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X-RAY REPAIR
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Joseph J. Panichello earned his B.S. degree in Biology from Pfeiffer

University, an A.A.S. degree in Biomedical Equipment Technology
from Stanly Technical College, and is AAMI certified. He has worked
for over 30 years in x-ray servicing, both as an in-house BMET and as
an x-ray field service engineer. He lives in Medford, New Jersey with
his wife and daughter.
 Third Edition

X-RAY REPAIR
A Comprehensive Guide to the Installation
and Servicing of Radiographic Equipment

By

JOSEPH J. PANICHELLO, CBET

 Published and Distributed Throughout the World by

CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER, LTD.

2600 South First Street
Springfield, Illinois 62704

This book is protected by copyright. No part of

it may be reproduced in any manner without written
permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

© 2017 by CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER, LTD.

ISBN 978-0-398-09191-0 (paper)

ISBN 978-0-398-09192-7 (ebook)

First Edition, 1998

Second Edition, 2005
Third Edition, 2017

With THOMAS BOOKS careful attention is given to all details of manufacturing

and design. It is the Publisher’s desire to present books that are satisfactory as to their
physical qualities and artistic possibilities and appropriate for their particular use.
THOMAS BOOKS will be true to those laws of quality that assure a good name
and good will.

Printed in the United States of America

MM-C-1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Panichello, Joseph J., author.

Title: X-ray repair : a comprehensive guide to the installation and servicing
of radiographic equipment / by Joseph J. Panichello.
Description: Third edition. | Springfield, Illinois : Charles C Thomas,
Publisher, LTD., [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017025431 (print) | LCCN 2017027025 (ebook) | ISBN
9780398091927 (ebook) | ISBN 9780398091910 (paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Radiography--instrumentation | Equipment Safety
Classification: LCC RC78.5 (ebook) | LCC RC78.5 (print) | NLM WN 150 |
DDC 681/.761--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017025431
For Emily
 PREFACE

t has been 20 years since the publication of the first edition of X-ray
I Repair. In that time, the field of Radiology has advanced in ways
that would have been difficult to predict. The most notable change
relates to the way images are recorded and stored. Film and film pro-
cessing, which had been used in this field since the very beginning, are
becoming a thing of the past. Since the second edition of X-ray Repair
(2005), radiography has progressed from using x-ray film as the pri-
mary means of recording images, to using computed radiography
(CR), and, finally, to digital radiography (DR). Within a few years of
this writing, x-ray film and CR technology will no longer be used for
medical imaging. Sadly, new students of radiographic technology will
never know the art of x-ray filming. This third edition of X-ray Repair
will focus on the transition to digital technology.
Fortunately for those who install and repair x-ray equipment—the
x-ray service engineers—the basics of x-ray production still apply to the
field of radiography. The x-ray generator, tube support, radiographic
table, and wall stand are still needed to obtain an x-ray image. With
digital imaging, most of the changes apply to image capture and post-
processing.
Another change to healthcare, in general, relates to an aging pop-
ulation, which has changed the way we test, diagnose, and treat pa-
tients. Rather than traveling to the hospital, patients can travel shorter
distances to smaller satellite medical facilities for their examinations.
They can also go to urgent care centers located within their commu-
nities. This trend has led to a demand for compact, yet high-powered,
x-ray units to perform the exams in these smaller facilities. But there
are many older patients, or patients with disabilities, who cannot trav-
el outside the home for their examinations. These “non-ambulatory”
patients must be examined in their private residences, or at nursing

vii
viii X-ray Repair

homes and retirement facilities. In response, mobile x-ray has become

a growing industry. Mobile x-ray machines are light and compact.
When paired with a digital receptor, these units produce high-quality
images for many of the exams commonly performed in hospitals and
clinics. The images acquired in the home are transmitted instantly to
secured servers where they can be accessed by radiologist for inter-
pretation and diagnosis. This lighting speed technology is the way of
the future. For this edition, I have expanded the chapter on mobile x-
ray units to include the latest trends in mobile x-ray services.
A goal of X-ray Repair has always been to prepare the student who
wishes to enter the x-ray servicing profession. This new edition has
been completely rewritten and updated to focus on equipment current-
ly in use, and to address the latest in digital imaging. With new illus-
trations and a revised chapter order, the book is more approachable to
students. Discussions on film and film processing remain because it is
important to understand the challenges that faced medical imaging in
those early days, and to understand how digital technology developed.
I have included calibration procedures as well as troubleshooting
guidelines for digital equipment. With 33-plus years servicing x-ray
equipment, I have witnessed many types of equipment failures. In-
cluded are some troubleshooting tips to help service engineers quick-
ly narrow down the cause of an x-ray failure. Also, working directly in
the mobile x-ray industry has allowed me to provide valuable insight
into troubleshooting and repairing those “portable” units.
I hope this new edition will be of great help to students as well all
the biomeds and service engineers currently working in the field. The
goal of writing X-ray Repair has always been to shed light on this high-
ly technical field.

JOE PANICHELLO
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

would like to thank Michael Payne Thomas and Charles C Thomas

I Publisher, LTD for publishing this book on x-ray servicing. It has
been a pleasure working with Mr. Thomas over the past 20 years. I am
grateful for the opportunity to write this third edition.
I would like to thank my wife, Caroline, for her patience and un-
derstanding while I was working on this edition—mostly on nights and
weekends. This edition is dedicated to my daughter, Emily, who is
graduating from college this year and will now embark on her own
professional career.

ix
 THE LAWS OF X-RAY SERVICE

his book is intended to be used as a reference manual for field ser-

T vice engineers and in-house biomedical engineers when servicing
radiographic equipment. It is also written to prepare the student of x-
ray servicing for all the specific duties involved for the safe and prop-
er maintenance of radiographic equipment. The goal is to provide
standard servicing practices.
To be successful in this career, the engineer should always adhere
to the “laws” listed below when servicing radiographic equipment.

THE LAWS

I. When radiographic equipment is installed properly, it will per-

form optimally and more reliably. When a failure does occur, it is
more easily repaired.
II. If PMs are performed properly and at regular intervals, equip-
ment failure rate will be reduced and the equipment will operate
well beyond its predicted life expectancy.
III. When servicing equipment, if a problem is correctly diagnosed,
properly repaired, and thoroughly tested after the repair, there
will be no service recall.

xi
 CONTENTS

Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
The Laws of X-ray Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi

Chapter
I. THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

II. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF X-RAY PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 9

III. THE X-RAY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The X-ray Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
kVp Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
MA Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Time Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Other X-ray Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The High Voltage Transformer Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The High Voltage Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

IV. THE GENERAL RADIOGRAPHIC ROOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

The Tube Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Image Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
The Radiographic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Shutter Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

V. IMAGE QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
History: X-ray Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Image Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
xiii
xiv X-ray Repair

Beam Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Measurement of Beam Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Factors that Influence Image Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The X-ray Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
The X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
The Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
SID and OID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
The Radiographic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Image Receptor Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Grid Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The Reciprocating Bucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Image Receptor (IR) Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
X-ray Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Film Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Digital Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Viewing the Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Image Quality: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

VI. SAFETY IN X-RAY SERVICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Mechanical Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Electrical Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Radiation Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The Nature of the Primary Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
How X-rays Interact with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Radiation Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Radiation Measurement Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Radiation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Radiation Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Biohazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

VII. THE INSTALLATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT . 99

Site Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Room Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Prestaging Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Uncrating Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Equipment Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
 Contents xv

X-ray Generator Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Line Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
X-ray Tube Protection Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Power-up Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
X-ray Tube Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Equipment Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Equipment Alignment and Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Mounting the X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Installing the Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Supplying Power to Each Unit in the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Types of Equipment Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Running Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Procedure for Pulling Cables with a Wire Fish Tape . . . . . . . . . 114
External Cable Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Cable Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Counterbalancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
X-ray Beam Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Overhead Tubecrane/Wall Receptor Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Floor-to-Ceiling Tubestand/Wall Receptor Alignment . . . . . . . 118
Mounting the Wall Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Wall Receptor Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Aligning and Mounting the Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Table Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Calibration and Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Starter Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Conditioning an X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Tube Warm-up Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Calibration Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Invasive vs. Noninvasive Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Invasive Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
What Is Being Calibrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
X-ray Tube Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
High-Frequency Generator Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Collimator Adjustment and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Light Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Light to X-ray Field Congruence Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Cross-Hair Window Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Collimator Centering Light Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
SID Indicator Set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
xvi X-ray Repair

Verifying the SID Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Field Size Indication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
To Check Field Size Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Digital Panel Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
X-ray Tube Focal Spot Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Automatic Exposure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
The Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
AEC Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
AEC Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Final Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Installation/PM Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
User Inservicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Follow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

VIII. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
PM Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Mechanical Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
High Voltage Cable Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Calibration and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Installation/PM Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

IX. X-RAY REPAIR: TROUBLESHOOTING AND REPAIRING

RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Proper Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
When to Call for Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
General Troubleshooting Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Gathering Information on the Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Observing the Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Finding the Highly Intermittent Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Isolating the Cause of the Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
System Interlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Exposure Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Verifying the Cause of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Performing Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Field Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Equipment Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
 Contents xvii

Troubleshooting Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Common Equipment Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Failures with X-ray Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Failures with the High Voltage Transformer Unit . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Failures with the X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Failures with the High Voltage Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Failures with the Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Failures with the Image Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Other Common Equipment Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

X. THE MOBILE X-RAY UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Mobile X-ray Unit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
The Line-Powered Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
The Capacitor Discharge Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
The Battery-Powered Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
The High-Frequency Mobile X-ray Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Failures with Mobile X-ray Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

XI. TOMOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Principles of Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Tomographic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Tomographic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The X-ray Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Failures with Tomographic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

XII. MAMMOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Breast Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Mammographic Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
The Mammography Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
The Gantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
The X-ray Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
The C-Arm Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
The X-ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
xviii X-ray Repair

The Filter Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

The Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
The Compression Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
The Image Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
The X-ray Control/Work Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Viewing Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Installation of Mammography Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Quality Assurance in Mammography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Preventive Maintenance and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Failures with Mammography Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

XIII. ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING GOOD

CUSTOMER RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Additional Suggestions for Improving Customer Relations . . . . . 248

EPILOGUE: BECOMING A SENIOR ENGINEER . . . . . . . . . . . . .250

The Learning Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Understanding X-ray Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Learning Equipment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Learning Equipment Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Servicing New Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
The Good Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Record Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
The Extra Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Appendices
A. HVL Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
B. Sample X-ray Tube Rating Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C. Horn Angle Designation for X-ray Tube Housings . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
D. X-ray Field Coverage for Different Target Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
E. Common X-ray Tube Stator Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
F. Tools and Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
G. Tomographic Angle Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
 Contents xix

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
 FIGURES

Page
1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2. The X-Ray Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. A Typical X-Ray System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Single-Phase Generator and Output Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5. Three-Phase Generator (12 pulse) and Output Waveform . . . . . . . . 17
6. Constant Potential Generator Block Diagram and
Output Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7. High Frequency Generator Block Diagram and
Output Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8. Filament Control Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9. Falling Load Generator MA Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
10. Self-Commutation vs. Forced Commutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11. The Exposure Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12. Split-Phase Stator Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
13. The Heel Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
14. High Voltage Cable with Federal Connector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
15. The Overhead Tubecrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
16. The Tubestand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
17. The Integrated Tubestand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
18. The Image Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
19. The Radiographic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
20. The Collimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
21. The Lamp Timer Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
22. Factors That Influence Image Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
23. The Effects of Focal Spot Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
24. The Effects of SID and OID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
25. Types of X-ray Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
26. How the X-ray Grid Removes Scatter Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
27. The Film Cassette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
xxi
xxii X-ray Repair

28. The Automatic Film Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

29. The Tubestand Counterbalancing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
30. The Tubecrane Counterpoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
31. Collimator Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
32. Connecting a High Voltage Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
33. Typical Transformer Characteristic Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
34. High Frequency Generator Square Wave Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . 137
35. Lead Test Star Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
36. Photomultiplier Tube (PMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
37. Application of Vapor Proofing Compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
38. Block Diagram of Typical X-Ray Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
39. An Early Vintage Mobile X-ray Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
40. Capacitor Discharge Unit Output Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
41. The Battery Powered Mobile X-ray Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
42. A Lightweight High Frequency Mobile X-ray Unit . . . . . . . . . . . 209
43. The High Frequency Mobile Tubehead Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
44. The Tomographic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
45. The Mammographic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
46. HVL Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
47. Sample X-Ray Tube Rating Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
48. Horn Angle Designation for X-Ray Tube Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
49. X-ray Field Coverage for Various Target Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
50. Common X-Ray Tube Stator Winding Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . 267
X-RAY REPAIR
 Chapter I

THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAYS

he use of x-rays is so prevalent today that it is difficult to imagine

T how many industries, especially the medical profession, could func-
tion without their daily use. Indeed, most people have had some con-
tact with x-rays in their lifetime and are aware of their importance. Doc-
tors, structural engineers, research scientists, and airline security agents
all use x-rays routinely in their respective careers. Hardly anyone would
argue that the discovery of x-rays was one of the most important dis-
coveries of our time. Mankind has certainly benefited from their use.
Because of their widespread use, it is difficult to imagine that x-rays
were discovered a little over a century ago. And though there have
been many advancements in radiographic equipment design since that
time, most of the devices used today in general radiography very
closely resemble those early units. The service engineer can gain a
much better understanding of general x-ray theory by learning just
how x-rays were first discovered and by following the development of
the x-ray tube and radiographic system.
The discovery of x-rays, like many other important discoveries,
occurred accidentally while scientists were experimenting with glass
vacuum tubes. These vacuum tubes were made of thin-walled glass
that contained two metal electrodes. They were partially evacuated by
a mercury pump and then filled with a specific gas to create a visual
effect. When a high-tension discharge from an induction coil was ap-
plied to the vacuum tube, beautifully-colored streams of light were pro-
duced between the two electrodes of the tube. These streams of light
mostly were a source of fascination and curiosity for the scientists at
that time. After further experimentation with improved vacuum tubes,
scientists began to learn more about the streams of light. They deter-
3
4 X-ray Repair

mined that the stream of light originated at the negative “cathode” elec-
trode within the tube and flowed to the positive “anode” electrode. In
addition, as the tube’s vacuum level was increased, the streams would
likewise change in color and character, until they finally became invis-
ible.
These “rays” were labeled cathode rays by William Crookes in
1878, who was the first to observe their directional properties while ex-
perimenting with vacuum tubes.1
During his experiments performed in the dark, Crookes noticed
that the cathode rays appeared outside of the glass tube as a bluish
glow. He later modified the glass tubes by placing an aluminum win-
dow in the tube so that the cathode rays could pass through more eas-
ily. These modified tubes then became known as Crookes Tubes and
were commonly used for experimentation.
The cathode rays could easily pass through the aluminum window
of the tube and would produce luminescent effects on phosphor mate-
rials. They would also affect photographic plates. These rays, howev-
er, were of very low energy and, consequently, would be absorbed in
only a few centimeters of air. Unfortunately, Crookes had not realized
that what he was actually observing were low energy x-rays.
Seventeen years later, scientists were still experimenting with the
Crookes Tubes. Philip Lenard demonstrated that the cathode rays
scattered in all directions at the point where they exited the aluminum
window. He also made shadow pictures, termed “sciagraphs” on pho-
tographic plates. After performing many experiments, he concluded
that there was another unidentified component to the cathode rays.
The person credited with the discovery of “x-rays” was a German
physicist by the name of Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Roentgen was
born in Lennep, Germany, in 1845. By the age of 24, he had already
published many scientific papers on the properties of gasses. During
his career as professor and scientist, he published more than 40 papers
on scientific phenomena and was highly respected by his fellow sci-
entists.
It wasn’t until June of 1894, at age 49, however, that Roentgen be-
gan to experiment with vacuum tubes. Roentgen began his own exper-
iments with the Crookes Tubes and made several important observa-

1. The cathode ray phenomenon was commonly used in early video monitors which used a CRT
(cathode ray tube).
 The Discovery of X-rays 5

tions. He noticed that he obtained better results when the tubes were
highly evacuated, and he would often spend days evacuating a tube
for his experiments. Also, he felt that if more current was applied to
the tubes, cathode ray production would increase. Incidentally, he
damaged many tubes during his experiments and thus began using
heavier walled tubes.
While experimenting with the modified tubes in the fall of 1894,
he noticed a faint glow appearing in the room that precisely coincid-
ed with the discharge of the Crookes Tube. To be certain that the light
was not coming from the tube or from the induction coil, he com-
pletely covered the Crookes Tube with cardboard so that no light could
escape. He also covered the induction coil completely to eliminate any
light caused by arcing within the machine. To his amazement, the glow
still appeared in the darkened room.
The source of the glow turned out to be a screen made of a photo-
graphic material (barium platinocyanide) that was located several feet
away from the tube. Some heretofore unknown invisible energy was
being emitted from the vacuum tube and was traveling across the
room, exciting the photographic screen. This was a highly significant
observation since cathode rays had never been known to travel more
than a few inches from the tube.
Roentgen experimented with the “new kind of ray” for nearly a
year before he published his findings. On November 8 of 1895, at age
50, he presented his paper “The First Communication,” announcing
his discovery.2
He called the mysterious rays “x-rays,” using the letter “x” (the
mathematics symbol) to represent the “unknown” energy. Along with
his paper he included several fascinating photographs that he had ob-
tained by using the x-rays. These x-ray photographs included a metal
compass, a box containing scientific weights, a double-barreled shot-
gun, and various types of metals.
Of all the published photographs, however, the one that immedi-
ately caught the attention of the media and of the public was the x-ray
photograph of the hand of Bertha Roentgen, his wife. This famous
photograph, showing all the bones in her hand including the two rings
on her finger, was to change the course of medicine forever.

2. Coincidentally, I was writing the first edition of this book on November 8, 1995, marking the 100-
year anniversary of this great discovery.
6 X-ray Repair

In fact, Roentgen’s x-rays proved to be the fastest spreading dis-

covery of all time. Within months of the discovery, x-rays were com-
monly being used by physicians to diagnose bone fractures and to
locate bullets in wounds from gunshots. X-rays were used so success-
fully that many overenthusiastic scientists predicted that the use of x-
rays would eliminate the need for vivisection completely. In May of
1896, the first journals completely dedicated to x-ray photographs
appeared in the United States. By January of 1897, many hospitals had
x-ray departments.
In Germany, the first x-ray machines were being manufactured as
early as February of 1896. These early machines required long expo-
sure times—4 to 20 minutes, depending on the area being radiated—
and, consequently, needed to be improved. It was then discovered
that if a fluorescent screen was placed on both sides of the radi-
ographic film, the exposure time would be reduced significantly. This
finding led to the widespread use of intensifying screens in film cas-
settes.
Because of the great demand for x-ray equipment, manufacturing
companies all over the world began to produce x-ray machines. Roent-
gen never applied for a patent on his x-ray apparatus because he felt
his discovery was for the public benefit and not for his own profit. As
a result, a complete x-ray system could be purchased for less than
$150. A portable x-ray machine, complete with a coil, condenser, two
sets of tubes, a battery, and a handsome carrying case could be pur-
chased for the price of about $15. X-ray tubes could be purchased for
less than $4 a piece.
The public’s fascination with x-rays and their effects was immense.
Everyone wanted to see, for themselves, the effects that x-rays pro-
duced and wanted to view their own bones. At the Electrical Exhibit
in New York in May of 1896, Thomas Edison showed the world the
first fluoroscope. With the fluoroscope, the internal structures of the
body could be viewed directly on a fluorescent screen in real time,
eliminating the usual wait involved for photographic plates to be de-
veloped. A person would simply place their hand directly in the x-ray
beam and watch the bones of their fingers moving around, which was
very exciting (and fun) to see. The immense popularity of the fluoro-
scope contributed to the widespread public use of x-rays.
Roentgen disapproved of this superficial use of his invention
because he knew the effects of x-ray radiation had not yet been fully
 The Discovery of X-rays 7

investigated. In fact, whenever he worked with x-rays, he would shield

himself with a lead barrier from direct exposure to the rays as a pre-
caution. Sure enough, soon after his discovery, news began to surface
of injuries that were related to x-ray radiation. Among the reported
injuries were burns, hair loss, and the swelling of radiated tissue. Most
injuries occurred to doctors and demonstrators of the x-ray equipment.
Clarence Madison Dally, a glassblower and Edison’s longtime
assistant, regularly demonstrated the fluoroscope to the public. He
later died from burns contracted from the continuous exposure to x-
rays, becoming the first fatality resulting from radiation exposure. As
of October, 1959, 359 deaths were attributed to excessive radiation ex-
posure.
The early scientists who investigated x-rays were aware that tissue
was affected, or changed, by radiation and warned the public of the
potential hazards to tissue. This secondary characteristic of radiation,
that it could destroy tissue, eventually led scientists to explore the field
of Radiation Therapy.
X-ray machines were commonly used during wartime, significant-
ly reducing the number of deaths due to battle injuries. In addition,
many improvements in x-ray techniques were made because of the
findings of the military. Surgeons noticed that the closer the x-ray tube
was to the patient, the more the patient was likely to suffer radiation
burns. Because of this finding, a minimum distance of 10 inches of sep-
aration (between the x-ray tube and the patient) was established. Also,
a maximum exposure time of 30 minutes was established for all pa-
tients.
Many significant changes in x-ray tube design were subsequently
made. Roentgen designed the first focused x-ray tube in February of
1896. Thomas Edison found that better penetrating x-rays could be
produced when cooling the x-ray tube by immersing it in oil. Also,
higher voltages could be used while the tubes where immersed in oil.
Many of the inventions of scientist Nikola Tesla, including his high
voltage induction coils, helped to produce better quality x-rays.
By the early 1900s, x-ray tubes began to resemble present day
tubes. In 1913, W. D. Coolidge of General Electric Company devel-
oped the hot cathode tube (thermionic tube) to allow for control of the
amount of tube current (or mA). Coolidge also used tungsten in the
construction of the target to provide greater tube stability. Ludwig
8 X-ray Repair

Zehnder, who was Roentgen’s assistant for many years, invented a

metal-shielded x-ray tube to protect doctors and technicians from stray
radiation. The Phillips Company of the Netherlands eventually im-
proved on this design and developed the “Metalix-Tube” which used
a metal housing to surround the glass vacuum tube.
On December 10, 1901, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen received the
Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with x-ray radiation. He spent the
rest of his life exploring physical properties of matter and continued
scientific experimentation with crystals even after his retirement in
October of 1919, at age 75. He died on February 10, 1923.
The period from around 1910 to 1950 was considered the “golden
age of radiology.” During this time, x-ray tubes and all other x-ray
devices advanced in design to their present-day status. Major advance-
ments included: (1) the hot cathode tube (1913) for controlling tube
current; (2) the first shockproof portable x-ray unit (1919), which em-
ployed the first shockproof high voltage cables; (3) the vibrating Bucky
(1923), which greatly reduced scatter radiation; (4) the high voltage
rectifying switch (1910), which applied both alternations of the AC line
to the x-ray tube, effectively doubling the radiation output; (5) oil
immersed, rotating anode tube (1939), which greatly increased the out-
put of the x-ray tube; (6) the tilting table (1943), which allowed radiol-
ogists to obtain the different anatomical views required for proper
diagnosis; and (7) intensifying screens (1912), which reduced the
required exposure time significantly with the results of longer x-ray
tube life and reduced patient dose. Many of the items listed above can
still be found in today’s radiographic rooms without significant change
to the original design.
The general radiographic room has been around for over 100 years
and will continue to be the dominant mode for diagnostic imaging
well into the future. Although advances in other medical imaging
modalities (i.e., CT or MRI) have provided physicians with alternative
methods to view the internal structures of the human body, general
radiography studies remain the primary diagnostic tool.
 Chapter II

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
X-RAY PRODUCTION

n writing this book, the author assumes that the reader has a basic
I knowledge of x-ray theory. The objective here is to give a brief over-
view of x-ray production to ensure that there is a common starting
point before discussing the servicing of x-ray equipment. If a more de-
tailed discussion of x-ray theory is required, there are many resources
available in books and online that deal specifically with the subject.
In a vacuum tube, if electrons are accelerated by a force and made
to collide with a stationary object, energy will be released. The energy
released is a result of the sudden deceleration of the electrons caused
by the impact with the object. If the force applied to the tube is great
enough to accelerate the electrons to a sufficiently high speed, and the
object is made of the proper material, the energy released from the
collision will be in the form of heat energy, but with a very small
amount of high frequency electromagnetic radiation. The frequency of
this radiation is much higher than visible light (1018 hertz) and is called
x-ray radiation (Figure 1).
Here we have one of the most important concepts of x-ray pro-
duction; a fact that should be permanently ingrained in the service
engineer’s memory. Specifically, during x-ray production, 99 percent
of the energy released is given off as heat and 1 percent is in the form
of useful radiation. This fact helps explain why x-ray tubes fail and will
be discussed in detail later in the troubleshooting section of this book.
X-rays are produced in a thermionic vacuum tube called an x-ray
tube. Thermionic x-ray tubes consist of a negative electrode (or cath-
ode), and a positive electrode (or anode), enclosed in a glass envelope

9
10 X-ray Repair

Figure 1. The electromagnetic spectrum.

(Figure 2). The glass envelope is surrounded by insulating oil and com-
pletely encased in a lead lined metal housing which contains a port or
window through which the x-ray radiation exits.
As shown in Figure 2, the cathode consists of a thin wire called a
filament. This filament is like the filament found in an incandescent
light bulb but is surrounded by a focusing cup which concentrates, or
focuses, the electron beam. The filament, when heated, will liberate
free electrons that will eventually collide with the anode. Liberating
electrons by using heat in the manner described above is referred to
 The Fundamentals of X-ray Production 11

Figure 2. The x-ray tube. The x-ray tube glass envelope is surrounded by insulating oil
within the tube housing.

as thermionic emission. The amount of filament heating dictates the

number of electrons that will be liberated, and consequently, the
amount of x-ray tube current (or mA). Controlling the heating of the
filament is referred to as filament control.
The anode or positive electrode contains the target, which is made
of a special material (e.g., tungsten) that has a high melting point and
a high atomic number. High atomic numbers are used to ensure that
the x-ray beam will contain photons of a high-energy level. When the
electrons collide with the target, x-rays are emitted in all directions
12 X-ray Repair

from the target. To ensure that radiation will only exit through the port
of the tube, the metal housing of the x-ray tube is completely lined
with lead.
The force that causes the electrons to travel at a high rate of speed
is a high voltage potential that is applied across the anode and cathode
of the x-ray tube. The amount of high voltage not only affects the
quantity of radiation but also affects the quality or penetrating ability
of the x-rays (see Chapter V). Regulating the high voltage is called
kVp control.
In short, to produce x-rays in a thermionic tube, there must be: (1)
a filament voltage supply applied to the filament wires of the tube; and
(2) a high voltage potential applied across the x-ray tube. If either of
these supplies is missing, x-rays cannot be produced.
 Chapter III

THE X-RAY SYSTEM

typical x-ray system consists of an x-ray control, a high voltage

A transformer unit, and an x-ray tube (Figure 3). The x-ray tube and
high voltage transformer unit found in most general radiographic
rooms are connected by special high voltage cables. In some designs,
especially in mobile x-ray units, the high voltage transformer unit and
x-ray control are combined as one unit and together are referred to as
the x-ray generator (see Figure 43). In this case there are no high volt-
age cables required.

THE X-RAY CONTROL

Three factors control the quality and quantity of x-rays produced.

They are: kVp (or kV), mA, and time. These three factors are regulat-
ed in the X-ray Control. KVp refers to the amount of high voltage, or
peak kilovoltage, applied to the x-ray tube. MA is the amount of cur-
rent, or milliamps, that is passing through the tube. Time refers to the
exposure time, which is the period that the x-ray tube is energized and
emitting x-ray radiation. Each of these three factors has an important
effect on image quality, which will be discussed in detail later in this
book (Chapter V). For now, our discussion will concentrate on the
most common types of x-ray generators.
There are four basic types of generators: single-phase, three-phase,
constant potential, and high frequency. Each generator type creates
and regulates the kVp by different means. Consequently, each gener-
ator type produces a distinct kVp waveform which can be viewed on
an oscilloscope.
13
14 X-ray Repair

Figure 3. A typical x-ray system.

kVp Control

The Single-Phase Generator

The single-phase generator was the first type of x-ray generator
manufactured and is the most basic in design. Although they are still
commonly used today, they remain the least efficient generator in pro-
ducing radiation and expose the patient to significantly more radiation
per exposure than the other types of generators. However, because
they require only a single-phase power line, are physically smaller in
size, and are the most affordable of all generators, many customers, es-
pecially in smaller outpatient facilities, consider this type of generator
the generator of choice. Furthermore, because of the simple design
with fewer components, single phase generators are easy to service.
However, with the many advantages offered by high frequency gen-
erators, the single-phase generator will soon be replaced by the more
efficient high frequency generators discussed later in this chapter. Still,
it is important to understand the theory of how single-phase units
operate.
 The X-ray System 15

Figure 4. Single-phase generator and output waveform. Single-phase generators produce

an output waveform with 100 percent ripple.

In this design, a primary voltage corresponding to the selected

kVp is outputted from the autotransformer and applied to the prima-
ry coil winding of the high voltage transformer (Figure 4). The prima-
ry voltage is then stepped up (or increased) through the secondary of
the transformer to the desired high voltage, which is rectified (i.e., con-
verted to DC), and then applied to the x-ray tube.
From the diagram we see that a single-phase generator is easily
identified by its characteristic, 100 percent ripple, DC waveform.
Since useful radiation is produced only during the peak portion of the
waveform (approximately 30% of each pulse), this type of generator is
not very efficient at x-ray production.
16 X-ray Repair

The Three-Phase Generator

Three-phase generators are a great improvement over single-phase
generators in that they can deliver more power, are more efficient at
producing x-ray radiation, and provide more accurate time control.
Three-phase generators require three different line phases for input
power, each phase being 120° out of phase with the other two. Instead
of a single autotransformer, these generators have three separate, usu-
ally motor driven, autotransformers—one for each phase. The voltage
that is derived from the autotransformers is applied to the primary of
a special three-phase, high voltage transformer.
There are two types of three-phase, high voltage transformers used
in these x-ray generators. The type of transformer, and its correspond-
ing output waveform, depends on the type of secondary winding con-
figuration employed (Figure 5). In the first type of transformer, the sec-
ondary could be configured with two separate Delta winding, or two
separate Wye (or Star) windings. The second type combines both types
of windings in the secondary in a “Delta-Wye” configuration. If the
same winding configuration is used in the secondary, it is termed a six-
pulse generator. A Delta-Wye winding configuration designates a
twelve-pulse generator.
A six-pulse generator produces a DC output waveform that has
13.5 percent ripple. This is a significant improvement over single-
phase generators. A twelve-pulse generator, however, produces an
output waveform with only 3.4 percent ripple. By examining the kVp
waveforms, it becomes evident that a twelve-pulse system is more de-
sirable because of its near “constant potential” DC waveform.
Three-phase generators provide many advantages over single-
phase units. The increased output efficiency of these generators allows
for much shorter exposure times, as compared to a single-phase gen-
erator using the same kVp setting. In addition, because of the larger
input line voltages used (i.e., 480 VAC), much higher exposure tech-
niques can be used with three-phase systems. Also, the exposure time
is more accurately controlled in three-phase generators, a requirement
for serial radiography and phototiming techniques. For these reasons,
three-phase generators are frequently used for angiographic and spot
filming applications.
 The X-ray System 17

Figure 5. Three-phase generator (12 pulse) and output waveform. These generators pro-
duce an output waveform with only 3.4 percent ripple.

The Constant Potential Generator

A special version of a three-phase generator is called a constant
potential generator. Here, additional switching circuitry is employed
in the high voltage secondary circuit to achieve the accurate exposure
time control required for high-speed filming applications. Because this
type of generator utilizes a high voltage switch, the exposure times are
more precisely controlled and, in addition, the resulting kVp wave-
form is a ripple free DC square wave (Figure 6). With a true square
wave output, the kVp remains constant for the duration of the expo-
sure, hence the name “Constant Potential.” Constant potential gener-
ators were generally the most expensive generators available and were
most often used in Cath Lab and Special Procedure applications.
One way the fast switching of the high voltage is accomplished is
by using tetrodes in the high voltage secondary. The tetrodes, located
in a separate “tetrode tank,” are wired in series with the x-ray tube. An
external exposure signal, sent from an imaging device such as a cine
18 X-ray Repair

Figure 6. Constant potential generator block diagram and output waveform. Constant
potential generators produce an output without ripple.

camera, or from a handswitch in radiographic mode, turns the tetrodes

on and off which, in turn, allows the x-ray tube to conduct.
Another way to accomplish fast switching is by using a grid-con-
trolled x-ray tube. With a standard x-ray tube, the grid (focusing cup)
of the tube is normally shorted to the common reference point. With
a grid-controlled x-ray tube, the grid is held at a negative potential (in
relation to the cathode) and is essentially switched “off” even when
high voltage is applied to the x-ray tube. During an exposure, the grid
voltage is pulsed on and off and, in turn, the x-ray tube is turned on
and off by pulses sent from a pulse tank. As with the tetrodes, the pulse
tank receives an exposure signal from an imaging device to initiate an
exposure.
 The X-ray System 19

Figure 7. High frequency generator block diagram and output waveform. High frequen-
cy generators produce an output waveform with less than 1 percent ripple.

The High-Frenquency Generator

High-frequency generators are the latest design and are, by far, the
most efficient at producing x-ray radiation. This type of generator can
produce a high voltage square wave that is essentially ripple free, pro-
viding uniform radiation for the entire exposure duration. Another
advantage of the high-frequency generator is that it can operate with
either a single-phase or a three-phase input line and with a wide range
of input voltages. Because it operates at high frequencies, the electron-
ic components can be reduced overall so that the generator footprint
is more compact.
By looking at the simplified block diagram (Figure 7), it is shown
that high-frequency generators utilize a unique method for producing
high voltage. The incoming AC line voltage is fed directly into a DC
power supply (400 VDC, for example), which is used to supply the
power inverter. The power inverter, which is a device commonly used
20 X-ray Repair

in electronic applications, converts the DC voltage to high frequency

square wave pulses that are used to drive the high voltage transformer.
The frequency of the pulses is dictated by equipment design and can
range from as little as 100Hz to as much as 400kHz or greater. The
pulses are regulated to obtain the correct kV which is applied to the x-
ray tube.
High-frequency generators represent a major advancement in gen-
erator design in that they provide much improved kVp regulation.
With all other generator designs, the high voltage is derived directly
from the AC line. Consequently, any fluctuations in the incoming
power line will cause a corresponding fluctuation in the kVp wave-
form. With high-frequency generators, the constant DC supply main-
tains a stable output regardless of any inconsistencies with the AC line.
Another advantage of using a high-frequency supply is that signifi-
cantly smaller components can be used in the generator circuitry.3
This means that the high voltage transformer, which usually takes
up a large area, can be placed inside the control cabinet along with the
other components of the generator control. This greatly reduces the
amount of space needed for an x-ray room installation. In many cases,
the size limitation of the room is a major consideration in the purchase
of radiographic equipment. In such situations, then, high-frequency
generators are the ideal choice. Also, by using smaller components
these generators are less costly to produce.
Other advantages of high-frequency generators are that they are
much easier to calibrate, they will hold a stable calibration for a longer
period of time, and provide more accurate time control as compared
to the other generators. These advantages result from the fact that all
high frequency generators utilize feedback loop circuitry to monitor
(in real time) the actual kVp, mA, and time of the exposure. In addi-
tion, because of the fault monitoring capabilities of high-frequency
generators, they are easier to troubleshoot and repair. Most high-fre-
quency generators have error detection circuitry that can isolate spe-
cific failures and even provide a message on the console display to
alert the operator of a problem. With the many advantages offered by

3. Basic electronic theory demonstrates why this is so. Referring to the formulas for capacitive and
inductive reactance XL = 1/2 πFC and XL = 2πFL, it can be seen that if all other factors are held
constant, increasing the frequency would require a corresponding decrease in capacitance and
inductance respectively and, therefore, smaller components.
 The X-ray System 21

high-frequency generators, they have become the generator of choice

for many medical imaging applications.

MA Control
In addition to controlling the kilovoltage, the x-ray generator also
controls the amount of tube current flowing through the x-ray tube.
With x-ray tubes, the amount of current is measured in the lower mil-
liamp range and is referred to as mA, for short. The way to control mA
is to vary the amount of current going through the filaments of the x-
ray tube. For a given increase in filament current there is a proportion-
al increase in mA (kV held constant).
The current that flows through an x-ray tube is difficult to regulate.
The reason for this is because the x-ray tube acts as a varying load
depending on how much current is passing through it. This fluctuating
load requires a highly efficient filament power supply to maintain con-
stant current during the exposure. A typical design for mA control
used in many x-ray generators consists of (1) a filament voltage regu-
lator (originally called stabilizers) that provides a constant supply volt-
age to the filament circuits as the load varies and (2) the means of con-
trolling the voltage that is applied to the filament transformer (Figure
8). Filament voltage regulation is accomplished in different ways, in-
cluding resistor tap selection and frequency control.
The difficulty with mA control involves a phenomenon in x-ray
tubes called space charge effect. Space charge is defined as the cloud
of electrons that surrounds the filament when it is being heated. The
size of the cloud is proportional to the degree of filament heating. The
problem when dealing with the space charge phenomena is when we
consider the kVp that is applied to the tube. If the filament current is
held constant, an increase in kVp will cause a proportional increase in
tube current because of the greater “pull” exerted on the electrons in
the cloud. Conversely, a decrease in kVp will cause less pull on the
cloud of electrons and this will reduce the actual tube current. Space
charge compensation is employed specifically to maintain a constant
mA through the full range of kVp settings.
With basic generator designs, the space charge compensation cir-
cuit is connected to the filament circuit at a point after the mA adjust-
ing resistors. This circuit monitors the selected kVp and then applies
the appropriate compensating voltage that is needed to maintain the
22 X-ray Repair

Figure 8. Filament control circuit. A correction voltage is applied to the filament wires to
compensate for the space charge effect. The correction voltage is determined by the kVp
selected.

selected mA at a constant level. At higher kVp settings, the space

charge compensation circuit will reduce the voltage that is applied to
the filament transformer, and at lower settings the compensation volt-
age will be increased. Generally, there is no space charge compensa-
tion applied at or near 80 kVp. Because of this fact, the preliminary
mA calibration is performed at this kVp station (see x-ray calibration
in Chapter VII).
Space charge compensation circuits are required for most x-ray
generators. Since high frequency generators employ feedback loops
and digital control to accurately control mA there is no need for addi-
tional circuitry for space charge compensation. The reader should,
however, understand how space charge can affect tube current and
note how x-ray generator designs, historically, have dealt with this
phenomenon.

The Falling Load Generator

A primary cause of x-ray tube failure is related to filament damage
caused by excessive tube currents. The constant use of higher mA’s
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
to be judged by the laws of other countries, and his plea seems to
have been successful, for Christopher does not appear to have been
banished, and continued to print at Antwerp. About the end of 1530
he appears to have crossed over to England in connexion with the
sale of English Testaments, and the last act of the drama is tersely
stated by Foxe under the year 1531. An Antwerp bookseller named
Christopher for selling certain New Testaments in English to John
Row, bookbinder, was thrown into prison at Westminster and there
died.
On the death of Christopher, Hans wished to return to Antwerp, but
in order to do so a certificate of his pilgrimage had to be obtained. In
the archives of the city there is an entry dated March 29, 1531, that
letters of the pilgrimage having been presented he was free to
reenter the city and district. He did not stay long abroad but returned
to London, and as an assistant to his fellow-countryman John
Nicholson, the printer of Southwark, has been the source of much
puzzle to commentators on the English New Testament; for I believe
him to be no other than John Hollybush, the so-called reviser of the
edition of 1538. The name John Hollybush has generally been
considered a pseudonym, and most modern authorities consider the
person so designated to have been Miles Coverdale. But Hollybush
was a real person, and in the troubled times of 1535, when
inhabitants of the Low Countries dwelling in England were forced to
become denizened, we find entered amongst others, “John
Holibusche alias Holybusche of London, Stationer otherwise
bookbinder, born in Ruremund, under the obedience of the
Emperor.”
Now considering the prominent part that Hans van Ruremond,
otherwise John Raimund, had taken in the production and dispersal
of the New Testament, he is just the man to be identical with a
stationer who revised for the press a new edition. The whole family
was identified with the issue of English Testaments. Christopher
printed them at Antwerp, and after he had died in England for selling
them, his widow continued to print further editions. John had suffered
penance for selling them and was now, in more peaceable times,
helping to print them. Christopher’s son, also named John, became
a printer in Antwerp and printed Dutch Bibles and Testaments. One
of the very last Sarum service books printed, the Processional of
1558, again links Christopher van Endhoven and Christopher van
Ruremond together. Upon the title-page is the device with mark and
initials, C. E. of Christopher van Endhoven, while the colophon runs
“Finit Processionale ad usum Sarum Antverpie impressum per
Melchiorem Endovianum, typis Christophori Ruremunden. Anno
m.c.lviii. mensis xxiii. Junii.”
Another stationer connected with Christopher and Hans van
Ruremond was a young man named Peter Kaetz, who acted for a
while as their agent in London and had a shop in St Paul’s
Churchyard. The seven Sarum service books, two Manuals, two
Processionals, a Horae, a Psalter, and a Hymni cum notis, which
Christopher van Ruremond printed before February 6, 1525, were all
to be sold in London by Kaetz; after this date his place was taken by
Birckman. In the spring of 1525 Kaetz returned to Antwerp and
carried on business at the sign of the House of Delft in the
Cammerstraete, a house formerly occupied by Henri Eckert van
Homberg. Here he issued an edition of the Bible in Dutch printed by
Hans van Ruremond. After this date we hear no more of him.
Perhaps like Hans van Ruremond he was involved in the religious
troubles, and, banished from Antwerp, found refuge in England. He
was in communication with Siberch, the first Cambridge printer, and
amongst some fragments rescued from a binding of Siberch’s in
Westminster Abbey library was a letter addressed to him by Peter
Kaetz. In it Kaetz says he is waiting in London for his master, on
whose arrival he intends to cross over. He also says, “I send you 25
prognostications and three New Testaments, small size. The
prognostications cost one shilling sterling the 25, and the three New
Testaments cost 2s. and 6d. sterling.” The puzzling part about the
letter is the date to which it should be assigned. Many things point to
its being before 1523 and yet the references to the New Testament
are not easily explained. The price is that at which the English New
Testament printed at Antwerp in 1526 by Christopher van Ruremond
was sold, and Hans van Ruremond had come into England about
this time to sell it. We know also that Christopher van Ruremond
printed prognostications in English. I should have been inclined to
put the letter down to some time in or after 1526, and to suppose
that the master for whom Kaetz waited was Hans van Ruremond. A
person named “Gibkerken” is mentioned in the letter, who may
perhaps be a Dutch stationer, John Gybken, who was first an
assistant to John Cockes and who afterwards rose to considerable
eminence and was admitted as a member of the Stationers’
Company. His son was also admitted a member of the Company,
although he was deaf and dumb.
The history of the printing and dispersal of the early editions of the
English Testament and the various prohibited controversial books
offers a very fascinating subject of study, and it is extraordinary,
considering the amount that has been written on the question, how
little is really known. I suppose the reason is that it has usually been
taken up from the theological rather than the bibliographical side,
and that writers on the subject though well versed in the history of
the Reformation knew nothing of scientific bibliography.
It is obvious that where the printer by his work placed himself in very
considerable danger, he would not be anxious to advertise himself
and would therefore let his books go out without any imprint or with a
fictitious one. Then comes in the study of type. It affords a far more
conclusive argument than any theories drawn from where the author
was living or where he would probably like to have his book printed.
Then again there is the common danger of taking for an early or
original edition what is merely a reprint with the original colophon
unaltered. An important English library purchased not very long ago
at a high price, a so-called first edition of Tindale’s Parable of the
Wicked Mammon, printed at Marlborowe in the land of Hesse by
Hans Luft, 1528. But in spite of its having this information
emblazoned in gold upon its morocco cover, it is a reprint made
about twenty years later by Berthelet, a fact that should have been
patent to anyone at all conversant with English printing, seeing that
the title-page is within one of Berthelet’s best-known border frames.
Then, again, many of the books with foreign imprints were certainly
printed in this country. Upright Hoff of Leipsic and Ian Troost of
Aurich are both names assumed by John Oswen, the printer of
Ipswich.
Cambridge has made an important start towards a real bibliography
of this subject by the publication of the third volume of Mr Sayle’s
most admirable Catalogue of the Early English Books in the
University Library. Only those who have worked on the subject can
understand how much patience, how much untiring labour, and how
many often disappointing searches must have been expended on
every small fact chronicled in the volume.
To return to these Early English Testaments printed in Antwerp. It is
quite clear that as soon as the edition printed by Schoeffer in 1525
had been issued and found a ready sale, the Antwerp printers set to
work to print rival editions. Fortunately we have a very clear and
contemporary account which there seems no reason for doubting. It
occurs in Joye’s Apology, written about 1534, and I will abbreviate it
as far as possible. “Thou shalt know that Tyndale translated and
printed the New Testament in a mean great volume but yet without
Kalendar, Concordances in the margin, and Table in the end. And
anon, after, the Dutchmen got a copy and printed it again in a small
volume adding the Kalendar in the beginning, Concordances in the
margin, and the Table in the end.” After speaking of the many faults
in it he continues: “After this they printed it again also without a
corrector in a greater letter and volume with the figures in the
Apocalypse which was therefore much falser than their first. When
these two prints (there were of them both about five thousand
printed) were all sold more than a twelvemonth ago [that is about the
middle of 1533] Tyndale was pricked forth to take the Testament in
hand. But Tyndale prolonged and deferred in so much that in the
mean season the Dutchmen printed it again the third time in a small
volume like their first print, but much more false than ever it was
before.” Before this edition was put in hand Joye had been asked to
correct it, but refused, saying that Tindale was about to bring out a
revised edition: however two thousand copies were printed and sold
almost at once. A fourth edition was then put in hand and Joye was
again asked to correct it. He continues: “I answered as before that if
Tyndale amend it, with so great diligence as he promiseth yours will
be never sold. Yes, quod they, for if he print two thousand and we as
many, what is so little a number for all England? and we will sell ours
better cheap and therefore we doubt not of the sale.” Joye seeing
clearly that they were determined to print whether he corrected or
not, and seeing he was more qualified than a native, undertook the
task, and for the modest remuneration of fourpence halfpenny for
every sheet of sixteen leaves corrected the edition published by the
widow of Christopher van Endhoven in August, 1534. According to
this statement, which is a very lucid one, between the issue of
Tindale’s octavo version in 1525 and Joye’s revision in 1534, three
other Antwerp editions had been issued. The first in a very small
volume with a Kalendar, marginal notes, and a table. This must be
the edition printed by Christopher van Endhoven in 1526 for which
he was prosecuted. The second was of a larger size and had
woodcuts to the Apocalypse. The third was similar to the first, but
much more incorrectly printed. Here then are three editions as yet
entirely unidentified, and there are most probably more. The late Dr
Angus possessed the title-page of an edition of 1532 which from the
tracing reproduced in Demaus’ book on Tindale must have been a
quarto.
Antwerp continued to print Testaments in increasing numbers. In
1534 and 1535 four editions were issued, and in 1536 when they
were more freely circulated, no less than seven. These are beyond
our period, but I cannot resist chronicling a fact lately come to light,
which gives the solution of a long-standing puzzle. In all the three
quarto editions of 1536, none of which has a printer’s name, is a
woodcut of St Paul with his foot resting on a stone. These cuts
though almost exactly similar are not identical. In one cut nothing is
engraved on the stone, and the edition containing it is known as the
“blank stone” edition. In another cut a mole is engraved on the stone,
and the edition is known as the “mole” edition. In the third there is
what is called an engraver’s mark, with the initials A. K. B., and that
issue is called the “engraver’s mark” edition. Now about this
engraver’s mark nothing was known. Not long ago, however, in
turning over a large volume of miscellaneous woodcuts in the
Bodleian I came across an example of this cut on what was
manifestly the last leaf of a book. Below the cut was this colophon,
“Antwerp. Mattheus Cromme voor Adriaen Kempe van Bouckhout,
1537.” Between 1537 and 1539 Crom printed for Kempe several
editions of Branteghem’s Vita Jesu Christi. In 1536 the cut occurs in
the Storys and prophesis out of the holy scriptur printed by Simon
Cock. It would thus seem that Kempe first employed Cock as his
printer, but left him for Crom when the latter began printing about
1537.
The specimens of bookbinding of this period, the best so far as
stamped bindings are concerned, offer a very difficult problem to the
student. What are English bindings and what are not, and how are
they to be distinguished? The more the subject is studied, the more
difficult these questions appear. There are bindings which are
obviously English just as there are others obviously foreign, but the
great majority are doubtful. It must be remembered that a very large
number of binders in England were foreigners, who would very likely
bring their dies and stamps with them from abroad, and finish their
work in a foreign manner. As their bindings were produced in
England, they must be called English bindings though in a foreign
style, for we would not call the Berthelet bindings, produced for
Henry VIII in London by foreign workmen with foreign dies, anything
but English.
As an example of this confusion I would mention the binding on a
copy of the Horae ad usum Sarum of 1506, printed for Pelgrim and
Jacobi, and now in the Bodleian. In the centre of the cover are two
purely Netherlandish panels, while round these runs a frame
composed of two dies which had belonged to Caxton. We know that
the partners owned several of Caxton’s dies, because they are found
in conjunction with Jacobi’s signed panels. As the Horae was printed
for them and has their dies on the binding, it is clear they are the
binders, but had the Caxton dies been absent, no one could have
put down the binding as anything but Netherlandish.
The favourite English binding of this time consisted of two panel
stamps, one having the Royal Arms, the other the Tudor Rose with
mottoes, which I described before. In the base of these panels the
binder’s initials and mark generally occur. In some cases these
initials can with certainty be ascribed, because they occur with the
mark and full name in some printed book. Thus there is no mistake
about the bindings of Pynson, Notary, Jacobi, or Reynes. But in a
large number of cases there are merely initials, or initials with a mark
which has not been identified. Here the imagination steps in with
usually fatal results.
One set of these panels is signed R. O., and as O is an uncommon
initial for a surname the natural inclination is to attribute the binding
to Reginald Oliver. Another set has the initials R. L.: who more likely
than Richard Lant? All such suggestions are worthless without proof,
and until proved are not worth setting down. Other binders using
these panels were H. N. and G. G.
A binder whose initials were G. R. had two very handsome pairs of
panels. One panel contains the Royal Arms surrounded by the verse
beginning, “Confitemini dominum quoniam bonus,” while the
corresponding panel contains figures of four saints. The first of the
second pair is also the Royal Arms with the verse beginning
“Laudate Dominum de terra,” and the other has the figures of the
four saints, George, Barbara, Michael, and Katherine.
The Annunciation was a very favourite subject with bookbinders.
One of the handsomest panels of this kind was used by a binder, A.
H., who used also a panel with the Tudor Rose. Though this shows
that the bindings were produced for the English market, the leather
employed, apparently sheepskin, suggests that they were executed
abroad, perhaps at Rouen.
Two other panels were in common use containing figures of St
Sebastian and St Roche. These were extremely popular, for at that
time the country was periodically visited with outbreaks of the
plague, against which these two saints were considered the
guardians. Very often the saint chosen for the binder’s panel had
reference to his own Christian name. John Reynes has a panel with
St John Baptist. St George as the patron saint of England was
naturally popular. One beautiful binding has on one side St George
and the Dragon, and on the other St Michael with the binder’s
devices, a maiden’s head on a shield. This might be the work of
Richard Faques, who lived at the sign of the Maiden’s Head.
The roll binding, as apart from the panel binding, was ornamented by
means of a rolling tool, and at first these were large and ornamental,
but they gradually narrowed, and so became meagre or weak in
detail.
Those in use at Cambridge are perhaps the finest of all, but this is
not the time to speak of them. Among London binders John Reynes
produced the best known roll, containing figures of a hound, a falcon,
and a bee with flowers and foliage. Another with an unknown
binder’s mark, contains a hound, a falcon, and a double-headed
eagle on a shield. The roll of another unknown binder bears a Tudor
Rose, a pomegranate, a shield with the arms of France and England,
a turreted gateway, a portcullis, a fleur-de-lys, and the binder’s mark.
Another handsome roll has the initials of I. G. and W. G. with figures
of a dragon, a gryphon, and foliage, and is not at all uncommon. In
Archbishop Marsh’s library at Dublin there is an example of such a
binding, tooled entirely in gold, the only example I have ever seen of
such work.
In the main design of all these English rolls there is very little
variation, the various royal emblems amidst foliage and flowers.
It is unfortunate that while we have so many initialled bindings which
cannot be definitely ascribed to particular binders, so also we have
the names of plenty of binders to whom we cannot allot bindings;
Alard and Noel Havy, De Worde’s binders, Giles Lauret, who lived
close to Havy in Shoe Lane, and John Rouse, who lived next door.
John Richardson, and John Row who was punished for buying
Testaments. John Pollard and Thomas Stoke who received pardon
for some unknown offence in 1533. Martin Dotier, the third offender,
we do find afterwards, for he commissioned one edition of a Sarum
Manual in 1543, and ended his days as a brother of the Stationers’
Company.
Few binders or stationers of the time have left any definite record. I
have notes of at least four hundred persons connected with the
English book-trade between the years 1500 and 1535, but of very
few is anything known beyond the name. A mention in a will, an
entry in a record or tax-roll, or a mention in church or municipal
accounts, is all that remains to tell us of their existence.
I have referred before to the various difficulties with which the foreign
stationer had to contend, and year by year these difficulties grew
worse. The educated man was still entirely dependent on the
Continent for such books as he required, for before 1535 the
literature of the Renaissance was untouched by the native printers.
Wynkyn de Worde from start to finish, roughly speaking, never
printed a classic, but was content to turn out rhymes and romances
to catch the popular taste. Pynson, the more scholarly worker, was
engaged on official or semi-official publications. There was no press
that could print in any but ordinary type; even the most learned
printer had not sufficient Greek letters to print quotations; and this
when foreigners came to England to learn Greek.
No doubt the large importation of books was galling to the native
printers, but they do not seem to have lacked work, or if they did it
was only through their own want of energy. The bookbinders were in
a much worse case, because so many binders in this country were
foreigners, and no doubt large consignments of books came over
ready bound. The probability is that the foreigners had been better
trained, and could turn out cheaper and better work, and though that
might appeal to the purchaser, it would certainly injure their native
rivals. While for forty years the Italians had been issuing beautiful
little volumes in gilt bindings, the use of gilding on bindings was
almost unknown in England. It was not as though English printing
was improving as time went on. Indeed it became more and more
careless and slovenly. A printer here and there who had a subsidy
and was sure of work, such as Pynson and Berthelet, cast fine type
and produced handsome books. But the majority lagged far behind,
and worn-out type and broken cuts were the stock-in-trade of the
ordinary printer. Then was passed the Act of 1534, which declared
the English printers to be at least the equals of any foreign
competitors, and restricted the importation of foreign books. With the
removal of the foreign competition native work sank to its lowest
level, and it was only when the religious persecutions abroad drove
numbers of refugee foreign printers to England that English printing
began to revive—for the time.
On Christmas Day, 1534, probably but a few days before the death
of Wynkyn de Worde, the famous Act of 25 Henry VIII concerning
printers and binders of books came into operation. The preamble is
extremely clear and interesting: “Whereas by the provision of a
statute made in the first year of the reign of king Richard III [1484] it
was provided in the same Act, that all strangers repairing into this
realm, might lawfully bring into the said realm printed and written
books to sell at their liberty and pleasure. By force of which provision
there hath come into this realm sithen the making of the same a
marvellous number of printed books, and daily doth; and the cause
of making of the same provision seemeth to be, for that there were
but few books, and few printers, within this realm at that time, which
could well exercise and occupy the said science and craft of printing;
nevertheless, sithen the making of the said provision, many of this
realm, being the king’s natural subjects, have given themselves so
diligently to learn and exercise the said craft of printing, that at this
day there be within this realm a great number of cunning and expert
in the said science or craft of printing, as able to exercise the said
craft in all points, as any stranger in any other realm or country. And
furthermore, where there be a great number of the king’s subjects
within this realm, which live by the craft and mystery of binding of
books, and that there be a great multitude well expert in the same,
yet all this notwithstanding there are divers persons, that bring from
beyond the sea great plenty of printed books, not only in the Latin
tongue, but also in our maternal English tongue, some bound in
boards, some in leather, and some in parchment, and them sell by
retail, whereby many of the king’s subjects, being binders of books,
and having no other faculty, wherewith to get their living, be destitute
of work, and like to be undone, except some reformation be herein
had. Be it therefore enacted by the king our sovereign lord, the lords
spiritual and temporal, and the commons in this present parliament
assembled, and by authority of the same, that the said proviso,
made the first year of the said king Richard III, from the feast of the
nativity of our Lord God next coming, shall be void and of none
effect.”
This part of the Act, which seems to me essentially fair, simply
removed special privileges and put the foreign printers and
stationers on an equal footing with all other aliens. Then come two
special new enactments.
“And further, be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, that no persons
resiant or inhabitant within this realm, after the said feast of
Christmas next coming, shall buy to sell again, any printed books,
brought from any parts out of the king’s obeysance, ready bound in
boards, leather or parchment, upon pain to lose and forfeit for every
book bound out of the said king’s obeysance, and brought into this
realm and bought by any person or persons within the same to sell
again contrary to this Act, 6s. 8d.”
This enactment was a great protection to native binders as
prohibiting all dealing in foreign bound books. The next paragraph
was for the benefit of the printers. “And be it further enacted, by the
authority aforesaid, that no person or persons inhabitant or resiant
within this realm after the said feast of Christmas shall buy within this
realm of any stranger born out of the king’s obedience, other than of
denizens, any manner of printed books brought from any the parts
beyond the sea, except only by engross and not by retail upon pain
of forfeiture of 6s. 8d. for every book so bought by retail contrary to
the form and effect of this estature.”
The remainder of the Act treats only of penalties and restrictions as
to the price of books and bindings.
The clause about printing amounts to this, that no person not a
native or denizen could retail foreign printed books, and it seems
pretty clear that it was not so much intended for the advantage of
printers, as for giving fuller power to suppress the importation and
surreptitious sale of controversial books.
The alien printer, stationer, or binder, when denizened, was in this
position. He paid double subsidies and taxes, he could have none
but English-born apprentices and only two foreign workmen. He was
under the rule of the Warden of the Craft. He could not deal in
foreign bound books, nor buy books from foreigners except by
engross. The alien not denizened had the further restrictions that
unless he had been a householder before February 1528, he could
not keep any house or shop in which to exercise any handicraft, nor
could he sell any foreign printed books by retail.
Weighed down by these various disabilities the small foreign
stationers rapidly disappeared. A certain number who had lived here
for some time took out letters of denization and stayed on, but it was
only to struggle on.
If you wish to have a practical idea of what foreign work meant to
England, just glance at the list of Contents in Mr Sayle’s admirable
Catalogue of the Early English books in the University Library.
Taking all the persons given in the list, from the earliest printing to
1510 connected with English books, we have the astonishing result
of three Englishmen, Caxton, a printer, Hunte, the Oxford stationer,
and W. Bretton, merely a patron of printing. The foreigners on the
other hand number forty-two. After 1510 the relative numbers rapidly
alter, and by 1535 the great majority were English. The hatred of the
natives, and the various Acts levelled against him, compelled the
foreign workman to disappear, and I am afraid that with his
disappearance the necessary competition which produced good
printing disappeared also.
The fifty years of freedom from 1484 to 1534 not only brought us the
finest specimens of printing we possess, but compelled the native
workman, in self-protection, to learn, and when competition was
done away with his ambition rapidly died also. Once our English
printing was protected, it sank to a level of badness which has
lasted, with the exception of a few brilliant experiments, almost down
to our own day.
 INDEX.
Aberdeen University Library, 81
Abridgement of the Statutes, 44, 46, 114, 124
Actors, Peter, 77, 98, 169
Acts affecting printers and stationers, 74, 129, 187, 189-191, 208,
212, 236-239
Adryan of Barrowe. See Berghen, A. van
Advertisement, Caxton’s, 9
Aeneas Sylvius. See Eurialus
Aesop, Fables, Caxton, 15;
Andrewes, 156
Alard, bookbinder, 107, 139, 140, 235
Albertus, De modis significandi, Notary, 37;
Liber aggregationis, Machlinia, 48;
Secreta mulierum, Machlinia, 48
Alcock, John, Gallicantus, Pynson, 1498, 66;
Mons perfectionis, Pynson, 1497, 66;
W. de Worde, 1501, 132
Aldus bindings, 124
Alexander VI., pope, 55
Alexander Grammaticus, Doctrinale, Pynson, 59, 60, 66, 109
Alien printers and stationers, 74-76, 120, 188-191, 235-240
Almanack, 1529, A. van Berghen, 216;
1530, C. van Ruremond, 223
Alost, 5
Althorp Library, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 114
Ames, Joseph, 8, 11, 50, 152, 171
Andreae, A., Questiones, Lettou, 1480, 42
Andrewe, Lawrence, 140, 155, 156, 221
Anelida and Arcyte, Caxton, 10
Angus, Dr, 230
Antiphoner, Sarum, W. Hopyl, 205, 218
Antoine, Jean, 206
Antwerp printing, 79, 85, 88, 91, 148, 149, 153, 155, 176, 200, 213
Antwerp stationers, 214-231
Anwykyll, J., Grammar, 79
Appleby Grammar School, 60
Arnold, Richard, 221;
Chronicle, 169, 214-216
Ars Moriendi, Caxton, 21, 22, 90
Art and Craft to Know Well to Die, Caxton, 64;
Pynson, 64
Arundel, Earl of, 14, 16
Ashburnham sale, 30, 53
Atkyns, R., Original and growth of printing, 1

B., A. K., engraver, 231

Badius, J., 96, 193, 195
Bagford, John, 8, 11, 148
Baldwin, John, 193
Baligault, Felix, 84, 86
Bankes, Richard, 125, 154, 155
Barbanson, John, 139
Barbier, Jean, 37, 38, 194, 196
Barclay, Alexander, 162, 206;
Introductory to French, 147
Barker, Christopher, 76
Barnes, Robert, 125
Barrevelt, Gerardus, 92, 93
Bars, John, 69
Bartholomæus, De proprietatibus rerum, 4, 29
Barton, Elizabeth, 151
Basle, 78
Bath, Marquis of, 54
Battle of Agincourt, J. Skot, 151
Beauchamp, Earl, 66
Bedford, Duke of, Epitaph of, 63
Bedfordshire General Library, 106
Bellaert, Jacop, 88, 89
Berclaeus, Thomas, 177
Bercula, Thomas, 177
Berghen, Adrian van, 91, 214-216
Bernard, St, Meditations, W. de Worde, 90
Berthelet, Anthony, 183
Berthelet, Edward, 183
Berthelet, Margaret, 182
Berthelet, Thomas, 156, 157, 158, 175, 176, 177-183, 192, 208,
228, 236;
bindings, 124, 232
Bible, Grafton and Whitchurch, 1539, 209;
Petyt and Redman, 1540, 176;
Dutch, C. & H. van Ruremond, 1525, 223, 226
Bible, New Testament, English, 208, 222-231;
Dutch, 1528, 223
Bibliothèque Nationale, 68, 73, 136, 137
Binder, royal, 181
Binders, 97, 101-126, 231-235
Bindings, 101-126, 231-235
Armorial, 123
Cambridge, 108, 117, 120, 122, 234
Characteristics, 122-3
Clasps and Ties, 123
Durham, 102, 104
Early English, 101-111
Foreign, importation prohibited, 76, 238
Fragments in, 107, 110, 124-5
Gilt, 182, 234, 236
Greek books, 123
Italian, 123
London, 102
Norwich, 108
Oxford, 103-4
Panel stamps, 111-121, 145, 197-8, 200-1, 232-4
Prices, 182
Roll ornaments, 120, 200, 202, 234
Rouen, 121, 233
Venetian style, 124, 182
Winchester, 102-4
Birckman, Arnold, 198, 200, 201, 219
Birckman, Francis, 195, 217-219, 222, 226
Birckman, Francis, jun., 218, 219
Birckman, John, 201, 219
Birth of Merlin, W. de Worde, 1510, 136
Blades, Wm, 3, 8, 19, 22, 23, 58, 106, 107
Blanchardin and Eglantine, Caxton, 19, 20
Blandford, Marquis of, 9, 61
Bocard, André, 97, 142, 193
Bodleian Library. See Oxford
Body of Policy, J. Skot, 1521, 150
Boethius, A. M. T., De consolatione philosophie, Caxton, 106-7
Bonaventura, Speculum vitae Christi, Caxton, 16, 20, 58;
W. de Worde, 26;
Pynson, 58, 62
Bonham, William, 149, 184
Book of Cookery, Pynson, 1500, 69, 71, 159;
Bankes and Lant, 1545, 155
Book of Courtesy, Caxton, 10, 25;
W. de Worde, 24, 25
Book of Divers Ghostly Matters, Caxton, 21
Book of Dystyllacyon, 155, 221
Book of Herbs, J. Skot, 151
Book of Justices of Peas, R. Redman, 176
Book of Kerving, W. de Worde, 134
Book of maid Emlyn, J. Skot, 150
Book of St Alban’s, W. de Worde, 1496, 29
Book of Songs, W. de Worde, 1530, 138
Book to lerne to speak French, Pynson, 65
Book trade in sixteenth century, 187-192
Bookbinders. See Binders
Borbonius, Nicholas, 181
Borde, Andrew, 147
Borders, 21, 27, 38, 49, 56, 157, 169, 176, 180, 194
Boteler, John, 152
Boudins, John, 97, 193
Bourman, Nicolas, 140
Brachius, John, 206
Bradshaw, Henry, 8, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, 43, 50, 80, 99, 108, 109,
125, 156
Brand sale, 9
Brant, S., Ship of Fools, Pynson, 162;
W. de Worde, 135
Branteghem, G. de, Vita Jesu Christi, 231
Braunschweig, H. See Jerome of Brunswick
Bretton, William, 194, 195, 196, 204
Breviary:
Aberdeen, 1509-10, 7
Hereford, 1505, 82
Sarum, 92;
Cologne, ab. 1475, 73;
Venice, 1483, 73;
Paris, 1494, 84;
Venice, 1495, 93;
Rouen, 1496, 81;
Louvain, 1499, 80;
Pynson, 1507, 162;
1507, 206;
Antwerp, 1526, 223;
Paris, 1531, 205
York, 1493, 92
Bright, B. H., 61
British Museum, 8, 9, 14, 16, 20, 44, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 60, 61, 68,
69, 70, 81, 95, 105, 109, 114, 134, 138, 142, 159, 165, 170,
172, 184, 186, 196, 217
Brito, John, 52
Britwell Library, 40, 145
Bull of Innocent VIII., Machlinia, 55
Bulle, J., 41
Bumgart, Herrman, 115
Burgo, J. de, Pupilla Oculi, Paris, 1510, 194
Burgundy, Duchess of, 3
Butler, John, 139, 152
Byddell, John, 138, 139, 140, 203, 204

C., N., binder’s stamp, 116

Caesar, Commentaries, W. Rastell, 186
Caillard, J., 205
Cambridge bindings, 108, 117, 120, 122, 216, 234
Cambridge printing, 11, 99, 125
Cambridge libraries:
Caius College, 54, 86, 115
Christ’s College, 165
Clare College, 156
Corpus Christi College, 11, 103, 110, 161, 170, 212, 216
Emmanuel College, 161, 170
Jesus College, 43, 108
King’s College, 62
Magdalene College, 186
Pepysian Library, 14, 28, 34, 61, 63, 149, 163
St Catharine’s College, 81
St John’s College, 92, 110, 209
Trinity College, 68, 96
 University Library, 4, 8, 10, 25, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 44, 48, 49, 51,
53, 61, 73, 80, 82, 84, 88, 92, 95, 96, 116, 132, 143, 147,
150, 153, 165, 172, 206
Campensis, Joannes, Interpretatio Psalmorum Omnium, 1534,
208
Campion, Amye, 166
Campion, Joane, 166
Campion, William, 166
Candos, Guillaume, 206
Canutus, Treatise of the Pestilence, Machlinia, 53
Caorsin, Gul., Siege of Rhodes, 45
Capgrave, J., Nova Legenda Angliae, W. de Worde, 137
Carmelianus, Petrus, 79, 164
Castellain, George, 69, 161
Castle of Labour, A. Verard, 206
Castle of Pleasure, H. Pepwell, 1518, 147
Cato, Caxton, 10, 12
Caxton, Elizabeth, 23
Caxton, Maud, 20
Caxton, W., 3-24, 46, 57, 58, 73, 78, 88, 90, 130, 146
Binding stamps, 108, 139, 140, 197, 232
Bindings, 105-107
Border used by, 21, 27
Death, 23
Device, 18, 38, 58
Family, 23
Foreign reprints of his books, 24
Number of books printed, 22
Situation of printing office, 6, 39
Translations by, 14, 23, 28