Chapter 2

Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Chapter 2
Pneumatic Tires & Wheels
2.1 Pneumatic Tires

 The transition from the early wooden and steel wheels first to solid rubber tires and then to pneumatic tires has
probably had the most significant share in the level of sophistication reached by motor vehicles today. The
development of the pneumatic tire has contributed significantly to the improved ride comfort, directional control,
and stability, as well as to the safety and economy of the motor vehicle.
 Definition: A hollow band of rubber, often reinforced with fibers of other material, fitted around the outer edge
of a vehicle's wheel and filled with compressed air.
 A tire consists of many different things such as steel, nylon, polyester, rayon, carbon black, synthetic rubber
(which is man-made rubber), fiberglass which is light weight but add strength, aramid, brass.

Functions of a Tire Performance of Tires

To support the vehicles weight Fuel Efficiency

To transmit accelerating and braking force to the ground Wear life
To change / maintain direction Dry grip and Wet grip
To absorb shock from the road surface Handling Stability
Ride comfort
Quietness
Tire Nomenclature

The load carried by the pneumatic tire cannot be related directly to the product of the inflation pressure and the
contact area of the tire with the road surface. The common belief that it is the air inside the tire that carries the load,
therefore, cannot be justified. It is evident that the outer rubber structure which forms the flesh of the tire cannot
support the internal air pressure without a skeleton. This skeleton, which is called the carcass, is stressed by the
air pressure and the other imposed loads on the tire and thus has a powerful influence on the determination of the
final characteristics of the tire.

The pneumatic tire consists of three primary components. The carcass of a tire is composed of several layers of
plies which are coated by a rubber compound on both sides.

These layers maintain the internal air pressure of the tire in supporting the load. All plies are tied into bundles of
steel wire which are called bead wires. The beads are the parts that fit the tire on the rim, preventing the tire from
slipping out of the rim while the vehicle is in motion.

Tread is the fleshy wearing surface of the tire and is molded to the carcass. It is manufactured from synthetic rubber
compounds and provides resistance to abrasion and cutting, as well as a tread pattern to grip the road.

The standard nomenclature used for pneumatic tires of motor vehicles is shown in Figure 2.1

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 19

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Figure 2.1 Parts of Tire

Classification of Tyres:
On basis of Construction
1. Conventional (Inner Tube) Tyre
2. Tubeless Tyre
On basis of Carcass or Skelton
1. Cross Ply Tyre
2. Radial Ply Tyre
3. Belted-Bias Tyre
Tube and Tubeless Tire

Figure 2.2: Tube and Tubeless Tire

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 20

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Conventional (Inner Tube) Tyre

 The inner tube of a tyre is a flexible tube container, which when inflated with compressed air expands until it
bursts unless the expansion is restrained by the tyre, acting as a casing.
 The inner tube then takes the shape of the tyre cover, which protect it and contains this trapped pressurized air
over long periods.
 The tube is manufactured from extruded rubber sheets, which are shaped on a former and cured (vulcanized)
in a steam-heated mould to the cover shape.
 The tube is constructed to about 10% undersize. To provide an outlet or inlet to the tube interior, a valve stem
is sealed to the inside circumference during vulcanization.
Tubeless Tyre
 The tubeless tyre constitutes an outer cover and instead of the inner tube an unstretched rubber lining is bonded
to the inside of the cover wall.
 The rubber lining continues under the beads dredges of the cover to join up with the outer side-wall rubber.
 The bead portion of the tyre makes an effective airtight seal between the tyre and the rim.
 The taper rim seats on each side of the weft base and adjacent to the rim flanges, and assists initial sealing
between the bead and the wheel rim during inflation of the tyre.

Parameters Tube tyres Tubeless tyres

Weight Heavy as compared to tubeless tyres Light weight
More fuel efficient due to light weight and
Fuel efficiency Less fuel efficient due to the weight
better heat dissipation
Handling and comfort Less handling performance and comfort Improved handling and comfort
Mostly, there is no need to take the tyre off
Puncture repair is time consuming. the rim for puncture repair. Though easy, a
However, tube tyres can be repaired by any special equipment is required to repair
Puncture repairs roadside puncture repair shop or garage. punctures of tubeless tyres, which not many
Every local mechanic has the knowledge to will have. If the puncture is small,
repair a tube tyre individuals can repair it by themselves if
they have a puncture kit
Cost Less cost Cost more compared to tube tyres
High maintenance, highly prone to
Maintenance Low maintenance, less prone to punctures
punctures
Enhanced safety - Even if a puncture takes
Less safe - Instant loss of air after a sudden
Safety place the air moves out gradually and the
puncture result in loss of control
driver has control over the vehicle

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 21

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Cross-ply, Radial, and Belted Bias

Figure 2.3: Types of Tires

Bias Ply Tire
 It is also known as bias ply tyre construction. This tyre has better a resistance against wear. They have good
bonding to the road. Cross ply tyres consist of carcass layers made from nylon cord which are placed diagonally
along each other in the tread and the sidewalls, at an angle of 50 degrees.
 Multiple rubber plies stacked over each other which form a thick layer, which makes them less flexible as a
result they are more sensitive to overheating. These tyres give a strong and rigid sidewall.
Advantages of Cross Ply Tyre
 These tyres provide high vehicle stability.
 They also provide good resistance against sidewall damages.
 These tyres are economical as their production is cheaper.
Disadvantages of Cross Ply Tyre
 Due to the rolling resistance these tires heat up quickly.
 Cross ply tires being rigid, prove to be less comfortable.
 Due to high resistance of the tire, the fuel consumption is high.
Radial Ply Tire
It consists of a carcass ply which is formed by textile arcs running one bead to the other. Each ply embedded at an
angle of 90 degree to the rolling direction. At the top of tyre crown several plies is reinforced with metal wire on the
top of carcass ply.
Advantages of Radial Ply Tire
 These tyres have a lower rolling resistance loss which leads to less fuel consumption.
 They have a longer tread life as less heat generated.
 They provide better braking efficiency.
 They have larger resistance to punctures and cuts.
Disadvantages of Radial Ply Tire
 These tyres have a steel belt due to which it does not fare well against minor bumps in the road.
 Their soft sidewalls are vulnerable.
 Due to harder tread they make huge noise.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 22

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Belted Bias Ply Tire

 Bias ply tires with belts added to increase tread stiffness.
 Belts and plies run at different angles.
 Belts do not run around the sidewalls; they lay under the tread area only.
 Provides smooth ride and good traction.
 Offers some reduction in rolling resistance over a bias ply tire.
Tire Specifications

Figure 2.4: Tire Sidewall Specifications

CODE MPH KMPH VEHICLES

L 75 mph 120 km/h Off-Road & Light Truck Tires
M 81 mph 130 km/h
N 87 mph 140km/h Temporary Spare Tires
P 93 mph 150 km/h
Q 99 mph 160 km/h Stud less & Studdable Winter Tires
R 106 mph 170 km/h H.D. Light Truck Tires
S 112 mph 180 km/h Family Sedans & Vans
T 118 mph 190 km/h Family Sedans & Vans
U 124 mph 200 km/h
H 130 mph 210 km/h Sport Sedans & Coupes
V 149 mph 240 km/h Sport Sedans, Coupes & Sports Cars

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 23

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

 The LOAD INDEX is a number ranging from 0 to 279 and covers load capacities from the smallest
motorcycle tires to those for the largest earth mover tires. In passenger car tires, the load index typically
ranges from 75 to 100.

Load Index Pounds Kgs Load Index Pounds Kgs

71 761 345 91 1356 615

72 783 355 92 1389 630
73 805 365 93 1433 650
74 827 375 94 1477 670
75 853 387 95 1521 690
76 882 400 96 1565 710
77 908 412 97 1609 730
78 937 425 98 1653 750
79 963 437 99 1709 775
80 992 450 100 1764 800
81 1019 462 101 1819 825
82 1047 475 102 1874 850
83 1074 487 103 1929 875
84 1102 500 104 1984 900
85 1135 515 105 2039 925
86 1168 530 106 2094 950
87 1201 545 107 2149 975
88 1235 560 108 2205 1000
89 1279 580 109 2271 1030
90 1323 600 110 2337 1060

Effects of Over Inflation

 Increased likelihood of impact damage.
 Weakens the tire body.
 Rougher ride.
 Causes greater tread wear along the tire’s centerline.
Effects of Under Inflation
 Reduces gas mileage.
 Causes excessive tire flexing resulting in tire failure through the:
o Deterioration of tire body plys and rubber.
o Increased heat.
o Causes rapid tire wear along both edges.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 24

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Figure 2.5: Effects of Tire Inflation

Wheel:
A circular object that revolves on an axle and is fixed below a vehicle or other object to enable it to move easily
over the ground. Most standard wheels are made of steel.
Functions
 A drive wheel is a wheel of a motor vehicle that transmits force, transforming torque into tractive force from the
tires to the road, causing the vehicle to move.
 The powertrain delivers enough torque to the wheel to overcome stationary forces, resulting in the vehicle
moving forwards or backwards.
Requirements of a wheel
 Wheel must bear the full load acting on the vehicle.
 It must make the vehicle weight easy to move and steer easy.
 It must to help to move the vehicle without the engine.
 It must withstand vibrations of the road.
 It must withstand the braking force when the brake is applied.

Figure 2.6: Cut section of a Wheel

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 25
Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Types Of Wheels Explained: Alloy, Steel and Chrome

Figure 2.7: Wheels

The picture above says it all. There is so much variety when it comes to wheels that it's easy to get confused. The
fact remains that your wheels can really make our car stand out and unless you have proper knowledge, you will
not be able to make the right choices.

STEEL WHEELS

Figure 2.8: Steel Wheels or Disc Wheels

Steel wheels as the name suggests are made from an alloy of iron and carbon i.e. steel. Steel wheels are cheap,
simplistic and are usually found on budget cars. Steel wheels are the heaviest of the lot and lack a lot of advantages
that their alloy counterparts offer. So, if you're looking for a set of wheels that simply work and are light on your
wallet, then they're your best option. However, as is the case with anything that is cheap, they also come with
certain drawbacks.
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 26
Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

Steel wheels are heavy. Steel, for how strong it is, is not a light metal, and having to lug them around will put a toll
on your car's handling, fuel economy, and speed. Additionally, steel rims don't dissipate heat all too well, and can
potentially injure your brakes.

ALLOY WHEELS

Figure 2.9: Alloy Wheels or Cast Wheels

Alloy wheels or alloys as they are called are wheels that are made from alloys of aluminium and magnesium. Steel
wheels are technically alloys too but are not included in this category. Alloy wheels of aluminium or magnesium
generally have the following advantages over steel wheels:

1. They generally provide greater strength over pure metals, which are usually much softer and more ductile.
2. Alloys of aluminium or magnesium are typically lighter for the same strength,
3. Provide better heat conduction, and often produce improved cosmetic appearance over steel wheels.

Although steel, the most common material used in wheel production, is an alloy of iron and carbon, the term "alloy
wheel" is usually reserved for wheels made from nonferrous alloys.

Alloy wheels were initially made of magnesium alloys. These became quite the trend but suffered from problems in
ductility. More experimentation led to the discovery of aluminium alloy wheels and casting refinements in the 1960s
made them very advanced. Till the 1960s, most aluminium wheels suffered from low ductility, usually ranging from
2-3% elongation.

Once these aluminium casting improvements were more widely adopted, the aluminium wheel displaced the
magnesium wheels as the go-to, low cost, high-performance wheels for motorsports.

Compared to their steel counterparts, alloy wheels are lighter. Aluminium, the base of many of these alloys, is a
considerably lighter metal, and the additional metals that it is alloyed with, like nickel, titanium, or magnesium to

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 27

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

name a few, are added to strengthen it. Besides their lighter weight, alloy wheels also transfer heat more efficiently
than steel rims do. This means they can take a heavier braking load without warping or damaging the brakes.

While they are tougher than steel wheels, they are still not impervious. Part of the issue here is that when confronted
with a force strong enough to damage the wheel, alloy wheels are more liable to crack or fracture. Steel, on the
other hand, is more likely to simply bend, allowing for easier repairs.

CHROME WHEELS

Figure 2.10: Chrome Wheels

Chrome wheels are not really made of chrome. They are simply alloy wheels or steel wheels that are coated with
chrome. The coating gives absolutely no performance benefits to the wheel and is only an aesthetic enhancement.
The one advantage the coating does offer though is the better protection against oxidation.

FORGED VS CAST WHEELS

Forging and casting are basically two types of wheel manufacturing methods. You are more likely to come across
these terms while purchasing alloy wheels. Forged wheels are made from hot pieces of metal that are milled into
the final shape of the wheel. The other form of wheel production is casting, which is how most people assume
wheels are made. Cast wheels are made from liquid metal being poured, or in some cases forced, into a mould.
Compared to forged wheels, cast wheels are significantly easier to make which makes them cheaper in comparison.
Cast wheels are also significantly weaker and heavier than forged wheels.

WIRED WHEELS

Oldest in design but remained in use largely because of light weight and strong construction but costly.
Unlike the disc wheel the wire wheel has a separate hub which attached to the rim through a number of wire spokes.
Each spoke is individually hooked at one end of the hub while other end is pushed through a hole in the rim, where
a tapered nut is screwed down pulling the spoke tight.
If a spoke is two loose or too tight, the rim would distort.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 28

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

The spokes carry the weight, transmit the driving and braking torques and withstand the side forces while cornering,
in tension.

WHEEL OFFSET
Put simply, alloy wheel offset is one of the measurements that makes up its wheel fitment. Along with PCD, and
diameter and width, offset is one of the core measurements you'll need to make sure a wheel will fit onto your car
of choice.

HOW DO YOU MEASURE WHEEL OFFSET?

Technically speaking, offset is the distance in millimetres from the centre line of the wheel to the wheel’s mounting
face. Given that the mounting face can be either in front of or behind the centreline, the offset can be
either neutral, positive or negative. See the image below for a visual representation:

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 29

Motor Vehicle Engineering Chapter 2 – Pneumatic Tires & Wheels

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE IN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE OFFSET?

 Essentially, zero or neutral offset is when the wheel’s mounting face is exactly in line with the centre line of the
wheel. This means that they both line up and that there is no difference between the wheel itself and the wheel
arches – zero offset wheels are often referred to as wheels with ET0.

 Positive offset is when the mounting face is in front of the centre line of the wheel. Looking at the wheel straight-on
from the front, wheels with positive offsets tend to have a flat style or very occasionally a small dish or a slightly
concave shape.
 Finally, wheels with negative offset have the mounting face located behind the centre line of the wheel. This means
that the mounting face of the wheel sits much further into it. Viewed from the front, these wheels often sport very
aggressive fits with lots of concave or extreme dishes.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering 30