LD 030 Mathematics Difficulties

UNIT 1
Theories and Importance of Mathematics Skills

Development
Introduction
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define the term mathematics.

 Discuss the importance and precursors of mathematics.
 Discuss the implications of stimulus – response as well as hypothesis-testing
theory in mathematics learning.
 Explain the application of Piaget’s theory on teaching and learning of
mathematics.
The unit consists of three sections, namely:
Section 1: Importance of Learning Mathematics.
Section 2: Theories of Learning Mathematics.
Section 3: Application of Piagets Theory to Teaching and Learning of

Mathematics.
Section 1: Importance of Learning Mathematics
 Definition of terms: mathematics, arithmetic, mathematics difficulties and

dyscalculia.
 Reasons for studying mathematics.
 Importance of mathematics.
 General aims of teaching mathematics.
 Goals of teaching mathematics.
Kenya Institute of Special Education 1

 Precursors of mathematics.
Definition of mathematics
What is Mathematics?
Mathematics is a symbolic language that enables human beings to think about,

record and communicate ideas concerning the elements and relationships of
quantity.
Mathematics is also the academic discipline concerned with solution of problems
that involve quantity or number. Mathematics is the study of measurement,
properties and relationships of quantities and sets, using numbers and symbols.
Being an important field of study in education, mathematics has taken had

increasing importance in modern society.
2 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

Arithmetic
What do you understand by the term Arithmetic?
Arithmetic refers to the type of mathematics that deals with addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division of numbers.
Mathematics Disability
What is a mathematics disability?
The term learning disability (LD), as you learnt earlier in Module LD 021:
Overview of Learning Disabilities, refers to a group of disorders that affect a
broad range of academic and functional skills including the ability to speak, listen,
read, write, spell, reason and organize information.
Mathematics disability is a term used to refer to a type of learning disability that

can cause such difficulties as:
 Learning mathematics concepts (such as quantity, place value and time).

 Memorizing mathematics facts.
 Organizing numbers.
 Understanding how mathematics problems are organized on the page.
Studies have shown that some learners with a mathematics disability may also have
a:
 Reading disability or
 Attention Deficit- Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
However, some learners only have a mathematics disability

A child with mathematics disability has difficulty making sufficient school
progress in mathematics compared to that of his/her peer group despite the
implementation of effective teaching practice over time.
What is dyscalculia?
Dyscalculia is a technical term which refers to selective impairment in

mathematical thinking or in calculation skills.
It’s a medically oriented term describing a specific disturbance in learning
mathematics concepts and computation. It is associated with a neurological, central
nervous system dysfunction.
It is worth noting that compared to research in early reading difficulties, early

difficulties in mathematics and the identification of mathematics disability in later
years have received less attention in research, consequently not understood.
Other terms you are likely to come across that may refer to mathematics
disabilities include:
 Learning disability in mathematics.

 Mathematics learning disabilities.
 Mathematics difficulties.
 Dyscalculia.

However the terms mathematics disability/difficulty and learning
disabilities in mathematics are currently more widely used.
The terms mathematics disabilities and mathematics difficulties are used

interchangeably.
Why study Mathematics?
We study mathematics because we live in a Mathematical world.

Furthermore, mathematics is interesting, enjoyable and has a lot of application in
life. Almost everything we do involves or requires some kind of mathematics, for
instance:
 walk or drive ‘x’ kilometres per day

 operate with time
 number of children
 how to budget for our families.
The score of your favourite soccer team,
plan to travel from home to KISE
purchase a mobile phone or purchase a loaf of bread, you rely on mathematical
concepts.
Mathematics is a universal language which has meaning for all cultures and
civilisations.
You get excitement and satisfaction in solving a mathematical problem.
Having defined the terms above let us now consider the importance of
mathematics.

Importance of mathematics
Identify the importance of mathematics in day to day

life?
Some of the areas in our day to day life that demonstrate the importance of
mathematics include:
 Mathematics provides the theory and methodology for the analysis of wide
varieties of information.
 Mathematics is essential in medicine for analysis of data on the causes of
illness and the utility of new drugs.
 Travel by aeroplane would not be possible without the mathematics of
airflow and of control systems.
 Shopping in a supermarket requires some knowledge in mathematics.
 Builders use mathematics to determine the ratio of cement to sand in their
work.
 Bank transactions rely on mathematical concepts.
 In physical sciences, that is Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy,
mathematics knowledge and skills are required for development of theories.
 The development of computers was initiated by mathematicians and
logicians who continue to make important contributions to the theory of
computer science.

Think of other activities you do in a day that would be impossible without the
knowledge of basic mathematics. Make a list and discuss with your colleague
some of the mathematical concepts in each of the activities.
General Aims of Teaching Mathematics
What are the general aims of teaching mathematics?
The term aim refers to the main purpose of doing something.
The general aims of teaching mathematics include:
 Encouraging the effective use of mathematics as a tool in activities such as

designing in art and modeling, in craft, monthly budgeting and planning a
holiday in our day to day life.
 Developing a positive perception of relationships within mathematics so that
learners may come to know that mathematics is not a mere collection of
disconnected items but a clear and understandable structure in which various
parts are interrelated.
 Showing mathematics as a process and a creative activity encouraging
imagination, initiative and flexibility of mind.
 Helping pupils work in a systematic way using organized strategies and
developing procedures for more complex problems. For example moving
from addition to subtraction, multiplication to division.
 Encouraging independence so that pupils will ask and answer their own
questions. Learners can set their own questions and answer them. They can
as well create questions for each other.
 Providing opportunity for working cooperatively within a group or team,
developing skills that are transferable in the school curriculum and sound
preparation for life.

 Developing pupils’ confidence in their own abilities and providing both a
challenge and sense of achievement for pupils. Avoiding situations where a
learner only experiences failure or excellence throughout.

Aims guide us and give us direction in our teaching
Mathematics.
Goals of Teaching Mathematics

What are some of the goals of teaching mathematics to
our children?
The term goal can be used to refer to the targeted intention, the purpose or plan of
doing something.
To encourage learners to:
 learn to value mathematics.

 learn to reason mathematically.
 learn to communicate mathematically.
 become confident of their mathematics abilities.
 become mathematical problem solvers.
Educational research has offered strong evidence that students learn mathematics
well when they construct their own mathematical understanding.
To understand what they learn, they must create for themselves verbs that are in
agreement with the mathematics curriculum such as examine, represent, transform,
solve, apply, prove and communicate.
This happens most readily when students work in groups, engage in discussions,
make presentations and in other ways take charge of their own learning.

An effective teacher of mathematics is one who can stimulate his students to
learn mathematics.
Precursors of Mathematics
What do you understand by the term precursors of mathematics?
The term precursors of mathematics refers to the foundation and basic

skills that should be learned as prerequisites for mathematics. In our daily
interactions with learners, these are often referred to as the pre-
mathematics or the pre-number skills.
They include:
Motor skills: These involve the ability to move parts of the body.
Activities to develop motor skills include:
lacing; eye hand coordination: copying numbers, letters and designs; cutting with
scissors; filling and empting (carrying and pouring water into measured buckets).
Listening skills: Teaching the child to be aware of the fact that the words we hear
comprise individual sounds within the words.
The following activities can be used:
 listening to sounds (sounds of cars, animals and recorded sounds)
 identifying sound patterns (drum beats, handclaps)
 localization and discrimination of various sound.

Attention skills: These involve helping the child to get settled and concentrate.
This can be developed by:
 providing a minimum of distracting stimuli in the classroom
 controlling use of manipulative materials
 Providing clear expectations with regard to the child’s movement about and
making classroom routine predictable.
 Rewarding the child’s desirable behaviour as you follow-up his or her
undesirable behaviour with either rewards or punishment.
Building spatial orientation and body awareness: starts with knowing the body
parts and involves such exercises as; pointing to body parts (like the nose and
ears), following instructions (like putting the left hand on the right ear) and water
activities like swimming.
Memory: helping the child develop both visual and auditory memory, short and
long-term memory. Activities to help develop memory may include: giving a child
instructions to do a number of activities in a given order. Asking the child to read
a certain passage and then asking the child questions from the passage. Identifying
missing objects from a package.
Visual skills: involves developing visual perceptions so that a child can be able to
read letters and numbers, copy shapes and patterns and match printed letters.
Activities to develop this include: grouping and classifying objects by shapes, sizes
and colours, assembling puzzles, finding shapes in pictures, reproducing models
using blocks and playing cards.
Language skills: This involves developing such skills as adequate vocabulary,

ease in speaking using complete sentences, use of sounds and word correctly.
Parents and teachers should work together to build these skills in the
child in preparation for the introduction of any mathematics work.
Other essential basic pre-number learning skills include:
 Matching: the concept of “same” and grouping of objects.

 Recognizing groups of objects: recognizing a group of for example three
without counting.

 Counting: matching numerals to objects.
 Naming a number that comes after a given number: for example, being
able to state that 8 comes before 7.
 Writing numerals from 1 to 10: getting the sequence correct hence
overcoming reversals and distortions.
 Measuring and pairing: estimating, fitting objects, one to one
correspondence
 Ordering or sequencing: arranging objects in order.
 Relationships of parts to the whole and parts to each other
½ ½
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
 Basic operations: Being able to form simple operations on the first ten
numbers without reference to concrete objects. For example, using addition
and subtraction of numbers between one and ten.
 The decimal system: The decimal point and the decimal places as
well as the place value in a decimal system.

Section 2: Theories of Learning Mathematics
In Section 1, you learnt about the definition, importance and precursors of

mathematics. In this section, we will focus our attention on major theories of
mathematics skill development. You will learn about:
 Stimulus-response theory of learning.

 Hypothesis-testing theory of learning.
Before learning about the above theories of mathematics, let us define the
following concepts.
 Theory.
 Mathematics skill development.
What is a theory?
A theory can be said to be a set of ideas that is intended to explain something about
life or the world especially on ideas that have not yet been proved to be true. In
mathematics the word theory can be used to refer to certain distinct bases of
knowledge about mathematics and how mathematics skills are learnt. Some
knowledge include rules or principles that are considered as true or as definitions
or technical statements that can be proved by showing that they have been
correctly developed from facts and how results are calculated to obtain answers.
What is Mathematics Skills Development?

Mathematics skills development refers to the process of learning mathematics in
order to attain proficiency or literacy in mathematics.
Stimulus – Response Theory of Learning
What is stimulus-response theory of learning?
You will probably be familiar with the terms stimulus and response from Module
ID 005: Introduction to Educational Psychology. Let us consider the two
illustrations below. First, if we get pepper up our nose, we sneeze: the pepper is
the stimulus; the sneezing is the response. Secondly, a friend jokingly pretends to
poke us in the eye and we involuntarily blink even though we know it’s only a
joke. Again the poking is the stimulus while the blinking is a response to the
stimulus.
In Module ID 002: Child Growth and Development, you learnt that reflexes are
automatic, unlearned responses to stimuli, over which we have no conscious
control. These stimuli are said to be unconditioned. However, there is another
class of reflexes which are learnt. They are referred to as the conditioned reflexes.
What are the implications of stimulus-

response theory in mathematics learning?
Learning is a change in observable behaviour: Learning is a relatively

permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice or experience. It is not
concerned with internal processes but with changes in behavior that can be seen
and measured. These changes in behaviour can either be positive (showing
improvement) or negative (showing a decline). As a teacher you need to focus on
specific goals and objectives when teaching mathematics. You need to set these
goals and objectives in such a way that they are “SMART” as you learnt in
Module ID 006: Management of Special Needs Education Programmes:

Specific: This stands for a particular tasks to be covered within the
time given.
Measurable: The behavior change expected from the learner by the

end of the time given should be quantifiable.
Achievable: The objective should be such that the learner can attain it
within the given time.
Realistic: The objective should be to the level of the learner.
Time bound: The objective should be written in such a way that it

states the amount of time the learner is expected to show
the kind of specific behavior stated.
Learning results from stimulus and response in a person’s environment.

As a teacher you can create the appropriate environment for the learner, thereby
creating the individual he/she wishes. Your role is to manage, control and
direct learning by:
 Arranging the environment: This will involve providing a rich

environment to the learners with such things as toys, blocks, balls and
games with which they can interact and learn from.
 Selecting stimuli: Choosing and placing in the right places learning

materials that will draw the learners’ attention in the intended direction.
For example, to teach learners to recognize quantities, cards with dots
corresponding to particular numerals can be placed in some corners.
This will help the learner to relate the numeral and the number of do
Figure 1.2: Cards with dots corresponding to particular numerals

 Reinforcing desired responses: Once the learner shows the desired
behaviour like holding the pen appropriately or giving a correct response to
a question, you need to be keen to observe this. Then give approval or
commendation immediately. This motivates the learner to try next time and
be more involved in class.
Refer to Module ID 005: Introduction to Educational

Psychology
 Discouraging undesired responses: You need to be equally quick to point

out the mistakes and undesired responses. Correct them immediately. This
will help your learners to know when they are right or wrong early enough
and be able to correct themselves. Thus mistakes will not be carried on into
the future. Learners will also be confident in what they are doing.
What is a hypothesis?
Hypothesis can be taken to mean a proposition, a premise, an assumption or an

idea to be tested. Before any research is undertaken, the researcher needs to come
up with an assumption, proposition or idea for testing in the research. Then he/she
goes ahead to test whether the assumption was true or not.
Hypothesis -Testing Theory
What are the bases of hypothesis testing theory of

learning?

It involves designing and conducting a research that will provide evidence in the
form of a data about a stated problem. It is a tentative explanation of an event or
relationship. It is a testable educated guess about a problem in mathematics.
It involves a number of steps as shown below:

 Making certain observations about a situation or issue.
 Making a reasonable and relevant guess or suggestion about the cause of the
situation.
 Going ahead and carrying out a research on the situation to see whether your
suggested causes are really correct or not.
 Suggesting possible remedies together with an implementation programme.

How does the hypothesis testing theory apply to
mathematics teaching and learning process?
As the mathematics teacher, you will required to constantly monitor and

investigate the behaviour of your learners in the mathematics class. For example
you may observe that a good number of your learners have difficulties carrying out
problems involving division.
You then come up with guesses or suggestions as to why they have this difficulty.
Such suggestions may include:
 They never got the prerequisite knowledge in multiplication and addition.

 They did not master the multiplication table.
 They were not given enough time to master the division skills.
From this, you can come up with a method of testing out these suggestions such as
by asking the learners to explain to you how they were working out these
problems. After establishing the exact cause, you can develop a strategy to tackle
the problem. You can re-teach the skill or give the learners more time for practice
after correcting the misunderstood concepts. The strategy can be both short-term
as well as long-term depending on the problem at hand.
In this context it will require you to observe behaviour in the mathematics class
like a multiplication problem in the class then analyzing it to know the cause in
order to create a strategy. You start by guessing the cause of an error observed in a
mathematics problem then go ahead to test and confirm the cause of the behaviour.
You can then use the findings to come up with the immediate or long term
strategies to tackle the problem.
A good and effective teacher is one that constantly

monitors and investigates the performance of
children in his/her class in order to remediate or
help these children solve the problem in good time.

Let us now demonstrate how the hypothesis testing theory can be applied in
mathematics using an example:
Step 1: You observe that a number of your learners in class 4 who have difficulties
in computation are making such errors as:
(a) 506
- 127
231
(b) 437
-268
231
Where the smaller number is subtracted from the larger number

regardless of the placement of the number (whether in the upper or
lower number).
Step 2: You may have come up with suggestions on the causes of these errors.
Your suggestions might include:
 They did not master the concept of borrowing.

 They did not practice the place value concept enough to master
it.
 The subtraction skill was not given enough time for learners to
master.
Step 3: Carrying out research
To verify whether the suggested causes are really correct, you can
now go ahead and carry out research. This you can do by:
 Looking at the learners work on place value skills.

 Giving some exercises or tasks on place value to test mastery.
 Asking the learners to explain how they came up with their
answers.

Step 4: Come up with strategies to remedy the problem such as:
 Re-teaching the concepts of place value.

 Re-teaching subtraction skills and giving learners time to
master the concept.
 Changing your approach to teaching subtraction such as
breaking the concepts into simpler steps. Teach these steps one
at a time.
Identify a mathematics concept in your class that the learners

are having difficulty to work out and use the systematic steps
of hypothesis testing outlined above to tackle it. Discuss your
response with a colleague.

Section 3: Application of Piaget’s Theory in
Teaching Mathematics
In section 2, you learnt about the stimulus – response and hypothesis-testing
theories of learning. In this section, we focus on another theory, Piaget’s theory.
The following sub-sections will be covered.
 Basis of piaget’s theory.
 Piaget’s theory.
 Piaget’s sequential levels of mathematics learning.
 Importance of piaget’s theory in mathematics.
Let us now look at each of these.
What is Piaget’s theory based on?
Piagets’ theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures or mental “maps” otherwise called schema or networked concepts for
understanding and responding to physical experiences within his/her environment.
He further showed that these cognitive structures increase in sophistication with

development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to
highly mental activities, such as problem solving. The cognitive structures are the
mental processes of understanding.
Piaget’s Theory
As you learnt in Module ID 002: Child Growth and Development Piaget
outlined several principles for building these cognitive structures. During all
developmental stages, he asserts that the child experiences his or her environment
using whatever mental maps he/she has constructed so far.

If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily or gets assimilated into the child’s
cognitive structure so that he/she maintains mental “equilibrium”.
If the experience is different or new, the child has to adjust to a new way of
thinking to accommodate the new ideas. This way, the child develops new
approaches to situations and experiences in the environment.
Figure 1.3: Summary Piaget’s key ideas
Characteristic What it says Examples

Classification The ability to group objects together Age between 5-7:
on the basis of common features. Grouping buttons
It involves relationships such as according to colour
likenesses and differences. or size or shape.
Conservation The realization that objects or sets of Age between 5-7:
objects stay the same even when they quantity
are changed about or made to look pouring same
different. Two types: quantity and amount of water into
number. a tall thin glass and
wide low glass.
numbers
i)(a+b) +c= a + (b+c)
ii)(4+3)+2= 4+ 3+2)
Decentration The ability to move away from one Decentration
system of classification to another From the general
one as appropriate. Further grouping classification e.g.
using the buttons.
Using either size or
shape to further
classify the same
coloured buttons to
same sizes or shapes.
Operation The process of working something Use of fingers,
out in your head. Young children ( in sticks, blocks to
the sensorimotor and pre-operational carry out simple
stages) have to act and try things out additions and
(like count on fingers): older children subtractions.
and adults can do more in their heads.
Schemas The representation in the mind of a Creating a sequence
set of perceptions, ideas, and/or with a set of items.

actions, which go together
What are Piaget’s principles in application to

psychology of mathematics learning?
Here are Piaget’s Principles in application to psychology of mathematics learning.

They are composition, reversibility and associative principles.
Let us now examine each at a time.
Composition
That two separate operations may combine to produce a new unit
Examples
a (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c)
5 (4 + 3) = (5 x 4) + (5 x 3)
Reversibility
Combined units can be separated again
Example
9 x 3 = 27 the reverse of this can be 27÷ 9 = 3 or 27÷ 3 = 9
Associative
Units may be combined in different ways to produce the same results
Example
Regardless of grouping arrangements, the sum or product is unchanged as

illustrated below.
Addition
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(4 +3) + 2 = 4 + (3 + 2)
Multiplication
(a x b) x c = a x (b x c)

(5 x 4) x 3 = 5 x (4 x 3)
Piaget further developed three sequential levels of mathematics instruction to help
learners to progress from concrete to abstract learning.
Piaget’s Sequential Levels of Mathematics Learning
What are the three levels of learning according to

Piaget?
The three sequential levels are:
 The concrete level.

 The semi - concrete level.
 The abstract level.
These levels can be applied to mathematics as explained in the following

examples:
The Concrete Level
At this level learners manipulate actual materials such as blocks, cubes, marbles,
plastic pieces, poker chips, or place value sticks. Learners can physically touch,
move and manipulate these objects as they work out solutions to number problems.

Figure 1.3: Children aged 6 years playing with blocks and toys.
The Semi-Concrete Level
After the learner masters the skill on the concrete level, instruction progresses to
the semi-concrete or representational level. Learners use pictures or tally marks
(on the paper) to represent the concrete objects as they work on mathematics
problems.
The Abstract Level
At this level, learners use only the numbers to solve mathematics problems without
the help of semi-concrete pictures or tallies. For example the child can now carry
out simple mental sums such as 5 + 3 = 8.
Having learnt the basis of Piaget’s theory of learning, let us now consider the
impact of the theory on arithmetic teaching/learning.
Importance Of Piaget’s Theory On Arithmetic Teaching and

Learning
What importance does Piaget’s theory have on

teaching/learning arithmetics?
I hope you were able to see this in two perspectives as elaborated here;
Learning arithmetic should be an active process that involves doing: The use
of hands on learning materials allows learners to explore ideas for themselves.
Manipulative materials enable learners to see, to touch and to move objects. This
creates the mental pictures or maps that can stick in the learners mind for future
use and better understanding of concepts. As learners become actively involved in
mathematics learning, they should be encouraged to use mathematics for solving
real-life problems. This active view of mathematics learning is expressed in the
following Chinese proverb, “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I

understand”. You learnt this in Module ID 016: Teaching and Learning
Strategies for Learners with Special Needs.
There should be progression from concrete learning to abstract learning:

Learning of mathematics is a gradual process. It’s not a matter of knowing it or
not knowing it. Instead, the learning of mathematics follows a continuum that
gradually increases in strength. Knowledge slowly builds from concrete to abstract,
from incomplete to complete and from unsystematic to systematic thinking.
For example Learning should progress from simple to complex: As the learner
progresses in this ordering of mathematical tasks, the learning of skills and content
transfers from each step to the next. For example multiplication skills require
understanding, ability to transfer and apply skills taught in addition.
You will learn more about the application of

principles discussed here in unit four of this module
It is expected that when these theories are effectively applied to teaching, learner’s
performance in mathematics would improve. However, as you know, the
performance of mathematics in this country and elsewhere has not been good.
In light of Piagetian perspective, assess yourself as a

mathematics teacher. List down your areas of strengths
and weaknesses and take the appropriate action.
Compare your list with that of a colleague.

Summary
In this unit, you learnt that the term mathematics is the symbolic language that
enables human beings to think about, record and communicate ideas concerning
events and relationships of quality. You also learnt that almost everything we do
involves or requires mathematics. It is therefore important to study mathematics.
You further learnt that precursors of mathematics are the foundational basic skills
that should be learnt before the child learns mathematics. These skills should be
introduced to children early.
You then learnt the importance of the environment to a learner. You learnt that
enriching the environment with appropriate stimulus, reinforcing desired responses
to these stimulus and discouraging the undesired responses are some of the
applications of stimulus response theory. You were also introduced to hypothesis-
testing theory which involves designing and conducting research that provides
evidence in the form of data about a stated problem.
At the end of the unit, you learnt about Piaget’s principles and their application to
the psychology of mathematics learning. You further learnt the three sequential
levels of learning. These are: concrete, semi-concrete and abstract levels. Finally,
you noted that mathematics skills should be taught progressively from simple to
complex, from concrete to abstract and from known to unknown.
It is believed that the knowledge gained in this unit will be helpful to you as you
move to the more complex aspects of mathematics.
You may now attempt Self Test 1.

Self Test 1
1. Using the definition of mathematics given in this unit, state four aspects that
mathematics discipline entails?
(4 marks)
2. State 3 reasons that justify the importance of teaching mathematics.
(3 marks)
3. Give two examples of a stimulus response theory.

(2 marks)
4. Explain the steps used in application of Hypothesis-Testing theory.

(3 marks)
5. Explain using examples the difference between conservation and decentration.

(4 marks)
6. Explain any four precursors that are necessary before introducing subtraction
skill to young children.
(4 marks)

UNIT 2
Common Factors Affecting Learners’

Performance in Mathematics
Introduction
Welcome to Unit 2: Factors Affecting Learner’s Mathematics Performance. In

Unit 1, you were introduced to the Theories of Mathematics Skills Development.
In this unit, you will be introduced to the common learning difficulties encountered
by mathematics learners, types of arithmetic errors and the assessment of learners
with mathematics disabilities.
Aim
The aim of this unit is to equip you with knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to
help you identify those factors affecting learners’ performance in mathematics and
how such learners can be assisted.

Objectives
 Describe common learning difficulties encountered in mathematics learning.

 Describe the types of arithmetic errors.
 Explain how to assess learners with mathematics disabilities.
Section 1: Common Learning Difficulties Affecting Learner’s Mathematics

Performance.
Section 2: Types of Arithmetic Errors.

Section 3: Assessment and Intervention of Mathematics Disabilities.
Read on!
Section 1:
Common Learning Difficulties Affecting
Mathematics Performance
In this section we shall consider the common learning difficulties affecting
learner’s performance in mathematics. We will start by defining the term common
learning difficulties.
What do you understand by the term Common

Learning Difficulties?

As you learnt in Module LD 021: Overview of Learning Disabilities, these are
challenges or problems encountered by majority of the learners in the process of
learning.
What are some of the common learning difficulties affecting

the learner’s performance in mathematics?
Some of the common learning difficulties include:
 Perceptual figure-ground discrimination.

 Spatial discrimination.
 Memory; short term, long term and sequential.
Perceptual Figure-Ground Discrimination
What do you understand by the term “Perceptual

Figure-Ground”?
The term figure here refers to the object that a person focuses on. Figure-Ground
Perception refers to a person’s ability to separate an object from its surrounding
field. A child with perceptual figure-ground discrimination difficulties is unable to
ignore irrelevant information on numbers given.
There are two types of figure-ground perception. These are:
 Visual figure-ground perception and

 Auditory figure-ground perception.
Let us now explain each one of these figure ground perception difficulties:

The Visual Figure-Ground Perception
This is the ability to distinguish an object from the background field as illustrated
in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Object versus the background

Auditory Figure-Ground Perception
This is the ability to hear a specific sound of one item over the background noise
(conversations, music, air conditioning) in the environment. Children who are
easily distracted are often unable to focus on one object while ignoring or blocking
out the background noise. Children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) or attention span difficulties often benefit from a learning environment
that minimizes background distractions. He or she is unable to focus on any one
aspect of the environment and spends all his/her time processing the stimuli. This
learner is unable to distinguish the important stimuli for learning from all the other
senses involved apart from auditory.
What are some of the characteristics of learners

with perceptual figure-ground discrimination?
The following are some of the characteristics of learners with perceptual figure-
ground discrimination. They:
 lose their place on the page.
 mix up parts of different problems.
 experience difficulty reading and using a calculator.
 have difficulty reading multi-digit numbers
Example: 1,345
The learner may miss out on some of the numbers.
 have difficulty copying symbols correctly from the book or chalkboard
 have difficulty paying attention in class.
 have difficulty differentiating between numbers like: 6 and 9; 2 and 5 or 17
and 71; coins; the operation symbols (like +, , , ) and the hands of a
clock.
It is important to note that for some learners,

when mathematics problems are dictated in class,
they will almost always, write down an incorrect

number if it sounds like another. This also happens when copying
from the chalkboard.
Spatial Discrimination
What do you understand by the term spatial

discrimination?
The term spatial discrimination refers to the ability to accurately perceive objects
in space with reference to the other objects . For example, the ability to see
a rotation, enclosure (the dot is inside the circle , order (the triangle is third
in line to the right ), proximity (draw a ball next to the tree ).
Children with spatial difficulties typically lose their place on a worksheet or when
reading text.
What are some of the characteristics of a learner with

spatial discrimination difficulties?
I hope you mentioned the following among others:

 has difficulty writing in a straight line across or down the paper. For
example a number like
32 32
x 7 may be written as x 7
224 2114
 has difficulty copying shapes or problems. For example, the child may write
6 as 9 and 3 as ε.
 put decimals in the wrong place, for example 7.34 may be read and written
as .734.
 has difficulty using the number line.

 has confusion about positive and negative numbers, for example -4 and 4
are taken to be the same.
 has difficulty discerning differences in size and shape. For example, the
child may not tell the difference between these two shapes

and
rectangle parallelogram
 has confusion about before and after concepts, such as involving time and
concept.
Example: Statements such as;
“Ten minutes ago”, “in half an hour”, “the time now is ten minutes
after 2.00 p.m.” may confuse them.
 has problems relating to directional aspects of mathematics. This is notably

in solving problems involving single digit addition up-down, left to right and
aligning numbers.
For example
A learner may be familiar with the problem in the following
format:
8
+7
15
but the same learner may be unfamiliar with a test format that presents
the same problem in a different form such as:
8 + 7 = 15
Identify learners in a standard one class, who may be

encountering spatial discrimination difficulties and come
up with strategies to help them. Discuss with a colleague.
Memory
Let us now consider the memory aspect of the learner. We will consider it in
stages, namely:
 Short term (working) memory.
 Long term memory.
 Sequential memory.

Short Term Memory
Short term memory can create several areas of difficulty and has a strong influence
on how a pupil processes numbers.
What are the characteristics of learners with

short-term memory problems?
The following are some of the characteristics of short-term memory deficits:

 the learner may be unable to ‘hold’ the visual image of the sum he/she is
trying to solve.
For example
1 A child who is trying to add 47 to 78 mentally has to ‘hold’ the

47 sum in his memory, work out 7 + 8
+78 remember and carry 1, work out (4 + 7 +1), recall the 5 and put
125 them all together in the right sequence as 125. By counting the
next (1 + 4 + 7) one may overload the memory thus forgetting the
initial sum.
 Short term memory difficulties may even prevent a learner from starting a
problem. He may simply forget some or all of the instructions that the
teacher has given. If his short-term memory is overloaded, he may be left
with absolutely no clue as to where to start.
 Has difficulties retaining the symbols and their meaning.
For example such symbols as:
<, >, ≤, ≥, +, , , , may be used interchangeably or they

may have the same meaning to the child.
Identify some children you have in class who could be having

short term memory problems. Discuss these problems with
your colleague.

Long Term Memory
Long term memory involves retaining and being able to recall accurately facts and
information stored for a long time. Long time may mean a day, a week months, or
years.
How can long term memory problems affect a

learner’s mathematics performance?
I hope you mentioned some of the following:
 A child might have memory problems that interfere with his/her ability to
retrieve (remember) basic arithmetic facts quickly for example learning the
multiplication table.
 In the upper classes, memory problems may influence a learner’s ability to
recall the steps needed to solve more difficult word problems, to recall the
steps in solving algebraic equations or to remember what specific symbols to
use. For example
%, ÷ , √
 Automatically remembering answers to basic arithmetic facts.
For example
A teacher may ask questions like, what is
3 +4 = ?, 33 – 7 = ?, 9 x 12 = ?
 Moving from using basic (less mature) counting strategies to more
sophisticated (mature) strategies to calculate the answer to arithmetic
problems.
For example
Using rote counting of fingers to carry out simple additions for a learner in
class six.
 Understanding the commutative property, for example
3 + 4 = 7 and 4 + 3 = 7
 Solving multi-digit calculations that require ‘borrowing’ and ‘carrying’.

 Misaligning numbers when copying mathematics problems from a
chalkboard or text book. For example
230 and 23
+217 - 9_
Instead of
230 and 23
+217 -9
 Forgetting the steps involved in solving various calculations.
For example
The learner may forget to carry a digit to where it is supposed to be carried.
Rote learning, as a means of loading information into long term memory, is rarely
effective especially for learners with mathematics difficulties though teachers still
persist in trying it.
Come up with strategies for helping your learners in

mathematics improve their long – term memories and
apply them to help improve their performance.
Sequential Memory
Sequential memory is the ability to recall a series of events, words or numbers.

A sequential memory difficulty is the inability to recall a series of such events or
numbers in order. For example, a child may be unable to repeat a telephone
number or a sentence, or name the days of the week in order.
What are some of the characteristics of learners

with sequential difficulties?
Learners with sequential memory difficulties may:

 Have difficulty telling time. For example, statements like half past ten or
quarter to six may not make sense to them.
 Not complete all steps in a multi-step computation problem.
 Have difficulties solving multi-step word problems. The child misses some
of the steps along the way.
 Sometimes forgets whether it is morning or afternoon and may even prepare
to go home during breaktime, thinking the school day has ended.
 Not be able to judge and allocate the time needed to complete an
assignment.
Take your time and find out from among your learners,
any other learning difficulties that could be affecting their
performance in mathematics.
You may now study table 2.1. It gives you a summary of the common learning
difficulties we have discussed above.

Table 2:1: Common Difficulties that affect mathematics performance by
learners with learning disabilities
Learning Math-Related Performance

Difficulty
Figure-ground - loses place on worksheet.
- does not finish problems on a page.
- has difficulty reading multi digit
numbers.
Discrimination has difficulty differentiating between
numbers (e.g., has difficulty with time
or counting)
Visual perception - has difficulty copying shapes or
problems.
- has difficulty writing across paper in
a straight line.
- has confusion about before-after
Spatial concepts (e.g., has difficulty with
time or counting).
- has difficulty relating to directional
aspects of math, which can be noted
in problems with computations
involving up-down (e.g., addition),
left-right (regrouping), and aligning
numbers, puts decimals in the wrong
place.
- has difficulty spacing manipulative
into patterns or sets.
- has difficulty using the number line
- has confusion about positive and
negative numbers (directional).

Auditory - has difficulty doing oral drills.
Perception - has difficulty doing oral word
problems.
- is unable to count on from within a
sequence.
- has difficulty writing numbers or
assignments from dictation.
- has difficulty learning number
patterns.
Motor - writes numbers illegibly, slowly, and
inaccurately.
- has difficulty writing in small spaces
(i.e., writes numbers that are too
large).
Short-term - is unable to retain math facts or new
information.
- forgets steps in an algorithm.
Long-term - works slowly on mastering facts over
time.
- performs poorly on review lessons or
Memory mixed problems.
- forgets steps in algorithms.
Sequential - has difficult telling time.
- does not complete all steps in a
multi-step computation problem.
- has difficulty solving multi-step
word problems.
Attention - has difficulty maintaining attention.
to steps in algorithms or problem
solving.
- has difficulty sustaining attention to
critical instruction (e.g., teacher
modelling).

Section 2: Types of Arithmetic Errors
In section 1, the common learning difficulties affecting learners’ performance were
discussed. In this section, we will focus our attention on the types of Arithmetic
Errors commonly made by learners and which greatly affect their performance in
mathematics. Learners make errors in mathematics for a variety of reasons. It is
your work as the mathematics teacher to identify the source of these errors and to
assist children in correcting them.
The following are some of the Arithmetic errors made by learners:

 Wrong operations.
 Obvious computational errors.
 Reflective errors.
 Random responsiveness.
Wrong Operations
Before we discuss the wrong operations, let us first consider the correct order of
operations or the priority rules for arithmetic.
What is the order of evaluating an algebraic or

numerical expression in arithmetic?
For all numerical or algebraic expressions, the order of evaluation is:
 Parentheses or brackets first – starting with the innermost bracket.

 Exponentials or powers.
 Multiplications and division.
 Addition and subtractions last.
 If an expression involves three or more operations at the same level of
priority, those operations are done from left to right.

These rules are important. If not followed, when
evaluating numerical expressions or when
manipulating numerical or algebraic expressions,
the results are incorrect.
Let us now consider some of the common wrong operations.
a) Sequences of additions and subtractions
For example, given

5–3+6
a learner may get -4.
5–9 by adding the 3 to the 6 to get 9.
This violates the 5th part of the rule.
Addition and subtraction are at the same priority level.
In this case,
the ‘- ’ between the 5 and the 3 should be done before
doing the ‘+’ found further to the right.
-4 is the wrong answer!
Instead, the rule requires
5–3+6
The subtraction and addition being at the same level of
priority, the subtraction, being the leftmost of the
2+6 two operations, is done first. Thus 5 – 3 gives 2.
Only one operation is left, so add 2 to 6 to get 8, the
8 correct answer!
b) Overlooking higher priority operations that may not be obviously present.

This often happens when multiplications are overlooked, because
no specific multiplying operator is present.

For example
3+5 (10-6) = 32 (This is incorrect).
3 +5 = 8 Adding the 3 and 5 to the left. This is an error,

because 5 is to be multiplied onto the result
of evaluating the bracketed expression and both the
evaluation of the bracketed expression and the
multiplication are higher priority than the addition. The
‘+’ between the 3 and 5 is the lowest priority according
to the rule, and yet was done first here. This is, therefore
an error.
10 – 6 = 4 Evaluate the bracketed expression

8 x 4 = 32 which is an incorrect final result
Instead, the evaluation of this expression should have proceeded as follows:

3 + 5 (10 – 6)
10 – 6 = 4 Evaluate the bracketed expression – this is the highest
priority operation present.
5 x 4 = 20 Do the multiplication it has the higher priority than the
addition
3 + 20 = 23 finally, do the remaining addition
The correct final result!
Outline how you have been identifying and helping your

learners with problems of using wrong order of operations.

Obvious Computational Errors
What are some of the obvious computational errors made

by learners?
The following are some common computational error patterns in addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division.
Addition
1. The sum of the ones and tens are each recorded without regard for place
value.
Examples
83 66
+ 67 + 29
1410 815
The learner has not mastered the concept of ‘carrying’.
2. All digits are added together
Example
67
+ 31
17 i.e. 6 +7 +3 +1 = 17
This learner has no regard for place value.
3. Digits are added from left to right. When the sum is greater than 10, the unit
is carried to the next column on the right.
Examples 11 11
21 37
+ 476 + 753
851 693
259 3814

The pattern reflects no regard for place value.
Subtraction
1. The smaller number is subtracted from the larger number without regard for
the placement of the number. The upper number is subtracted from the
lower number or vice versa.
Examples
627 861
-486 -489
261 428
The learner has not mastered the concept of ‘borrowing’
2. Regrouping is used when it is not required

Examples
(a) (b)
175 185
- 54 -22
1111 1513
The learner has used the following Steps:
In (a) 1 is carried from 7 to make 15, 15 – 4 = 11 and 16 – 5 = 11.
In (b) 15 – 2 = 13 followed 17 – 2 = 15
Multiplication
The regrouped number is added to the multiplication in the tens column prior to
performing the multiplication operation.
Examples
(a) (b)
17 46
x4 x8
128 448 the learner multiplies
7 x 4 to give 28 6 x 8 = 48 and drops the 4.
1 is simply dropped

Division
The zero in the quotient is omitted.

Example 21
6 1206
1200
6
6
The correct answer should be 201
Most of the computational errors stem from an inadequate understanding of place

value.
Pick a few mathematics exercise books from learners in your class

and study them to identify the different types of computational
errors they are making. Discuss these with your colleagues.
Reflective Errors
These are errors that show no tendency to serious and careful thought about the
tasks given. The learner does not give any serious thought about the question
asked. The responses given are not carefully thought about either. The response
therefore may be out of guess work and maybe full of careless mistakes. The steps
presented in solving the problem are not well thought about or some may be
skipped.

Let us now consider some characteristics of reflective errors.
What are some of the characteristics of

reflective errors?
Some of the characteristics of reflective errors may include:
 Ignoring details of the question given.

 Leaving out facts in the information given.
 Acting without a plan.
 Selecting wrong operations.
 Failure to check the work after doing it.
Random Responsive Errors
What are random responsive errors?
These are errors that are often detected in learners work but cannot be pinned down
to any particular reason. The answers or responses given may not show much
relationship to the question. The student just gives a response anyhow without
much thinking. The teacher can only try to come up with possible explanations for
these types of errors.
Let us look at some examples
Error examples Possible explanations
(a) 2 + 2 = 8 1. Inadequate fact mastery.

2. Failure to apply learned strategies like
counting on.

3. Reversal, the learner interprets 2 as 6 to get
2 +6 = 8
(b) 22 – 9 = 27 1. Inadequate fact mastery.

2. Regrouping error.
3. Reversed subtraction (9 – 2 = 7).
(c) 22 x 12 = 66 1. Place value error.

2. Incorrect alignment of addends.
22
12
44
22
66
Take a few of your learners books and check for any random
responsive errors. Try and give possible explanations for these
errors. Suggest strategies to correct them. Discuss these with a
colleague.

Section 3: Assessment of Learners with
Mathematics Disabilities
In Unit 2, you learnt about the factors affecting learners’ mathematics and various
types of arithmetic errors. In this section, you will learn about the assessment of
learners with mathematics disabilities. The following areas will be covered:
 Definition of assessment.
 Types of assessment.
 Intervention.
What do you understand by the term assessment?
As you learned from Module LD 028: Assessment and Individualized

Education Programme (IEP), Assessment refers to the gathering of relevant
information to help an individual make decisions. Assessment is a critical
component of the education process. The educational psychological assessment of
learners with mathematics disabilities involves collection of information that is
relevant in making decisions regarding appropriate goals and objectives, teaching
strategies and placement programmes. Assessment should be an active ongoing
process that has a clearly specified purpose. It should also be individualized.
Assessment should be practical and efficient. It is more than the simple

administration of a test. Nevertheless, a test is an integral part of assessment
process.
Let us now look at types of assessments.
Types of Assessments
There are two main types of assessments. These are:
 Formal tests.
 Informal measures.
We will now explain each at a time.

Formal Tests
What do formal tests consist of?
Formal tests consist of standardized survey tests, group survey tests, individually
administered achievement tests and diagnostic mathematics tests.
Some are designed for group administration while others are individually-
administered achievement tests. They are based on a comparison of the students’
performance with other learners’ upon which the test was standardized. Formal
tests mainly help to determine the learners’ level of achievement and their general
area of weakness. They only identify particular areas of weakness to enable you to
come up with appropriate individualized strategies.
In this module we will concentrate more on the informal methods of testing since
informal assessment is the most efficient way of determining the instructional
needs of individual learners.
Let us now discuss these informal measures.
Informal Measures
What are informal measures of assessment?
Informal measures of assessment offer an alternative way to obtaining information

about the learner’s performance and abilities in mathematics. Informal assessment
involves examining the learners’ daily work samples like homework, assignments
and practice exercises in class. The teacher may also use his/her own constructed
test such as; continuous assessment tests (CATs), end of term tests, end of year

examinations as well as observing a child’s behaviour while working out a
mathematics problem.
The informal measures are essential for frequent monitoring of the learners’
progress and for making relevant teaching decisions regarding individual learners.
This helps remediate the errors and areas of difficulties before they get
compounded.
Through informal measures, you can get the following information:
 Prerequisite knowledge: This refers to the previous knowledge that the

learner is bringing to the present problem.
 Accuracy and completion of ideas: This is the extent to which the learners’
ideas are accurate and complete.
 Strategy: These are the strategies that the learner has employed to solve the
problem.
 Readiness: This refers to what the child is ready to learn at a particular time.
Observations of a learner’s daily behaviour in a

mathematics class, performance on homework
assignments and on teacher-made tests can provide
information for basic assessment decisions.
Let us now look at the following informal measures that are commonly used to
assess mathematics disabilities:
 Informal inventories.
 Analysis of mathematics errors.
 Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA).

Informal Inventories
What are informal inventories?
These are tests that are devised or set by the teacher to assess the learners’ skills in
mathematics. These tests help you to identify the general area of mathematics
difficulty after which you can give a more extensive diagnostic test in that
particular area. Diagnostic tests aim at determining the student’s strengths and
weaknesses.
You can easily construct informal tests to assess the learner’s achievement in a
specific mathematics skill or in a sequence of mathematics skills. Then from the
results you get, you can then come up with an appropriate remediation strategy.
The informal test should be tailored to individual

students.

Figure 2.2: Below shows a sample of an informal arithmetic test.
Addition
3 8 25 20 15 77 5
+5 +0 +71 +49 +7 +29 +2
7
5+7= 3+ = 12 + 7 +15
233 879 648
+ 45 +48 745
+286
Subtraction
7 25 78 72 546 6762
-5 -9 -23 -49 - 222 - 4859
5-2= 7- =4 -3=5
Multiplication
5 6 24 86 59 25
x3 x7 x 2 x7 x34 x 79
6x3= 7x = 56 x 5 = 20
Division
2√10 4√16 8√125 11√121 12√108
12÷4 = 24÷ =6 ÷9=6
Source: Learning Disabilities and Related Disorders by Janet Lerner( 2006), 10th Edition

Analyzing Mathematics Errors
You should be able to detect errors that a student with a mathematics disability is
making so that you can direct your instructions towards correcting such errors.
There are different types of arithmetic errors as we have already discussed, in
Section 2 of this unit.
What guidelines can you use to conduct a

mathematics error analysis?
The guidelines for conducting an error analysis may include:
 Selecting an assessment or tasks that provide an opportunity for a variety of

errors to occur.
 Encouraging the student to attempt everything and to show all work or steps.
 Trying to get as many examples of meaningful errors as possible.
 Trying to gain insight into the students’ method of solving the problem by
noting patterns.
 Trying to categorize the errors or correcting them by content, behaviour,
condition or thought process (fact, concept, rule or strategy).
 Noting and categorizing skills that were not displayed.
 Asking yourself (or the student) “How did you arrive at this answer?”
 Once you think you have found an error pattern, see if you can confirm it by
predicting the sort of mistake a student will make and then give a specific
assessment to see if the pattern occurs.
You can deduce the thought process of the learner when you observe the methods
that the learner is using to solve a problem.
What are the common errors of computations?

There are four common errors of computations namely: “place value errors”,
“computation facts errors”, “using the wrong process” and “right to left order of
computation errors”. You remember that we have already discussed these types of
errors in Section 2 of this unit.
Curriculum-Based Assessment
Students learn best when they are given mathematics tasks that are at their
instructional level. The procedure of curriculum-based assessment provides a
useful way to measure mathematics learning and progress. This procedure closely
links assessment to the material that is being taught in mathematics curriculum.
This means that the assessment tasks prepared by the teacher are in line with what
is provided in the mathematics curriculum at that level.
What does the procedure of curriculum-based

assessment involve?
The procedure usually involves teacher constructed tests that measure learner’s
progress on curriculum objectives. These curriculum objectives have to relate to a
learners Individualized Educational Programme (IEP) objectives as you learnt in
Module LD 028: Assessment and Individualized Education Programme
(IEP). It begins by assessing an entire class with a survey test of a number of
appropriate skills based on the mathematics curriculum. The results of the survey
test is used to make instructional decisions for individual learners.

What does a curriculum-based assessment consist
of?
A curriculum-based assessment consists of four steps, namely:

 Identifying target skills: The target skill is identified from the mathematics
curriculum. For example, the skill might be mathematics computation such
as: adding of two-digit by two digit numbers as below:
35
+ 69
 Determining the objectives to be met: for example in a period of 4 weeks,

“the learner should be able to write the answers to 20 two-digit addition
problems correctly in 5 minutes”.
 Developing test items to sample each skill: Assemble a collection of two-
digit number problems.
 Developing criteria to measure achievement: For example, the student
will write answers without errors to 20 randomly selected two-digit math
problems in a 5-minute period.
Use the results obtained to make the appropriate instructional decisions.
Identify a target skill for your math learners and employ the
four steps curriculum based assessment procedure. From the
results, list down the instructional decisions appropriate to
tackle the problem.
Intervention
What are some of the intervention strategies that you

can

employ to remedy the mathematics learning problems?
It would be pointless for you to assess your learners’ mathematics disabilities but
end up doing nothing about them. After you have assessed your learners using the
methods stated above, you need to come up with interventions or appropriate
remediation strategies. Some of these interventions may include:
 Avoiding introducing new ideas too quickly: When developing a topic,
early stages should be given ample time for practice before introducing new
ideas and techniques.
 Ensuring that differing aspects of the content are clearly distinguished:
For example negative sign ‘– ‘in the context of integers should be pointed
out. Taking – 5 for instance. The sing ‘__’ and the digit ‘5’ are part of one
complete symbol which represents the integer negative five.
 Avoiding unnecessary notations that complicate the concepts.
 Re-explaining the general principles behind the skill you have
introduced, where necessary, go through the steps you have taught enough
times to be mastered by your learners. This is necessary especially if the
feedback from the exercises given show the concept was not understood.
 Employing varying methods of teaching and using visual aids as much as
possible.
 Using peer group teaching and group discussions as you find necessary
 Whenever there is a mistake in the learner’s method, point it out in good
time and demonstrate the correct method.
 Giving feedback to the learners as soon as possible and revising through the
exercise for corrections
 Demonstrating to the learners how to check the correctness of an
answer. Build in your learners the practice of checking the accuracy of their
work not only at the conclusion of a calculation but also in suitable
intermediate points.
 Modifying the content: Alter the type and amount of information presented
to learner and substitute the content.
 Modifying the nature of teacher input: This you can do by repeating or
simplifying instructions. For example you can read the questions instead of
telling the learners to read.
 Adjusting instructional pace or sequence: You can alter the length or
frequency of instructional periods: For example slowing down the rate of
presentation or providing more frequent reviews of the tasks.

 Altering the demand of the task: For example, you can allow the use of
calculator or allow the learners to give oral responses rather than written
responses.

Summary
In this unit, you learnt that there are several common learning difficulties affecting
learner’s performance in mathematics. You learnt that these common learning
difficulties are challenges or problems that are encountered by majority of the
learners in the process of learning. Some of the difficulties you learnt include
perceptual figure –ground discrimination, spatial discrimination and memory
difficulties.
You were then introduced to types of arithmetic errors some of which are wrong
operations and obvious computational errors. Further you learnt that the reflective
errors are errors that show no tendency to serious and careful thought about the
task given. You also learnt that random responsive errors are errors that may be
detected in learners work but cannot be associated with any recognizable reason.
Towards the end of the unit you were introduced to two main types of procedures
of assessing mathematics disabilities. These are: formal tests and informal
measures. You then learnt the various modes of interventions which include
ensuring that differing aspects of an idea or skill are clearly distinguished and
employing varying methods of teaching.
It is believed that the knowledge gained in this unit will be helpful for you as you
go on to explore the factors that contribute to these disabilities in mathematics.

Self Test 2
1. Identify three common learning difficulties that affect learners’ performance

in mathematics
(3 marks)
2. Identify the type of error in each of the following computations and specify
the skill that has not been applied.
(a) 476 (b) 563

+851 - 382
148 281
(4 marks)
3. Use two examples to describe the behaviour of a learner with spatial

discrimination difficulties.
(4 marks)
4. Explain how long term memory problems affect a learners performance

in mathematics.
(3 marks)
5. Explain the importance of assessing learners’ mathematics difficulties.
(4 marks)
6. Describe two informal measures of assessment.

(2 marks)

Scoreboard
17-20 Very Good
14-16 Good
10-13 Satisfactory
Below 10 Re-read the Unit

Learning Outcomes
This marks the end of Unit 2. Check the learning outcomes listed below and tick
the column which reflects your understanding of the unit.
Sure Not sure
Self evaluation
1. I can describe the common
learning difficulties affecting
learners’ mathematics
performance.
2. I can describe the types of
arithmetic errors.
3. I can explain how to assess
learners with mathematics
disabilities.
If you have put a tick in the not sure column, please go back and study the
relevant section in the unit again.
Otherwise,
Congratulations
You may now proceed to Unit 3.

UNIT 3
Factors Contributing to Mathematics Disabilities

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 3: Factors Contributing to Mathematics Disabilities. In
Module LD 024: Causes, Contributing Factors, Characteristics,
Classifications and Prevention of Learning Disabilities, general characteristics
and factors contributing to learning disabilities were considered. In this unit, you
will be introduced to characteristics of mathematics disabilities and the factors
contributing to these disabilities.
Aim
This unit aims at equipping you with knowledge and skills on characteristics and
factors that contribute to mathematics disabilities in order to help you identify and
classify learners with mathematics disabilities.
Objectives
 Analyze various characteristics of mathematics disabilities.

 Discuss the contribution of language and reading to mathematics disabilities
 Discuss the other factors contributing to mathematics disabilities.
Section 1: Characteristics of Mathematics Disabilities.

Section 2: Language and Reading Disabilities in relation to mathematics.
Section 3: Other Factors Contributing to Mathematics Disabilities.
Read on!

Section 1: Characteristics of Mathematics
Disabilities
In Unit 2, the term mathematics disability was defined and common learning
difficulties affecting learners’ mathematics performance discussed. In this section,
we will consider the characteristics of mathematics disabilities. It is expected that
by the end of this section you will be able to identify learners in your class with
mathematics disabilities so as to help them.
The following are the characteristics of mathematics disabilities that will be

considered in this module.
 Information processing components.
 Mathematics anxiety.
 Cognitive learning strategies.
We will now explain each of these characteristics.
Information Processing Component
What does information processing component

involve?
The information processing component involves retrieval or recall of information

or facts learnt in the past. Many learners with mathematics difficulties have
extremely slow retrieval of even the most basic facts. Many of the elements of
information processing are linked to mathematics disabilities.
Learners who cannot retrieve the basic facts easily get lost and often cannot follow
the logic of an explanation given by either a teacher or a peer when these basic
facts are being applied in a more complex mathematical operation.
What are some of these elements of information processing

that are linked to mathematics disabilities?

These include:
 Paying attention.
 Visual – spatial processing.
 Auditory processing.
 Memory and retrieval.
 Motor skills.
Table 3.1: Gives a summary of information processing factors and their effect
on mathematics performance.
Information-processing factors How problems in information processing

affect mathematics performance
Auditory processing  Difficulty doing oral drills.
 Problems in “counting on” from
within a sequence.
Attention  Difficulty maintaining attention to do
steps in algorithms or problems solving.
 Difficulty in sustaining attention
during instruction.
Memory and retrieval  Cannot remember mathematical facts
 Forgets steps when doing a problem
 Difficulty telling time
 Forgets multiple-step word problems
Motor skills  Writes numbers illegibly, slowly,
and inaccurately.
 Difficulty in writing numbers in
small spaces.
Visual-spatial process  Loses place on the worksheet.
 Difficulty seeing differences between
numbers, coins or operation symbols.
 Problems in writing across the paper
in a straight line.
 Problems with direction: up-down,
left-right, aligning numbers.
 Difficulty using a number line.

Identify ways of helping learners with mathematics disabilities
to improve the speed of recall of mathematical facts. Discuss
with your colleague.
Mathematics Anxiety
Mathematics anxiety will be discussed under the following headings:
 definition of mathematics anxiety.
 causes of mathematics anxiety.
 repercussions of mathematics anxiety.
 guidelines for dealing with mathematics anxiety.
Definition
What do you understand by the term mathematics

anxiety?
The term mathematics anxiety can be defined as an emotion-based reaction to

mathematics. It causes the person to freeze or shiver when he/she encounters a
mathematics problem or during a mathematics test. Many mathematics learners go
through these experiences. You could have gone through the same experience in
your primary and/or secondary school learning.
Causes of Mathematics Anxiety

What are some of the causes of mathematics anxiety?
The following are some of the causes of mathematics anxiety.
The fear of failure: A learner who has experienced failure in mathematics in the
past especially if it was an exam he/she thought was well prepared for, may
experience a lot of anxiety on imagining failure again.
Loss or lack of self-esteem: In a class where competition among the learners is

very high, a learner whose performance in mathematics is low or very low may
lose self-esteem. He may decide he is not good in mathematics like the others and
give up. Such a learner is not self-motivated and may not prepare well for the
exams or take time to do tasks assigned by the teacher carefully.
Pressure from school or home: When the learner is put under so much pressure to
perform well in mathematics by either teachers or parents, this causes anxiety
every time the learner takes a mathematics test.
Identify other causes of mathematics anxiety among your

leaners. Discuss with your colleagues.
Repercussions of Mathematics Anxiety
What are some of the effects of mathematics

anxiety?
The following are some of the effects of mathematics anxiety:

 It can interfere with the learners understanding and acquisition of basic
mathematics concepts.

 It can interfere with the learners’ ability to use transfer or apply already
acquired mathematics knowledge.
 Reasoning is interfered with hence slow progress in a task.
 It can affect the learners’ short-term and long-term memory of mathematics
concepts.
As a result of these, a learner just blocks out and cannot remember formulae, steps
or operations already learnt. This results in the learner getting lost in a task and
may either have no idea of where to start or may be unable to complete it.
Many learners with mathematics disabilities are

reported
to have anxiety as their “constant companion”.
It is therefore important for the mathematics teacher to look for ways of

overcoming anxiety among learners.
Guidelines for Overcoming Mathematics Anxiety
What are some of the ways of overcoming

mathematics anxiety among learners?
The following are some guidelines for overcoming mathematics anxiety.
Use competition carefully: Ensure your learners compete with themselves rather
than with others in the class or school. In a competitive situation, make sure that
learners have a good chance of succeeding. Provide a variety of tasks according to
the learners ability for each to experience some degree of success.
Use clear instructions: Ensure learners understand what they are to do in

mathematics assignments. Ask learners to work out some of the questions as you
supervise to ensure understanding of the instructions. When performing a new

mathematics procedure or task, give learners plenty of practice and examples to
show how the work is done.
Avoid unnecessary time pressure: Give learners enough time to complete the
assignment in the class period. Give homework from time to time. If necessary,
reduce the number of problems to be completed.

Try to remove pressure during the mathematics tests and examinations: Teach
your learners how to prepare for examination and train them on good study habits.
Give enough practice exercises for learners to be familiar with the examination
questions. Make sure that the examination format is clear and familiar.
For example
A learner may be familiar with the problem in the format:
27
+13
40
The same learner may be unfamiliar with a test format that presents the same
problem in the following format: 27 + 13 = 40
Look for more ways of dealing with anxiety in your

mathematics class. Discuss with your colleague.
Cognitive Learning Strategies
What are cognitive learning strategies?
These are ways or strategies for:
 Visualizing the problem and forming a mental picture of the problem.

 Knowing what is being asked. For example the sum, product, area, volume,
age of the daughter, a number between, etc.
 Deciding on the appropriate method for solving the problem for example by
use of addition, multiplication, a given formula, forming an equation and
solving it.
Learners with mathematics disabilities may be slow in developing and applying

strategies for remembering and retrieving information. However, if they are

provided with clear, short and suitable instructions, they can develop and use
mathematics learning strategies successfully.
What are the components of a successful problem

solving program?
There are four components of a successful problem solving program. These

include:
What to emphasize: Emphasizing the most difficult mathematics concepts and

skills rather than focusing on the basic or easier concepts of problem solving. Some
mathematics teachers use simple problems as illustrations and examples while they
give learners the most difficult problems as assignments or homework.
Learners with mathematics difficulties just get stuck and lost in doing the tasks.
This as we have seen may lead to mathematics anxiety. The more opportunities the
learners get to learn mathematics problem solving, the more they learn about
mathematics.
The type of materials/teaching aids: The materials teachers use to aid their
teaching. A successful teacher uses her own created materials rather than the
school – selected materials. Such a teacher seems to personalise the teaching of
problems – solving skills through carefully prepared lessons and materials that they
themselves understand.

Figure: 3.1.2: A caption showing a teacher explaining while using a
multiplication table
Teacher’s involvement: A successful problem solving program focuses on the

teacher’s involvement of learners in the process of learning. Successful teachers
call on learners who do not volunteer answers in order to encourage them. The
teacher promotes an atmosphere of participation regardless of whether the learner
gives the correct answers or not which gives learners a chance to express their
thoughts. The teacher encourages an atmosphere of openness and acceptance.
Teacher’s beliefs: The fourth component focuses on the teacher’s beliefs about
mathematics itself. The successful teacher focuses on problem-solving strategies
while the unsuccessful one focuses on rule-oriented strategies.

Section 2: Language and Reading Disabilities in
Relation to Mathematics
In Section 1 of this Unit you learnt about the characteristics of learners with
mathematics disabilities. In this section, we will discuss the contribution made by
language and reading disabilities to mathematics disabilities.
You shall study this section under the following sub-headings:
 Language.
 Receptive language.
 Expressive language.
 Reading and mathematics disabilities.
Language
What is language?
As you learnt in Module ID16: Teaching and Reading Disabilities for Learners
with Special Needs, language can be defined as a system of rules governing
sounds, words, sentences, meaning and use. Language involves experiences,
listening, specializing, reading, signing, writing and social interaction.
Receptive Language
This is the part of communication concerned with receiving information and
reacting to it. Learners with receptive language problems have difficulties
listening, carrying out given instructions, responding appropriately to information
(whether spoken, written, signed or brailled).

Expressive Language
Expressive language is concerned with production or formulation of speech using
spoken, written, signed or brailled language to respond to or explain something.
Learners with expressive language problems are likely to use fewer and simpler
words. Sometimes, they may have no words at all or use inappropriate words to
express their needs or opinions.
We acquire receptive language skills before acquiring

expressive language skills.
Reading
In Module LD 024, Introduction to Children with Learning Difficulties:
Cause, Characteristics and Intervention Strategies, the term reading was
defined as recognition of phonemes, leading to phonemic awareness in spoken
words as a sequence of sounds and blending phonemes to make a word. Learners
with reading disabilities have difficulty recognizing letters, numbers and words as
well as interpreting information that is presented in point form.
Let us now discuss the ways in which language and reading difficulties relate to
mathematics disabilities.
How do language and reading difficulties relate to

mathematics?
Language and reading difficulties have a direct impact in the learning of

mathematics. When a child is unable to communicate effectively he/she may have
problems understanding mathematics that relies on language acquisition. Reading
on the other hand is very crucial in learning and comprehending mathematics. If
the learner’s reading level is low, his/her mathematics performance may be
affected especially in mathematics word problems.

Mathematics word problems are particularly difficult for learners with reading
disabilities. If they are unable to read or do not understand the underlying
language structure of the mathematics problem, then they cannot plan and perform
the tasks required to solve the problem.
The following areas show the relationship between language and reading to
mathematics:
 Early concepts of quantity are evidenced by the child’s use of language such
as more, big, little, a few, enough, that’s all.
 A child who uses such terms shows some understanding of quantity;
otherwise this would signal a mathematics disability in interpretation and
application of measures of quantity: volume, mass, density, capacity, length
and their appropriate units of measurement.
Let’s consider some examples illustrating the relationship between language and
reading with mathematics.
1. Susan had 6 bags. There are 3 apples in each bag. How many apples
does Susan have?
For a learner to be able to answer this question correctly, he/she needs to:
 be able to read and understand the key concepts.
 gather or extract the relevant facts:
- Number of bags 6
Number of apples in each bag are 3
 put the two facts together and use the appropriate sign like either, the 1 st bag
has 3 apples, the second bag 3 upto the 6th bag and therefore use addition
3 + 3 +3 + 3+ 3+ 3 = 18
0R
since each of the 6 bags has 3 apples the learner may be able
to see the problem in terms of multiplication
6 x 3 = 18
2. Find the perimeter of a rectangle whose length is 5 cm and width 2 cm
For a learner to be able to answer this question correctly he/she needs to:
read and understand the question and meaning of the terms perimeter,
rectangle, length and width. The learner also needs to understand the
meaning of longer side is 5cm and that the shorter side is 2cm.

To extract the important information the learner needs to have basic
information on “perimeter” as the distance all round the figure. He/she also
needs to be able to make a mental picture of the rectangle
2
5
With this in mind, the learner can easily see the addition aspect of the 2 lengths and
2 widths i.e. 5cm + 5cm + 2cm + 2cm = 14cm.
A further step would involve observing that there is a length of 5cm two times,
hence (5 x 2) cm added to the 2cm twice (2 x 2) cm.
This comes to (5 x 2) cm + (2 x 2) cm which leads to 10cm + 4cm = 14cm
From these examples, you realize that a child with reading and language
difficulties easily develops a mathematics difficulty and is likely to end up being
grossly disadvantaged among other learners in class.
What are some of the language factors

contributing to mathematics disabilities?
Some of the language factors contributing to mathematics disabilities include the

following:
 The same symbol may have different names
For example
+, means add, plus, positive.
-, means subtract, minus, negative.
=, equals to, same as
 Different symbols may have same meaning. For example
Division: 2÷3, can also be written as 2/3
Multiplication: 4x5 and 4(5) have the same meaning.
 Some symbols are reversal for example, > <, hence some learners may
confuse them.
Mathematics has its own language and symbols.

Learners who do not understand the meaning of

these symbols is likely to get confused and may not be able to
work out a problem correctly.
Table 3.1: Illustrates this further
Symbol Meaning Example as in
1. Add Add 2 to 3 means 2+3=5

+ 2. Plus 9 plus 8 which is written as 9+8 = 17
3. Positive Positive 7 is written as +7
1. Equal to 2+2+2 Is equal to 2x3 which is equal to 6, which is

represented as 2+2+2 = 2x3 = 6
= - The left-hand side is equal to the right hand side of the
equal sign.
2. Same as - The amount of money Jane used to buy 2 exercise
books was the same as the amount she used to buy three
pencils. Here, total cost of 2 books = total cost of 3
pencils.
Other language factors you may encounter in your class include:
 A child missing key words or small words in a sentence for example words
like ‘not’ will answer a different question all together.
 The teacher may use a language that is beyond the level of the learners.
This causes the learner to lack understanding of what is being taught or
asked
 Problems with expressive language: The learner may be unable to explain
how well he/she understands a concept or how to apply, interpret and solve
what he/she reads. Consequently, the task at hand becomes a problem.
On the surface, any of these difficulties may look

like a
lack of mathematical knowledge or skills, rather than a
problem with language.

Reading and Mathematics Disabilities
Reading skills need to be developed well for a mathematics learner to be able to
understand and interpret mathematics word problems. A difficulty in reading
causes a mathematics disability in several ways. I am sure you have learnt more
about reading in Module LD 027: Reading and Reading Acquisition.
In what ways does a reading difficulty contribute to a

mathematics disability?
Some of the ways in which reading difficulties contribute to mathematics

 Use of technical terms that are difficult for the learner to read and interpret.
For example use of the term “evaluate” instead of “find” or “work out”.
 Syntactic complexity of the English used: Organization of the words in a
sentence may be difficult for the learner to get the expected meaning.
 The mathematical notation used: For example a question may be set as
follows. Find those values of x for which 2x – 1< 0, where x is a whole
number. This could also be put differently as: Find the solution set of the
inequation 2x – 1 < 0 where x is a whole number.
In your day to day activities with learners who have mathematics disabilities, most
of these problems will emerge. It is important therefore that you distinguish those
problems that arise as a result of language and reading difficulties from the actual
mathematics disabilities. This will enable you assist each learner with more focus.

Section 3: Other Factors Contributing to
Mathematics Disabilities
In section 2 of this unit, you learnt how language and reading problems contribute
to mathematics disabilities. In this section, you will learn about other factors that
contribute to mathematics disabilities. These other factors include the following:
 Behaviour patterns:
 Auditory, visual and motor perception.
 Reasoning.
 Attention Deficit Disorders (ADD).
Let us now consider each of these factors at a time.
Behaviour Patterns
We shall now consider some forms of behaviour patterns that learners in a class
may show which may end up causing a mathematics disability if not checked.
These behaviour patterns include:

 Impulse.
 Perseveration.
Let us discuss each of these behaviour patterns:
Impulse
What do you understand by the term impulse?
This is a lack of inhibition. Impulsivity is one of the characteristics found in

children with a learning disability that may affect the learner’s acquisition of
mathematics skills. A learner when asked a question just shouts out an answer
spontaneously without thinking much of what was being asked for.
For example, when asked what 4+8 is, a learner may shout out 5 or 9 just because
these numbers come next when counting.

This example shows that the learner has great difficulty holding back information
that is not required here and instead focus on the problem at hand.
How does impulsive behaviour contribute to

Some of the ways in which impulsive behaviour contributes to mathematics

 Irrelevant associations: like the example considered above.
 No consideration of possible alternatives: Instead, the learner just comes
up with a quick decision on the way to approach a given problem. The first
method that comes into mind might be the longest and much time is wasted.
 No consideration of right or wrong answers: For example in a task
requiring matching objects, a learner may draw lines from one object to
another. Consider the example below.
Incorrect correct

Impulsive learners seem to arrive at decisions too
quickly, without taking time to think out the problem
given. They react without thinking of the
consequences.
Impulsive behaviours may result from a lack of alternative ideas of solving a

problem. The learner does not have a variety of choices in mind to work out a
problem. This learner should therefore be helped to develop a number of ways of
solving problems. Some of these interventions are explained in unit 4 of this
module.
Try to identify some children in your class who have this

kind of problem. Make a list of specific behaviours
the learner has shown in the past and discuss them with
your colleague.
Perseveration
What is perseveration?
This is the uncontrollable repetition of a particular response, such as a word, phrase

or gesture even when the stimulus is long gone. It is usually caused by brain injury
or other organic disorders. A child with preservation behaviour continues with an
activity once it has started and has difficulty changing to another. For example
after writing a number say 2 the four times required in a writing lesson, the
perseverative child may not be able to stop but instead will continue this activity
until the whole page or book is filled with 2’s.

Figure 3.3.1: Numeral two written on the whole page
A perseverative child focuses on one or a number of narrow interests and may stay
in that condition for a very long time if not helped.
How does perseveration behaviour contribute to

mathematics disabilities?
Perseveration behaviour contributes to mathematics disabilities in several ways.

Some of these are:
 Loss of focus: The learner tends to focus on one task and may not follow up
on the rest of the tasks that you introduce during the lesson. The learner
may end up not acquiring the targeted behaviour.
 Time wastage: So much time is lost carrying out a single task at the
expense of other skills to be learnt.

Auditory, Visual and Motor Perception
These are modalities or channels of learning within perceptual skills. You shall
study them under the following sub-headings:
 Auditory Perception.
 Visual Perception.
 Perceptual-Motor Skills.
We will consider each at a time.
Auditory Perception
What do you understand by the term auditory

perception?
This is the ability to interpret what is heard. It is an important precursor of

learning. Children with auditory perception difficulties can hear, but their
difficulty lies in four areas, namely:
 Auditory discrimination.
 Auditory memory.
 Phonological awareness and
 Auditory sequencing and blending.
In what ways do the auditory perception

difficulties mentioned above contribute to
mathematics disabilities?
Some of the ways through which auditory perception difficulties contribute to

mathematics disabilities include:

Auditory discrimination difficulties: This involves being unable to identify a
particular sound heard and making meaning out of if. Being able to identify words
that are the same and words that are different for example “thirty” and “thirty six”
which have a minimal sound difference.
Auditory memory difficulties: The problem of being unable to store and recall
accurately the information needed to solve a given problem. If a learner cannot
remember, the application in a present situation would be impossible.
For example a student asked to do three tasks like draw, label and work out the
area of a right-angled triangle. The child with auditory memory difficulties may
just recall one piece of the instructions or two. The result is that one task is left
undone.
Phonological awareness difficulties: Phonological awareness is the ability to

recognize that the words we hear are composed of individual sounds within the
word. For example, the word kite has three different sounds. Children with
phonological awareness difficulties cannot recognize similarities in words like
height, eight, weight. When a teacher dictates a question in class using any of such
words a child may hear one and not the other.
Auditory sequencing and blending difficulties: auditory sequencing is the ability

to remember the order of items in a sequential list for example, numbers 1 to 10,
months of the year, days of the week are learned as auditory sequences.
Auditory blending: is the ability to blend single sounds into a complete word. A
child who has auditory sequencing and blending difficulties may not be able to
pick out the order of items as they are given or be able to combine single sounds
into complete words and make meaning out of it.
Visual Perception
How the problem areas in visual processing do mentioned

above cause mathematics disabilities?

This difficulty arises when a child cannot recognize differences in objects or things
they see.
In mathematics, it can cause difficulties in recognizing different shapes like a

square and a rectangle; copy numbers, and letters. For example, they may
visualize 6 as 9.
Visual memory difficulties: A child with this difficulty may easily forget what
she has observed in the past so as to apply it a present situation. For example, if a
teacher demonstrated in class how to draw a number line: showed the position of
zero, the negative and positive numbers and ask them to draw the same.
Figure 3.3.2: Number line.
A child with visual memory difficulty may be unable to remember from the
teacher’s demonstration how to correctly draw the number line.
For a learner to be able to calculate problems in

addition, subtraction, place value, multiplication
and division, they must learn to copy and line up
numbers accurately.
Perceptual-Motor Skills

What does the term perceptual motor skills refer
to?
The term refers to the integration of perceptual input (from the six senses) and
motor (Gross and fine motor) skills. Gross-motor skills involve the small muscles
like coordination of the hands and fingers, the tongue and the speech muscles.
Motor learning lays the foundation for other kinds of learning. In order to deal with
symbolic materials, children must learn to make observations about space and time
and relate these observations to objects and events. Inability to accomplish these
motor activities to reasonable levels may lead to a chain of other difficulties
including mathematics difficulties.
How does perceptual motor difficulties contribute

to mathematical difficulties?
Perceptual motor difficulties can contribute to mathematical difficulties in some of

the following ways:
Fine-motor difficulties: These may lead learners to having difficulties in holding

a pen and writing legibly. Fine-motor skills should be taught early enough as
precursors of mathematics.
Counting skills: The learner may verbally know how to count but has not
developed the concept that each number corresponds to one object.
This is developed through use of motor skills like counting using fingers and toes,
jumping four times, tapping on the table two times and clapping three times, etc.
Reasoning
Reasoning mathematically is a habit of the mind, and like all habits, it must be
developed through consistent use in many situations and from as early as possible.
At all levels, students reason from patterns and specific cases. Exploring and

justifying using mathematical expressions and symbols are common to all content
areas and levels.
Thinking and reasoning difficulties are common in many

individuals with mathematics disabilities.
As learners are asked to communicate about the mathematics they are studying, to
justify their reasoning to a classmate or to formulate a question about something
that is puzzling, they gain insights into their thinking.
How does a difficulty in reasoning contribute to a

Learners with difficulties in reasoning:

 Take longer than others to learn new tasks and information
 May not apply learned information to new situations: for example applying
knowledge in multiplication in division tasks or equivalent fractions.
 May not draw conclusions from observations made in a task:
For example, to argue out whether “0” is an odd or even number, then achild
can use the observation that if zero were odd, then o and 1 would be two odd
numbers in a row. But from observation, even and odd numbers alternate.
 May lack effective strategies for solving problems
 May have difficulties organizing their thinking.
Identify other ways through which reasoning difficulties

contribute to mathematics difficulties in your learners. Discuss
with your colleague.
Attention Deficit Disorders (ADD)

Attention deficit disorder is characterized by:

 Persistent difficulties in attention span.
 Poor impulse control.
In school, children with Attention Deficit Disorders:

 Have a loud presence in the classroom and draw attention of other children
to themselves.
 Constantly interrupt.
 Make demands and comments constantly.
 Experience difficulties with sustaining attention to tasks.
 Become unpopular members of the classroom. Their behaviours are at times
irritating and teachers may be tempted to ignore their questions and
demands.
In what ways do attention deficit disorders

contribute to mathematics disabilities?
Disorders in attention may cause mathematics disabilities when:

 The child is seen as a problem in class and is therefore ignored by both the
teacher and peers. With time, he/she gets bored and disinterested in the
concepts being taught in the mathematics lesson.
 Their attention span to a task is very short and will therefore only listen and
get brief parts of the explanation and demonstration being given. When new
mathematical concepts are introduced, they only get parts of it. They will
therefore have problems in the future where the present knowledge and skills
are to be applied.
 They are impulsive. They may spend all their time in a lesson working on
one task and be unable to stop and go to another one as the teacher demands.
This means they are left behind as the rest of the class progresses to other
tasks.
For more information on attention deficit

disorder refer to
Module LD 024:Cause, Contributing Factors,

Characteristics and Prevention of Learning Disabilities.
Strategies.

Summary
In this Unit, you learnt that language and reading difficulties are contributing
factors to mathematics disabilities. You further learnt that mathematics word
problems are particularly difficult for learners with language and reading
disabilities. Other characteristics of mathematics disabilities that you learnt were:
Information processing component which relates to recall of information or facts
learnt in the past and mathematics anxiety among others. Mathematics anxiety was
defined as an emotion based reaction to mathematics.
Further, you learnt about the various factors that contribute to mathematics
disabilities. Among these factors are language and reading, behaviour patterns
such as impulse and perseveration. You learnt that perseveration is the
uncontrollable repetition of a particular response, such as a word, phrase or gesture
even when the stimulus is long gone. Other contributing factors to mathematics
disabilities that you learnt were auditory, visual and motor perception as well as
reasoning and short attention span.
It is believed that the knowledge gained in this unit will be helpful to you in
finding out the exact problems that your learners experience in mathematics. This
will enable you plan effectively on how to assist them.

Self Test 3
1. Explain how the following information processing components affect

Mathematics Performance:
(a) Visual-spatial process.
(b) Memory and retrieval.
(4 marks)
2. State three motor problems that can affect a learner’s performance in

mathematics?
(3 marks)
3. Explain the relationship between reading disabilities and mathematics

disabilities.
(3 marks)
4. Explain four ways in which mathematics anxiety affects learner’s mathematics

performance.
(4 marks)
5. Explain any three components of a successful problem solving programme.

(3 marks)
6. State any three factors that contribute to math disabilities.

(3 marks

UNIT 4
Principles and Components of Effective Mathematics

Instruction

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 4: Principles and Components of Effective Mathematics
Instruction. In Unit 3 you learnt about the characteristics and factors that
contribute to mathematics disabilities. In this unit, you will learn the principles
you can apply when instructing learners with mathematics disabilities and the
components of effective mathematics instruction.
Aim
This unit aims at equipping you with knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help
you to prevent and correct mathematics disabilities.
Objectives
 Discuss the principles of instruction for learners with mathematics

disabilities.
 Explain the relevance of these principles to learners with other disabilities
 Explain the components of effective mathematics instructions.
Section 1: Principles of Instruction for Learners with Mathematics

Disabilities.
Section 2: Relevance of Principles to Learners with other Disabilities
Section 3: Components of Effective Mathematics Instruction.
Enjoy your studies!

Section 1: Principles of Instruction for Learners
with Mathematics Disabilities
In this section we will discuss the principles of instructions for the learners with
mathematics disabilities under the following topics:
 Teaching precursor of mathematics learning.

 Progressing from concrete to abstract concepts.
 Providing opportunity for practice and review.
 Generalizing mathematics skills.
 Mathematics vocabulary.
 Considering the learners strengths and weaknesses.
 Building a solid foundation of mathematics concepts and skills.
 Balanced mathematics programmes.
 Constructive learning.
 Direct instructions.
 Cognitive learning strategies.
 Problem solving strategies.
 Computer-aided learning in mathematics.
Let us now explain each at a time.
Teaching Precursors of Mathematics Learning

In unit 1 we discussed the precursors of mathematics learning as the ability to
count, match, sort, compare and understand one-to-one correspondence. Before
any teaching/learning of mathematics occurs, these precursor skills need to be
mastered.
What is the need of teaching the precursors of

mathematics to a learner with mathematics
disability?

 A child with attention problems, unstable perceptual skills or difficulties in
motor development may not have had sufficient or appropriate experiences
with the activities of manipulation that pave way for understanding space,
form, order, time, distance and quantity.
 A learner who gets lost when performing a mathematics task signals that
he/she has not acquired the needed early skills for mathematics learning.
They may not understand the new concepts presented to them. As a result
he/she may get confused.
 Learning mathematics is a sequential process, and learners must acquire
skills at an earlier stage before going to the next stage.
Teachers who work with learners who have

mathematics disabilities must direct their
instruction toward these unlearned early skills.
Progressing from Concrete to Abstract Concepts

Learners can best understand a mathematics concept when teaching progresses
from the concrete to the abstract as explained in the theories of mathematics
learning. There are three instructional stages as earlier discussed in unit 1 section 3
of this module.
What does it mean to progress from concrete to

abstract?
When a child progresses from concrete to abstract it means:
 The child can manipulate real (concrete ) objects in learning the skills. For
example, he/she can hold and move two blocks and three blocks.
 A graphical representation (semi-concrete) can be used in place of the actual
objects. For example, circles, squares drawn on paper can be used to
illustrate the two and three blocks below.

Thus, + =5
 Finally the child can replace the graphical symbols with numerals (abstract).
2 +3 = 5
Providing Opportunity for Practice and Review

Learners with mathematics disabilities need many opportunities for review, drill
and practice. Learners will also need to over-learn the mathematics concepts since
they must be able to use these concepts almost automatically.
Apart from providing these opportunities, the

teacher
needs to vary the methods of presentation as often
as
possible?
Generalizing Mathematics Skills

Learners must learn to generalize a skill to many situations as we have already
discussed. For example, you can practice computation facts with your learners
using many story problems. The goal of teaching learners to generalize is to enable
them gain the skills of recognizing computational operations and be able to apply
them to various new situations.
Mathematics Vocabulary
You realize that the vocabulary and concepts of mathematics are new and must be
learned. Some of your learners may know the operations in mathematics but do not
know the precise term applied or given to the operation. It is important for the
teacher to teach the operations’ terms hand in hand with the operation itself.
What are some of the examples of vocabulary

terms

used in mathematics?

The following table, summaries some of these vocabularies:
Table 4.2: A summary of terms used in computation skills
Operation Terms
Addition 3 addend
+5 addend
8 sum
Subtraction 9 minuend
-3 subtraend
6 difference
Multiplication x7 multiplicand
5 multiplier
35 product
7 quotient
Division 6√42
divisor
Identify more vocabulary and create a list as per the above

example. Discuss with your colleague and make this list
available to your learners.

Learners’ Strength and Weaknesses
You need to understand your learners abilities and disabilities in addition to the
mathematics attainment levels and the operation that each of your learners can
perform.
What techniques, approaches and materials can

you use
to help your learners with various weaknesses in
mathematics?
You can use the following techniques, approaches and materials:

 Determine whether the learner comprehends number structure and
mathematical operations: for example understanding of the meaning of
spoken numbers, reading and writing of numbers.
 Determine the learners’ skills in spatial orientation: the left-right
directionality.
 The extent to which language ability contributes to the learners’ problems in
mathematics: the expressive and receptive language.
 Reading ability: Extent to which poor reading ability interferes with
mathematics learning such as reading of numbers and understanding of
sentences in the story problems.
 Memory attention: extent to which memory or attention problems interfere
with the student’s mathematics learning.
Building a Solid Foundation of Mathematics Concepts and

Skills
You should aim at treating mathematics in a way that solidifies the mathematics
concepts so that they are stable and remain available in the learners mind.
Let us now consider the guidelines to building a solid foundation of mathematics

thinking.

What are some of the ways that you can build a
solid foundation of mathematics thinking among
your learners?
The following are guidelines to building a solid foundation of mathematics

thinking.
 Emphasize answering questions rather than merely doing something.

 Generalize the teaching to many different kinds of applications and
experiences with different ways of handling the problem.
 Provide thorough instructions to help your learners’ receive the practice they
need.
 Gaining confidence: helping your learners gain confidence in their
mathematics ability.
Poor teaching methods can actually make a pupil’s

mathematics disability worse.
Balanced Mathematics Programme

A good mathematics instruction must be balanced. It should include an appropriate
combination of three elements, namely:
 Quantitative concepts.
 Number skills.
 Problems solving.
Let us now consider each of these elements at a time.

Quantitative Concepts
What does the term quantitative concepts refer to?
The term refers to the basic understanding of value concepts. It is developed when
learners are able to classify or group objects or when they can associate a label
with a class. For example, recognizing that round objects form a group and that
the name applied to objects in that group is a circle.
Number Skills
The term skills refer to something that one does. Concepts refer to basic
understanding. The processes of doing the number facts include the basic
operations in: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Skills tend to
develop by degrees and can be improved through instructional activities.
A number skill can be performed well or not so

well,
quickly or slowly, easily or with great difficulty.
Problem Solving Skills
Mathematics skills and concepts are applied to problem solving. Usually, the
application involves the selection and use of some combination of concepts or
skills in a new or different setting.
How would you help your learners’ acquire

problem
solving skills?

The following are ways of helping learners acquire problem solving skills:
 Help identify analogious situations: like thinking situations that are similar
to the present problem.
 Using similarities in two situations: apply the same concepts and skills to
solve related problems.
Constructive Learning
Learners need to construct their own understanding of each mathematical concept.
In this case, your primary role is to create situations for the learners that will
encourage them to make the necessary mental constructions.
What are the guiding principles of constructive

learning?
The guiding principles of constructive learning include the following:

 Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted.
 Prior knowledge impacts on the learning process.
 Learners understand the basic concepts at different rates.
 Building useful knowledge structures require effortful and purposeful
activity.
Look for different ways to engage your learners to develop a

rich environment for exploration. Discus these with your
colleague
Direct Instructions
Direct instruction is also referred to as explicit teaching. The focus is on teaching
the academic skills of the curriculum in a structured and controlled manner. This
involves careful ordering of the task into sequential steps. The learner can then

practice and repeat each step of the sequence until he/she attains mastery in the
skill.
What are the procedures for direct instruction?
These procedures include:
 Breaking the tasks into small steps.

 Giving probing questions to provoke the learners reasoning.
 Supplying feedback to the learner.
 Providing diagrams and pictures to enhance comprehension.
 Providing ample independent practice.
Cognitive Learning Strategies

Cognitive learning strategies are the mental tools and techniques we use to help us
understand and learn new materials or skills. We then can integrate this new
information with what we already know in a way that makes sense. It involves
recall of the information or skill when needed in a different situation or place, as
you learnt in unit 3 section 1 of this module.
How do you teach cognitive strategies to learners

with mathematics disabilities?
You teach learners to:
 Use cognitive strategies that effective learners use, such as: organization
skills, planning, asking themselves questions and monitoring their own
performance.
 Choosing the appropriate strategies for each task presented.

Problem Solving Strategies
What do you understand by the term problem

solving?
The term problem solving means engaging in a task for which the solution is not
known in advance. Good problem solving strategies involve careful analysis of the
problem in mathematical terms and symbols.
Learners need to develop a range of strategies for solving problems such as:
 Using diagrams.
 Looking for patterns.
 Trying special values or cases.
Let us now consider the teachers role in developing problem solving skills.
What is your role in developing learners’ problem

solving skills?
Your role in developing learners’ problem-solving skills includes:
 Choosing problems that engage the learners’ thinking, reasoning,

organization and application skills.
 Provide environments that encourage learners to explore, take risks, share
failures and successes and question one another. This helps the learners to
build the confidence that they need to explore problems and the ability to
make adjustments in their problem-solving strategies.

Well thought out problems give students a chance
to solidify and extend their knowledge and to
stimulate
new learning.
Computer-Aided Learning in Mathematics

Computer-based tools such as spreadsheets and graphing programs can help
learners with mathematics disabilities to explore important mathematical
relationships.
How do computers aid learning in mathematics?
Computers aid learning in mathematics in the following ways:
 Visual representation of mathematical concepts as computer spreadsheet

programs provide learners with visual representation of mathematical
relationships.
 The spreadsheet format keeps data neat and organized, making it easier for
the learners to see how numerical relationships change when variables are
changed.
 Spreadsheets can help the learners to learn about; place value, decimals,
making calculations, seeing relationships, understanding the variable and
working with large numbers.

Section 2: Principles of Instructions for Learners
with other Disabilities
In Section 1 of this Unit, you learnt about the principles of instructions for learners
with mathematics disabilities. In that section, we discussed learners who generally
have a learning disability. In this section, we will discuss the principles of
instructions that can be employed to teach mathematics to learners with other
forms of disabilities. These disabilities include:
 Mental disabilities.
 Visual impairments.
 Hearing impairments.
 Physical disabilities.
Let us discuss each of these disabilities.
Mental Disabilities
What does the term mental disability refer to?
The term mental disability here refers to:
Those learners whose intellectual functioning falls far below that of their peers and
at the same time exhibit maladaptive behaviour during their developmental period.
Such learners show substantial limitations in academic tasks.
For more information on mental strategies of

teaching learners with mental disabilities refer to
Module IE
026: Strategies and Methods of Teaching
Learners who are

Mentally Handicapped.

What principles of instructions in mathematics are
appropriate for learners with mental disabilities.
Memory: Learners with mental disabilities have difficulty remembering

information. They quickly forget the concepts and skills taught as time lapses.
Both the short term and long-term memories may be adversely affected.
The following strategies may be used to assist them appropriately:
 Rehearsing or repeated practice on the particular skills to enhance the

memory.
 Organizing mathematics tasks into sets of related information. Use of
relationships in tasks such as relationship between addition and
multiplication, subtraction and division.
 Breaking the tasks into simplified steps and teaching each at a time to ensure
mastery of each.
Learning Rate: The rate at which individuals with disabilities acquire new
knowledge and skills is well below that of a typically developing child. You
therefore need to give them ample time for practice before testing. You should
also encourage them to keep trying out the tasks at a faster rate.
Attention: These learners have a low ability to observe the critical features of
tasks. For example in distinguishing shapes of figures they may instead focus on
irrelevant features like the colour of the figure. You need to keep directing their
attention to the relevant features and simplifying the tasks.
Motivation: Many learners with mental disabilities lack interest in learning,

especially problem solving tasks. They may develop learned helplessness.
Constant encouragement and reinforcement of correct responses can boost their
self-esteem.

Identify learners in your class who are in either of
the four categories discussed above and come up
with appropriate principles of instruction for their
individual problems.
Visually Impairment
What is the definition of the term visual impairment?
The term visual impairment is an umbrella term that includes all levels of vision
loss. It includes total blindness to uncorrectable visual limitations. The term
includes both partial sight (low vision) and total blindness. You learnt more on
learners with visual impairments in Module ID 001: Introduction to Children
with Special Needs.
What are the challenges that learners with visual

impairments face in learning mathematics and what
principles of instruction are appropriate for them?
The educational implications of visual impairment include:
Total blindness: Learners are only able to distinguish the presence or absence of
light. If they do have some vision, they may use it effectively for orientation,
mobility and other tasks. Such learners may learn best through tactile (sense of
touch) or the auditory sense (hearing). Mathematical braille would be ideal for
them. For more information on this refer to Module IE 033: Braille III
(Mathematics Braille).

Low vision: The learner may be severely impaired but may be seeing objects of
near distances or sometimes under modified conditions. Others may have limited
use of vision under average circumstances.
 Use large enough diagrams and print for illustrations.

 Assess the severity of the impairment to help you decide the appropriate
strategies of the teaching of mathematics and come up with an
Individualized Education Programme (IEP).
 Read instructions for the learners where possible as opposed to asking them
to read.
 Break the concepts into simpler steps and provide hands-on experiences.
Give more practical assignments.
 Respond to the ideas and feelings in the learner’s speech as they respond to
your questions. Encourage the learner to point out the steps they do not
understand or to alert you when they cannot see.
 Provide opportunities for explanation and listening.
 Be supportive and encouraging.
Hearing Impairment
What is the definition of the term hearing

impaired?
The term hearing impaired is an umbrella term that refers to all degrees of hearing
loss, from slight to profound deafness. However, very few people with hearing
loss are totally deaf. Most have some remaining hearing, however slight. Where
there is only a slight hearing remaining, a hearing aid which detects sounds within
the environment can be used.

What are the challenges experienced by learners
with hearing impairment in learning
mathematics?
Some of the challenges that learners with hearing impairment experience in

learning mathematics include:
 Language acquisition: The impact of hearing loss on a learners’ ability to

acquire the spoken language naturally is often substantial. These
communication difficulties then affect mathematics skill and concept
development as we discussed earlier.
 Cognitive and intellectual development: Although learners’ with hearing
impairment may have normal cognitive and intellectual abilities, they are
faced with challenges on spatial discrimination and auditory figure-ground
perceptions, which we discussed in unit 2 of this module.
What principles of instruction are appropriate for

learners with hearing impairment?
 Sign language: You may need to develop or use sign language to

demonstrate some of the mathematics skills and concepts. For more
information on this refer to Module IE 024: Elementary Kenyan Sign
Language.
 Use step by step method: Apply a variety of teaching methods in teaching
the skills but simplify the language and develop the concepts in steps from
simple to complex.
 Use of manual communication: Manual communication has two
components; finger spelling, in which words are spelt out letter by letter
using a manual alphabet and so are numbers and the sign languages.

 Create opportunities to practice elaborate verbal skills, as well as
opportunities to define and refine their ideas in the mathematics concepts
and skills.
 Use as many visual aids as possible: Use written instructions and
summaries as well as the key words and concepts on the chalkboard.
 Ask questions and spend time with the learners with hearing impairment to
ensure they follow instructions.
When a sign language interpreter is being used in

the classroom, make sure the interpreter has an
opportunity to complete the message before
moving on to the next point.
Physical Disabilities
What does the term physical disability refer to?
The term physical disability refers to a condition that incapacitates the skeletal,
muscular, and/or neurological systems of the body to some degree. There are
varying degrees of severity in these conditions. The challenges experienced in
learning mathematics depend on the type of condition and its severity.
What are some of the principles of instruction

for teaching mathematics to learners with
physically disabling conditions?
 Assess each learner’s abilities and disabilities to be able to come up with

appropriate teaching/learning strategies.

 Positioning of the learning materials: Good positioning of blocks, toys
and other mathematics learning materials will maximize freedom of
movement, improve the ability to look and see relationships and facilitate
controlled, relaxed movement. For more information refer to Module IE
023: Adaptations of Environmental and Educational Resources for
Learners with Physical, and Multiple Disabilties-1
 Positioning, seating and lifting: Good positioning and seating ensures the
learner is comfortable and can concentrate in class.
The presence of a physical disability or illness, even a

severe one does not mean that the individual’s intellectual
ability has been affected.

Section 3: Components of Effective Mathematics
Instruction
In section 1 of this unit, we discussed the principles of instruction for learners with
mathematics disabilities. In this section we will consider the components of
effective mathematics instruction. These include:
 Selecting appropriate mathematics content.

 Establishing goals and expectations.
 Providing systematic and explicit instruction.
 Teaching students to understand mathematics concept.
 Monitoring progress.
 Providing feedback.
 Teaching to mastery.
 Teaching problem solving.
 Teaching generalization.
 Promoting a positive attitude towards mathematics.
Let us now consider each of these concepts.
Selecting Appropriate Mathematics Content

Mathematics should be taught in a way that solidifies the mathematics concepts
(basic understanding) so that they are stable and remain available to the learners.
What considerations should a teacher make when

selecting the appropriate mathematics content?
There are several considerations that a teacher needs to make when selecting
appropriate mathematics content.
 The mathematics curriculum and course syllabus: This must guide you in
selecting the content appropriate at each level. They also show the

appropriate order of content coverage and the content the learner has already
covered.
 Application to the real-world context: If a mathematical content is to be
appropriate enough, it is important that it be presented in a real-world
context. If this is not done, the learner ends up memorizing meaningless
procedures to obtain answers. For example, the teaching of currencies
should be done in the context of buying and selling.
 A learners’ prior learning or the entry behaviour: Mathematics is a
system of concepts and operations that are ordered in such away that
concepts build on each other and are interrelated.
 It is important for the teacher to build on the knowledge and skills,
thelearners have already acquired thus starting from known to unknown.
For example, a learner should know some addition facts before learning
subtraction facts
 Teach mathematics content that is practical, or relevant to the learners.
Before teaching a new skill, the teacher should begin

with
a skill that learners are familiar with.
Establishing Goals and Expectations

It is important for you as the mathematics teacher to make your learners aware of
your expectations for them in terms of knowledge, skills and abilities. You need to
do this for each content area.
It is even better to set the goals and expectations with your class and keep
reviewing them with the learners. Continuous evaluation of these goals and giving
a feedback to the learners is important.
What is the importance of establishing the goals

and expectations?

 You realize that the involvement of learners to set their own goals and to
know their teachers’ expectations helps them to own up, feel part of the
going on in a mathematics class. The learners feel important and have a
sense of belonging.
 It also builds a sense of working together towards a common goal. Thus

learners will put every effort towards attaining the goal and meeting their
teacher’s expectations.
 Learners get a sense of direction: It is clear from the beginning just what is
expected of them.
There should be a forum for the teacher and learners to

clearly define the goals and expectations in each content
area in mathematics.
Figure 4.3.1: A teacher and pupils sit to discuss and agree on goals and
expectations in their mathematics class

Provide Systematic and Explicit Instruction
Teaching mathematical concepts require the teacher to have a good and clear
understanding of the processes and content he/she is presenting so as to effectively
present information to the learners.
What do you understand by the term systematic

and explicit instruction?
Systematic and explicit instruction refers to the instructional approach that includes
set of procedures that are ordered in a clear and specific way.
The teacher demonstrates a specific procedure or plan for solving a problem in
steps and the learners use this procedure to think their way through a solution.
What does systematic and explicit instruction

procedure involve?
The procedure involves:
 Breaking down a task into small steps.

 Asking probing questions.
 Giving feedback repeatedly on whether the learner is getting it or not.
 Providing a pictorial or diagram presentation where necessary.
 Allowing independent practice and individually paced instruction.
 Breaking instruction down into simpler phases.
 Instructing a smaller group.
 Modeling of a skill by the teacher.
 Providing relevant teaching aid materials.
 Providing instructions to individual learners.

To illustrate this procedure, let us use the example below:
Step 1: When teaching addition of decimals, you can begin with a review of
adding integers, the importance of lining up the one’s column and the lining up of
each column from the left.
Step 2: Review the meaning of the decimal point. Then demonstrate how the
decimals must be lined up and give examples of problems that require addition of
decimals.
Following the steps above, model to a colleague how you would

teach 12.1 + 3.3.
Teaching Learners to Understand Mathematics Concepts

This involves helping the learners to understand the concept behind the problem.
If a learner does not understand the concept behind a problem he/she tends to
memorize the formulae, definitions or steps involved.
How would you know whether a learner has

understood a piece of mathematics concept or not?
A learner is said to understand a piece of mathematics concept if he/she can do the

following:
 Explain mathematics concepts and facts in terms of simpler concepts and

facts.
 Easily make logical connections between different facts and concepts.
 Recognize the connection when he/she encounters something new that is
close to the mathematics he/she understands.
 Identify the principles in the given piece of mathematics that makes it
workable.

Monitoring Progress
Why is monitoring of the learners’ progress

important?
The progress of learners’ understanding and mastery of concepts and skills being
taught in a mathematics class is very important. Both the teacher and the learner
need to follow up this progress to see whether the intended or set objectives are
being achieved.
This progress can be monitored or followed up through the teacher administering:
 Practice or supervised exercises in class.

 Homework or assignments.
 Continuous assessment tests.
 Examinations.
What are the ways of monitoring progress?
You can monitor progress through:
 Teacher’s self-assessment.
 Student’s assessment.
 Content/methodological assessment.
Let us now explain each one of them.
Teacher’s self-assessment: This involves achievement of set objectives by the

way the learners receive the material presented. During the supervised practice in
class, a teacher can tell whether or not the learners have understood the concepts.

It is therefore important for the teacher to give supervised practice exercises to get
an immediate feedback on the learners’ progress. This will help the teacher to be
able to assess whether the instructional strategies he/she is using are effective. It
will also help to determine if the concepts being taught are to the learners’ level of
understanding so as to be able to take care of the individual differences among
learners.
Learners’ assessment: Assessment of instruction through tests and exercises

should provide data on individual learners’ progress in acquiring, generating and
applying knowledge and skills required in the curriculum. If the learners’
performance in these tests and exercises is low, then the teacher needs to come up
with an intervention program. Such a program may involve:
 Devoting more time to instruction or practice by going through the

instructions again and giving more practice.
 Going back to tasks that are easier and related and then progressing to
more challenging tasks.
 Changing the incentives from achievement. On the other hand, a
learner can be taught to monitor their own progress. This can be done
through the learners’ recording and evaluating their practice
performance using for example a graph or a checklist to get immediate
feedback and reinforcement on their own progress.
 Encouraging students to share their ideas on mathematics problem
solving in groups or the whole class which can help them think
independently and understand mathematics at a deeper level.
Content methodological assessment: In terms of content, the teacher through the

assessment procedures above will be able to detect whether the content was at the
level of the learners or not. Through methodological assessment, the teacher is able
to tell whether the methods used to teach were effective or not and adjust them
accordingly.
Feedback will help the learner identify areas of weakness and

strengths. This identification will help him/her know which
areas to put more effort in.

Teaching to Mastery
A mathematics teacher should not just teach to attain basic understanding. Rather,
he/she should teach to achieve mastery of the content. Children who have
mathematics disabilities as we have seen may not write well, cannot organize their
work well, have difficulty memorizing and cannot stay focused.
What does teaching to mastery mean?
The term teaching to mastery refers to a teaching skill to a level where the learner
responds to a mathematics problem without hesitating when computing the answer.
The rate of responding to questions without doubts or anxiety is regarded as an
effective measure of mastery.
Before mastery instruction or techniques are used,

the
learner must possess the precursor skills and
understand the concepts related.
Providing Feedback
In order to complete the cycle of mathematics instruction, the mathematics teacher
should provide feedback as to the progress from the monitoring activities. For
effective treatment or repair of mathematics learning difficulties, the teacher
should assess the performance of his/her learners and provide progress feedback.
After assessing progress through supervised practices, assignments and tests, it is
important that the teacher gives feedback for correct answers and re-teaches the
skills if answers are incorrect.

In what ways is feedback important to the teacher
and the learner?
Feedback helps the teacher determine the types of errors that learners are making
and then provide efficient and effective suggestions for correction while he/she is
providing guidance. This assistance needs to be more extensive at the beginning of
new concept presentation and then gradually reduced so as to encourage
independence in mathematics work to the targeted skills.
Let us now consider the strategies for teaching to mastery.
What are the strategies for teaching to mastery?
I hope you have mentioned the following:
Independent Practice: the learner is given more time to practice on the un-
mastered skill. You closely supervise this practice trying to make it interesting or
fun.
Peer teaching: You can use another learner who has already mastered the concepts
to help the one who has not. It is important for you to keep monitoring this
teaching to ensure the correct concepts are taught and that the two are not deviating
from the task.
Reinforcement: You should make sure you constantly reinforce every positive
effort made to encourage the learner to keep trying and to help build self-
confidence.

Self-correcting materials: You can come up with materials or aids to help the
learner identify when he/she has made an error and the correct responses. A
learner can thus do exercise and check on the correct responses to know whether
they have mastered the concepts or not.
Group work: Group discussions or group project assignment can help the learners
to improve their mathematics understanding and application of mathematics skills
and concepts.
What else can improve the mastery of concepts

in your mathematics class?
Many of the learners with mathematics disabilities work out problems with a very
low speed, meaning they are very slow. Several techniques can be used to improve
their speed in mathematics computation.
Such techniques include:
 Reinforcing high rates of correct responses.

 Setting a rate goal: for example a rate of 40 to 60 correct digits written per
minute with two or less errors.
 Terminating daily practice once the goal is achieved: this is to avoid
boredom for the learner.
 Encouraging learners to work faster.
 Challenging learners to beat their last rate score.
 Teaching learners to use rules, for example, any number multiplied by “two”
is double that number.
 Drilling difficult problems with flash cards.
 Playing instructional mathematics games.
 Providing rate practice in small intervals (10 to 20 seconds).
 Memorizing of the multiplication table.
Once a mastery level is achieved, you and the learners are able to move to the next
skill level with appropriate pre-skills and more confidence.

Identify other strategies that you can use in your mathematics
class to enable your learners master the concepts. Discuss
with a colleague.
Teaching Problem Solving
What are some of the teaching strategies for problem

solving?
Teaching strategies for problem solving include:
1. Teach learners to analyse and interpret information so that they can make
selections and decisions.
2. Teach learners to apply mathematics concepts and use computation skills in
new or different settings.
For example when solving algebra work problems, a learner can ask
herself/himself the following four questions:
 Have I written an equation?
 Have I expanded the terms?
 Have I written out the steps to solve my solution on a paper?
 What should I look for in a new problem?
3. Provide learners with problems that pertain to daily living.
4. Teach word problems simultaneously with computation skills.
5. Concentrate on helping learners to develop a positive attitude towards
mathematics.
6. Teach students learning strategies that help them become independent
learners.
7. Encourage a problem-solving attitude.
For example you can give a word problem like the following:

Rebecca wants to sell 30 pieces of mandazi. She has sold 25 of them. How
many more must she sell? Ask if anyone can draw a picture to show this
problem. A learner may draw the following figure to solve this problem.
Figure 4.3.2: Illustration of a word problem
You should encourage a problem-solving attitude

by giving learners many word problems to work
out and by
listening to the learners’ thinking aloud about the
word problem.
Teaching Generalization

What does teaching generalization mean?
Teaching generalization refers to the performance of the targeted behaviour in

different, non-training conditions (like in other subjects, settings, timed without
arranging the same events in the conditions they were in the training).
What practices would help the learner to

generalise
mathematics skills?
The practices may include:
Develop motivation to learn: Motivation helps learners feel responsible for their
own learning and helps establish the independence needed to apply the new skill in
setting without teacher support.
Provide learners with a variety of examples and experiences: For example, you
can vary the manipulative objects (such as cubes, buttons and checkers) in concrete
activities and use a variety of graphic representations (such as different drawings,
pictures and tallies) in semi concrete activities.
Teach skills to a mastery level: This helps learners to concentrate on using and
not just remembering the skills
Teach learners to solve problems related to their daily lives: This connects the
skills to functional uses and promotes motivation and the need to generalize, for
example, the concept of money (buying and selling of items- shopping).
Identify other practices that you can use to teach

generalization to your mathematics students. Discuss with
your colleague.

Promoting a Positive Attitude Towards Mathematics
Many learners with mathematics disabilities have a history of mathematics failures.
Consequently, they often develop negative attitudes toward mathematics learning
and are insecure about their capabilities to succeed in mathematics. Mathematics
instruction must be designed to ensure success and promote a positive attitude
towards the subject. Learners’ feelings about themselves as learners and about
their experiences with mathematics can greatly influence the level of their efforts
and eventual success.
How would you promote positive attitude towards

mathematics learning?
The following is a guideline for promoting positive attitudes toward mathematics

learning:
 Involve learners in setting challenging but attainable instructional goals.

The goal setting has a powerful influence on student involvement and effort.
 Provide learners’ with success opportunities by building on prior skills:
teach from known to unknown, familiar to unfamiliar.
 Use task analysis to simplify instructional sequence of a math skill or
concept. Breakdown the materials to simpler tasks that are more familiar to
the learners. Then teach step-by-step encouraging the learner’s
participation.
 Discuss the relevance of a mathematics skill to real-life problems. Use
word problems that are part of a learners’ daily life. This makes
mathematics to be more real and practical as learners’ can identify with it.
 Communicate positive expectations of learners’ abilities to learn. Students
need to sense that the teacher believes they will achieve in mathematics.
Your attitude to the subject and learners play an important role. Do not
make the learners feel like they can never make it in mathematics or that it is

very hard. Simplify the concepts to your learners’ level and make them feel
they can. Make each step with them. Be a source of encouragement as far
as the subject is concerned.
 Model an enthusiastic and positive attitude towards mathematics and
maintain a lively pace during the mathematics instruction. Avoid showing
“the ever serious long face” that will put off your learners. Instead be lively
and show your liking for the subject.
 Reinforce learners for effort made on mathematics work and stress that
errors are learning opportunities. Reinforcement whether in form of words
or gift should be used carefully and consistently, as you learnt in Module
005: Introduction to Educational Psychology. Take note of the little
effort made by your learners especially those with a mathematics disability
and keep encouraging them to participate more. Errors should not pull your
learners’ effort down. Rather, treat them as opportunities for learning and
bettering their future performance.
You need to help your learners understand that

their own effort affects outcomes regarding their
achievement.

Summary
In this Unit, you were introduced to the principles of instruction for learners with
mathematics disabilities. These principles include: teaching precursors of
mathematics learning, the need to teach progressively from concrete to abstract,
providing opportunity for practice and review and teaching the learners to
generalize to new situations among others. The need to teach mathematics
vocabulary and to build a solid foundation to mathematics concepts and skills was
also emphasized.
You further learnt about principles of instructing learners with other disabilities
such as mental handicap, visual impairments, hearing impairments, and physical
impairments. You noted that some learners will depend on tactile learning aids
more than the others while others will take longer working with concrete materials.
Finally you learnt about components of effective mathematics instruction. These

components include: selecting appropriate mathematics content, establishing goals
and expectations, providing systematic and explicit instructions and teaching
learners to understand mathematics concepts among others. You also learnt that
there is need to teach to mastery, provide feedback to learners after assessment and
teaching learners the strategies for problem solving. You have realized how
important your perceptions of mathematics and of the learner are.
It is believed that the knowledge gained in this unit will be helpful to you as you
work with learners with mathematics disabilities.

Self Test 4
1. Explain why a mathematics teacher should establish the goals and

expectations of mathematics instruction.
(4 marks)
2. Outline systematic and explicit instruction procedures.

(4 marks)
3. Explain how you would promote positive attitude toward mathematics

learning.
(4 marks)
4. Explain the following principles of instruction for learners with mathematics
disabilities.
(a) Teach precursor of mathematics learning.

(3 marks)
(b) Progress from concrete to abstract.
(3 marks)
5. Explain two ways of teaching cognitive strategies to learners with mathematics

disabilities.
(3 marks)

Answers to Self Test 1
1. Mathematics discipline entails:

- It is an academic discipline.
- It is a symbolic language.
- It is a universal language with meaning for all cultures and civilizations.
- It involves recording and communicating ideas concerning the elements
and relationships of quantity.
(4 marks)
2. Justify why mathematics should be studied.

Mathematics should be studied because:
- We live in a mathematical world and we need
mathematics to understand it.
- It is interesting, enjoyable and is part of life.
- Almost everything we do involves or requires some kind of mathematics.
- It is a universal language that has meaning for all cultures and civilization.
(2 marks)
3. Example of a stimulus-response.
Stimulus Response
- A knock at the leg. - A knee jack.
- Pepper on the nose. - Sneeze.
- An object approaching the eyes. - A blink of the eyes
(2 marks)
4. Steps used in hypothesis testing theory.
- Guessing the cause of an error observed in a mathematics problem.

- Testing and confirming the cause of the behaviours.
- Using the findings to come up with the immediate or long term strategies
to tackle the problem.
(3 marks)

5. Difference between conservation and decentration.
In conservation objects stay the same even when they are changed or made
to look different e.g. pouring some amount of water into a tall thin glass and
then into a wide low glass, and for numbers (8 + 6) + 4 = 4 + (6 + 8).
While decentration is the ability to move away from one system of

classification to another as appropriate for example classifying buttons of the
same colour by further putting the ones of the same size in a different class.
(4 marks)
6. Explain any four precursors you would require before introducing

subtraction skill to your children.
- Attention skills; helps the child to get settled and concentrate.

- Listening skills; the child’s listening skills should be developed.
- Help build spatial orientation and body consciousness.
- Language skills; spoken and written language.
- Memory.
- Visual skills.
- Motor skills that involve the ability to move body pars.
- Drawing and describing.
- Holding and throwing.
(4 marks).

1. Common learning difficulties

- Perceptual figure-ground discrimination.
- Spatial discrimination.
- Memory: short-term, long term and sequential.
(3 marks)
2. Identification of error
(a) Digits are added from left to right. When the sum is greater than 10, the unit
is carried to the next column on the right. The pattern reflects no regard for
place value. (2 marks)
(b) When regrouping is required more than once, the appropriate amount is not
subtracted from the column borrowed from in the second regrouping.
Borrowing skill is not well mastered. (2 marks)
3. Behaviour of learners with spatial discrimination.

Learners with spatial discrimination lose their place on a worksheet or when
reading a text. They have difficulties perceiving an object in space with
reference to the other objects. Examples:
- Confusion about positive and negative.
- Difficulties in noticing difference in size and shape.
- Has difficulties in using number line.
- Has difficulties writing in a straight line across the paper.
- Confusion about before and after concepts.
- Misplacement of decimal point.
- Difficulties in copying shapes or problems.
(4 marks) (Any two of the above examples)

4. Effect of long term memory on learner’s math performance.
- Memory problems that interfere with a child’s ability to remember basic
arithmetic facts quickly.
- Difficulties recalling steps for solving difficult word problems.
- Problems in automatically remembering answers to basic arithmetic facts.
- Difficulties understanding the commutative property.
- Cannot solve multi-digit calculations that require borrowing and carrying.
- Misaligning numbers when copying problems.
- Forgetting steps involved in solving various calculations.
- Moving from using basic counting strategies to more complicated ones.
(4 marks)
5. Importance of assessing learners with math difficulties.

It helps the teacher in making decisions regarding:
- relevant goals and objectives.
- appropriate teaching strategies.
- placement programmes.
(3 marks)
6. Two informal means of assessment.
(a) Informal inventories
- These are tests set by the teacher to assess the learners’ skill in
mathematics. They help to analyze mathematical errors. The detected errors
gives direction of the instruction towards correcting those errors.
(b) Curriculum based assessment
- It links assessment to the material being taught in the mathematics
curriculum.
(2 marks)

1. (a) Visual-spatial process

- Learner loses place on the math worksheet.
- Has difficulty seeing differences between numbers, coins or operation
symbols.
- Problems with direction e.g. aligning numbers.
- Difficulty in using number-line.
- Problems in writing across the paper in a straight line.
(2 marks)
(b) Memory and retrieval
- Cannot remember mathematics facts.
- Forgets steps when doing a problem.
- Difficulty telling time.
- Forget multiple-step word problems.
(2marks)
2. Motor problems that can affect performance in mathematics

- Writing numbers illegibly making it difficult for one to read through their
work.
- Speed; they are very slow in writing and may therefore not complete their
tasks in good time.
- Cannot write numbers in small spaces and may therefore not write some of
the required information due to space limitation.
- They also write numbers inaccurately.
(3 marks)
3. Relationship between reading disabilities and mathematics disabilities.

- Mathematics relies on language acquisition. A child unable to
communicate effectively may have problems understanding mathematics.
- If a learner’s reading level is too low his/her mathematics performance is
likely to be low.
- Mathematics word problems will prove difficult for students with reading
disabilities.

4. Mathematics anxiety effects.
- It can interfere with the learner’s understanding and acquisition of basic

mathematics concepts.
- It can interfere with the learner’s ability to transfer or apply mathematics
knowledge that he/she has already acquired.
- It can affect the learner’s short and long term memory of mathematics
concepts.
- Reasoning is also interfered with hence progress in a task.
(4 marks)
5. Components of a successful problem-solving program.
- Emphasizing on the most difficult mathematics concepts and skills rather
than focusing on basic or easier concepts.
- The type of materials (teaching aid) the teacher uses to illustrate the steps.
- The teacher’s involvement of learners in coming up with the steps in the
process of learning.
- Teacher’s beliefs on the ability of the learners.
(3 marks)
6. Factors that contribute to mathematics disability.
- Receptive and expressive language.
- Reading skills need to be developed well for before understanding and
interpretation of mathematics word problems.
- Behaviour pattern – impulse, perserveration.
- Reasoning and short attention span.
- Auditory perception – ability to interpret what is heard.
- Visual perception – difficulties in recognizing differences in objects or
things they see.
- Motor perception – where the learner has difficulties in holding a pen and
writing legibly, counting and reasoning.
(3marks) Any 3 correct answers (3 x 1)

1. Why a mathematics teacher should establish the goals and expectations of

instructions.
- It establishes a sense of belonging to a learner.
- It builds a sense of team work/cooperation towards a common goal.
- Learners get a sense of direction.
(4 marks) Any 2 correct answers (2 x 2)
2. Systematic and explicit instruction procedures.

- Breaking down a task into small steps.
- Asking probing questions.
- Giving feedback repeatedly on whether the learner is getting it or not.
- Using illustrations where necessary.
- Facilitating independent practice and individual-paced instruction.
- Breaking instruction into simpler phases.
- Instructing a smaller group.
- Modeling of a skill by the teacher.
- Providing relevant teaching aid materials.
- Providing individual child instruction.
3. How to promote positive attitude towards mathematics learning.

- Involve students in goal setting.
- Provide students success by building on prior skills.
- Use task analysis to simplify sequence of concepts.
- Give relevance of a math skill to real-life problems.
- Communicate positive expectations of student’s abilities to learn.
- Reinforce students for effort on mathematics work and stress that errors are
learning opportunities.
- Model on enthusiastic and positive attitude towards mathematics.

4. (a) Teach precursor of mathematics learning.
- A learner who gets lost when performing a mathematics task signals lack
of early mathematics skills for learning.
- Learning mathematics is sequential thus a learner should acquire skills at
an early stage.
- Experience with manipulation paves way for understanding space, form,
order, time, distance and quantity.
(3 marks)
(b) Progress from concrete to abstract.
- The child can manipulates real objects in learning the skills (concrete).
- A graphical representation can be used in place of the actual objects (semi-
concrete).
- The child can finally replace the graphical symbols with numerals
(abstract).
(3 marks)
5. Two ways of teaching cognitive strategies to learners with mathematic

disabilities.
- Use cognitive strategies that effective learners use.
- Choose the appropriate strategies for each task presented.
(2 marks)

Glossary
Algorithm: It is a set of rules for solving problems or doing

calculations.
Astronomy: The scientific study of the sun, moon, stars etc.
Axiom: A rule or principle that is generally considered to be true.
Cognitive structures: Mental processes of understanding.
Concepts: A principle or idea that is connected with something.
Continuum: A series of similar items in which each is the same as the
ones next to it but the first is very different from the first.
Data: Facts or information that can be gathered or collected so
as to be used to find out things or to make decisions.
Equilibrium: A state of balance especially between opposing forces or
influences.
Error: It is a mistake or a wrong that affects the results.
Logic: A way of thinking or explaining things.
Logician: A person who studies or is skilled in logic.
Reflex: An action or movement of the body that happens
naturally in response to a stimulus and that you cannot
control.
Variable: A quantity that can vary or be varied.

Reference
Ellis, E. S. (1993). Integrative strategy instruction: A potential model for teaching

content area subjects to adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 26: 358-383.
Geary, David C. (1993). “Mathematical Disabilities: Cognitive,

Neuropsychological, and Genetic Components”. Psychological Bulletin 114:
345-62.
Learner, J. & Kline, F (2006). Learning disabilities and related disorders:

Characteristics and teaching strategy. 10th Ed. Mifflin Co. Boston:
Mastropieri, M & Scruggs, T (1995). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for

effective instruction. 2nd Ed. Merrill Publishing Co. Ohio:
Meese, Ruth (2001). Teaching learners with mild disabilities. Belmont:

Wadsworth: Thomson.
Polloway, E. A, Patton, J & Serna, L (2001). Strategies for teaching learners with
special needs. 7th Ed. Prentice Hall. New Jersey:
Mercer, D. C (1997). Students with learning disabilities. 5th Ed. Merrill Publishing
Co. London.
Mercer D. C & Mercer, R. A (2001). Teaching students with learning problems.

6th Ed. Merrill Publishing Co. London:
Reisman F. K., Kauffman S. H (1980). Teaching mathematics to children with

special needs. Charles E. Merrill. Ohio:
Kennedy L. M (1980). Guiding children to mathematical discovery. 3rd Edition.

Wadsworth. Belmont.

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UNIT 1

Theories and Importance of Mathematics Skills

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define the term mathematics.

The unit consists of three sections, namely:

Section 1: Importance of Learning Mathematics.

Section 2: Theories of Learning Mathematics.

Section 3: Application of Piagets Theory to Teaching and Learning of

Section 1: Importance of Learning Mathematics

 Definition of terms: mathematics, arithmetic, mathematics difficulties and

Kenya Institute of Special Education 1

Mathematics is a symbolic language that enables human beings to think about,

Being an important field of study in education, mathematics has taken had

2 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

What do you understand by the term Arithmetic?

What is a mathematics disability?

Mathematics disability is a term used to refer to a type of learning disability that

 Learning mathematics concepts (such as quantity, place value and time).

However, some learners only have a mathematics disability

Kenya Institute of Special Education 3

Dyscalculia is a technical term which refers to selective impairment in

It is worth noting that compared to research in early reading difficulties, early

 Learning disability in mathematics.

4 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

The terms mathematics disabilities and mathematics difficulties are used

Why study Mathematics?

We study mathematics because we live in a Mathematical world.

 walk or drive ‘x’ kilometres per day

Kenya Institute of Special Education 5

Identify the importance of mathematics in day to day

6 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

General Aims of Teaching Mathematics

What are the general aims of teaching mathematics?

The term aim refers to the main purpose of doing something.

The general aims of teaching mathematics include:

 Encouraging the effective use of mathematics as a tool in activities such as

Kenya Institute of Special Education 7

8 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

Goals of Teaching Mathematics

To encourage learners to:

 learn to value mathematics.

Kenya Institute of Special Education 9

What do you understand by the term precursors of mathematics?

The term precursors of mathematics refers to the foundation and basic

10 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

Language skills: This involves developing such skills as adequate vocabulary,

Other essential basic pre-number learning skills include:

 Matching: the concept of “same” and grouping of objects.

Kenya Institute of Special Education 11

12 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

In Section 1, you learnt about the definition, importance and precursors of

 Stimulus-response theory of learning.

What is Mathematics Skills Development?

Kenya Institute of Special Education 13

Stimulus – Response Theory of Learning

What is stimulus-response theory of learning?

What are the implications of stimulus-

Learning is a change in observable behaviour: Learning is a relatively

14 Open Distance and Electronic- Learning (Module LD 030)

Measurable: The behavior change expected from the learner by the

Realistic: The objective should be to the level of the learner.

Time bound: The objective should be written in such a way that it

Learning results from stimulus and response in a person’s environment.