HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

ANS.1)

Mechanism of muscle contraction:

1. The sliding filament concept is the most widely time-venerated motive for muscle
contraction.
2. Muscle contractions, in keeping with this viewpoint, are part of a chemical interest cycle.

Sliding filament concept:

1. Actin is a highly abundant intracellular protein found in all eukaryotic cells that play an
important role in muscle contraction and cell movement.
2. Actin is also required for the maintenance and control of cell shape and architecture.
3. Myosin is a prototypical molecular motor—a protein that converts chemical energy in
the form of ATP into mechanical energy, resulting in force and movement.
4. Cross-bridges extending from myosin filaments carry out the operation.
5. Sarcomeres are contractile muscle units.
6. A sarcomere is a striated muscular functional unit.
7. This indicates that it is the most fundamental unit of our skeletal muscle.
8. Actin filaments connect with the Z disc at the sarcomere's terminal.
9. Sarcomeres shorten and muscular tissues agree at the same time as the sliding filament
pulls the Z disc deeper.
10. A sarcomere is made from numerous parallel filaments referred to as actin filaments
(skinny filaments) and myosin filaments (thick filaments).
11. The sliding filament concept explains how muscle tissue agrees for the duration of the
body.
12. Tiny actin filaments are constantly pulled throughout large myosin filaments to provide
anxiety in a muscle.
13. When an impulse reaches the neuromuscular junction, the sarcoplasmic reticulum is
activated, inflicting calcium ions to be released.
14. These calcium ions then bind to troponin, displacing tropomyosin from the actin's
myosin binding site.
ANS,2)
To understand the ovarian cycle, it helps to start with some basic definitions. First, gametes are reproductive
cells found in males and females. Male gametes are known as sperm and female gametes are known
as oocytes, or immature eggs. Females are born with all of the oocytes they will ever have in a lifetime. An
oocyte becomes a mature ovum, or egg, during the process of oogenesis, which begins before a female is born
but does not finish until after puberty. Reproduction occurs when an ovum unites with a sperm cell.
The definition of ovarian cycle is the growth and maturation of an oocyte in preparation for fertilization and
reproduction. The ovarian cycle is regulated by several hormones and occurs in females during puberty and
lasts until menopause begins. As long as the female is not pregnant, the cycle repeats every 28 days.
PHASES OF OVARIAN CYCLE

Ovarian cycles:

1. The ovarian cycle is a series of events that occur during the menstrual cycle, such as
follicle development, ovulation, and corpus luteum formation.
2. It occurs in the cortex of the ovaries.
3. The three stages of the ovarian cycle are:

Follicular phase

1. This is the proliferative phase.

 2. This is the first stage after menstruation.
3. At this stage, the primary follicle grows and develops into a Graffian follicle.
4. The endometrium also regenerates after proliferation.

Ovulatory phase

1. Follicles are released by the rupture of Graffian follicles.

2. LH surge causes metaphase ovulation.

Luteal phase –

1. After ovulation, the luteal phase begins.

2. Also called the secretory phase.
3. The ruptured Graffian follicle turns into the corpus luteum.
4. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is needed to maintain pregnancy
5. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, degeneration of
endometrium, and the start of menstruation.

ANS.3)

The thyroid gland is an endocrine organ found in the neck, it is responsible for
regulating the body’s metabolic rate via hormones it produces. In this article, we will be
looking at its anatomy, its cellular structure, its endocrine physiology and its clinical
relevance.
Cellular Structure

The function of the Thyroid gland is to produce and store thyroid hormones. Thyroid
epithelia form follicles filled with colloid – a protein-rich reservoir of the materials needed
for thyroid hormone production. These follicles range in size from 0.02-0.3mm and the
epithelium may be simple cuboidal or simple columnar.

In the spaces between the follicles, parafollicular cells can be found. These cells
secrete calcitonin, which is involved in the regulation of calcium metabolism in the body.

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

There are six steps in the synthesis of thyroid hormone, and you can remember them
using the mnemonic ATE ICE:

• Active transport of Iodide into the follicular cell via the Sodium-Iodide Symporter (NIS).
This is actually secondary active transport, and the sodium gradient driving it is
maintained by a Sodium-Potassium ATPase.
• Thyroglobulin (Tg), a large protein rich in Tyrosine, is formed in follicular ribosomes and
placed into secretory vesicles.
• Exocytosis of Thyroglobulin into the follicle lumen, where it is stored as colloid.
Thyroglobulin is the scaffold upon which thyroid hormone is synthesised.
• Iodination of the Thyroglobulin. Iodide is made reactive by the enzyme thyroid
peroxidase. Iodide binds to the benzene ring on Tyrosine residues of Thyroglobulin,
forming monoiodotyrosine (MIT) then diiodotyrosine (DIT).
• Coupling of MIT and DIT gives the Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone and coupling of DIT
and DIT gives the Tetraiodothyronine (T4) hormone, also known as Thyroxine.
• Endocytosis of iodinated thyroglobulin back into the follicular cell. Thyroglobulin
undergoes proteolysis in lysosomes to cleave the iodinated tyrosine residues from the
larger protein. Free T3 or T4 is then released, and the Thyroglobulin scaffold is recycled.

T3 and T4 are the active thyroid hormones. They are fat soluble and mostly carried by
plasma proteins – Thyronine Binding Globulin and Albumin. While T3 is the more potent
form, it also has a shorter half-life due to its lower affinity for the binding proteins. Less
than 1% of T3 and T4 is unbound free hormone. At the peripheries, T4 is deiodinated to
the more active T3.

T3 and T4 are deactivated by removing iodine. This happens in the liver and kidney. As
T4 has a longer half-life, it is used in the treatment of hypothyroidism over T3 as its
plasma concentrations are easier to manage.

ANS.4)

composition refers to the way a writer structures a piece of writing. The four modes of composition, which
were codified in the late 19th century, are description, narration, exposition, and argumentation. Good writing
can include elements of multiple modes of composition.

the act or process of composing. specifically : arrangement into specific proportion or relation and especially
into artistic form. the painting's unique composition.

Function of the saliva

1. Chemical digestion: breaks down starch by the function of “salivary amylase”

2. Helps chewing and swallowing
3. Lubricating effect: moisturizes the inside of the mouth and creates smoother speech
4. Solvent effect: dissolves food and allows the tongue to taste food
5. Cleaning effect: washes away food debris and bacteria remaining in the mouth
6. Antibacterial effect: Lysozyme, peroxidase and lactoferrin fight against pathogenic microorganisms
7. pH buffering effect: Prevents sudden changes in pH
8. Supplies minerals, including calcium and phosphorus, to teeth

Saliva functions
2.1 Immune functions

The components like lysozyme, lactoferrin, salivary peroxidase, myeloperoxidase, and

thiocyanate concentrations act as a defense mechanism in the whole saliva [24]. The natural
defense properties of salivary secretions through clinical modalities such as the development of
(1) diagnostic reagents and tests for local and systemic disease, (2) artificial salivas for the
treatment of salivary dysfunction, and (3) topical vaccines to combat against oral diseases [25].
Salivary mucins are well recognized as an important factor in the preservation of the health of
the oral cavity and are of significance to the processes occurring within the epithelial perimeter
of mucosal defense [26]. Human saliva contains a number of physical, physicochemical, and
chemical agents that protect oral tissues against noxious compounds. It effectively removes
exogenous and endogenous microorganisms and their products into the gut and continuous
presence of both nonimmune and immune factors in the mouth [27]. Salivary mucosal pellicle
forms the structural basis of the local innate immune defense mechanism of the oral mucosa
[28].

2.2 Saliva proteome analysis

The salivary flow rate influences to a high degree the rate of oral and salivary clearance of
bacterial substrates included in foods and snacks [29]. Salivary IgA and lysozyme were
inversely correlated with self-perceived work-related stress. As these salivary biomarkers are
reflective of the mucosal immunity, results support the inverse relation between stress and
mucosal immunity [30]. There was an inverse relationship between the presence of
hyaluronidase and the presence of hyaluronidase inhibitors particularly in relation to intraoral
wound healing and periodontal disease [31]. Human salivary α-amylase (HSA) is a major
secretory protein component of saliva and has important biological functions, including the
initial digestion of starch [32]. The collagen-cleaving enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-8
(MMP-8) is present in saliva and acts as measurable indicator of periodontal disease

ANS.5)

The functions of the cranial nerves are sensory, motor, or both. Sensory cranial nerves help a
person see, smell, and hear. Conversely, motor cranial nerves help control muscle movements in
the head and neck. Each nerve has a name that reflects its function and a number according to its
location in the brain.

The 12 cranial nerves include the:

• olfactory nerve
• optic nerve
• oculomotor nerve
• trochlear nerve
• trigeminal nerve
• abducens nerve
• facial nerve
• vestibulocochlear nerve
• glossopharyngeal nerve
• vagus nerve
• accessory nerve
 • hypoglossal nerve
Function

Every cell in your body needs oxygen (O2). The respiratory system contains the major
organs that are responsible for helping you breathe. The respiratory system also
functions to remove the cellular waste product called carbon dioxide (CO2). All this also
helps to maintain the acid-base balance in the body. Portions of the respiratory system
are also used for non-vital functions such smell and speech production. This is
accomplished through breathing, or the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Image
1 shows the major structures of the respiratory system. Image 2 illustrates the
movement of air in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) during breathing.

There are five functions of the respiratory system.

• Gas Exchange – oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Breathing – movement of air
• Sound Production
• Olfactory Assistance – sense of smell
• Protection – from dust and microbes entering body through mucus
production, cilia, and coughing