between Variables
Pearson r Chi-square test (nominal data)
Spearman rank correlation (ordinal data
@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi
 Parameter Parametric Test Nonparametric Test
Assume normal distribution and No assumptions about
Assumptions
equal variance distribution or variance
Suitable for both continuous
Data Types Suitable for continuous data
and categorical data
Test Statistics Based on population parameters Based on ranks or frequencies
Generally more powerful when More robust to violations of
Power
assumptions are met assumptions
Requires larger sample size,
Sample Size especially when distributions are Requires smaller sample size
non-normal
Results are based on ranks or
Interpretation of Straightforward interpretation of
frequencies and may require
Results results
additional interpretation
@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

Reporting the Resuls (Continue) Reporting the Resuls (Continue)

@Fardina Rahman Omi @Fardina Rahman Omi

 ◘ Summerize major result • 1. What is data analysis? What are steps of doing it?
◘ Explain why they have occured • 2. What is descriptive and inferential data analysis?*
◘ Explain about the implication of the results to the • 3. What are the steps/types of descriptive data analysis?**
world/country • 4. What are the levels of planning for data analysis?***
◘ Advance limitations • 5. What is hypothesis test? What are the steps of hypothesis
◘ Future directions of work based on this results testing?**
◘ Recommendation • 6. Name some basic types of inferential analysis.
• 7. What is parametric and nonparametric test? Give examples**
◘ End on positive note
• 8. What are the differences between parametric and
nonparametric test*
@Fardina Rahman Omi

THANK YOU

inprotected.com