08-05-2024

Shaping Processes for Plastics

Shaping Processes 1.
2.
Properties of Polymer Melts
Extrusion

for Plastics 3.
4.
Production of Sheet, Film, and Filaments
Coating Processes
5. Injection Molding
6. Other Molding Processes

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Plastic Products Two Types of Plastics

❑ Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of ❑ Thermoplatics

products: ▪ Chemical structure remains unchanged
▪ Molded parts during heating and shaping
▪ Extruded sections ❑ Thermosets
▪ Films ▪ Undergo a curing process during heating
▪ Sheets and shaping, causing a permanent change
in molecular structure (called cross-linking)
▪ Insulation coatings on electrical wires
▪ Once cured, they cannot be re-melted.
▪ Fibers for textiles

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Classification of Shaping Processes Polymer Melts

❑ Extruded products with constant cross section
❑ Continuous sheets and films
❑ Continuous filaments (fibers)
❑ Molded parts that are mostly solid
❑ To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be
heated so that it softens to the consistency
of a liquid
❑ In this form, it is called a polymer melt

❑ Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls ❑ Important properties of polymer melts:
❑ Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films ▪ Viscosity
❑ Castings ▪ Viscoelasticity
❑ Foamed products

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Viscosity of Polymer Melts Viscosity and Shear Rate

❑ Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear

rate during flow ❑ Viscosity of a
▪ Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer polymer melt
melt is a thick fluid with high viscosity decreases with
▪ Most polymer shaping processes involve shear rate
flow through small channels or die openings ❑ Thus the fluid
❖ Flow rates are often large, leading to high becomes thinner
shear rates and shear stresses, so significant (flows more
pressures are required in these processes easily) at higher
shear rates

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Viscosity and Temperature Viscoelasticity

❑ Combination of viscosity and elasticity

❑ Example: die swell in extrusion - hot plastic
❑ Viscosity expands when exiting the die opening (memory)
decreases with
temperature
❑ Thus the fluid
becomes
thinner at higher
temperatures

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Extrusion Extuder

Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for

❑ Material is forced to flow through a die orifice to plastics and elastomers
provide long continuous product whose cross
section is determined by the shape of the orifice
▪ Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers
to mass produce items such as tubing, pipes,
hose, structural shapes, sheet and film,
continuous filaments, and coated electrical wire
▪ Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate ❑ Two main components of an extruder:
▪ Barrel
is then cut into desired lengths ▪ Screw
❑ The die is not an extruder component
▪ It is a special tool that must be fabricated for the
particular profile to be produced 12
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Extruder Barrel
❑ Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150
mm (1.0 to 6.0 in.)
❑ L/D ratios usually ~ 10 to 30: higher ratios for
thermoplastics, lower ratios for elastomers
❑ Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose
rotation moves material through barrel
❑ Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing
and mechanical working adds heat which
maintains the melt
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Extruder Screw
❑ Divided into sections to serve several functions:
▪ Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper
and preheated
▪ Compression section - polymer is transformed
into thick fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted
from melt, and material is compressed
▪ Metering section - melt is homogenized and
sufficient pressure developed to pump it through
die opening
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Die End of Extruder
❑ Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads
ultimately to the die zone
❑ Before reaching the die, the melt passes through
a screen pack - series of wire meshes supported
by a stiff plate containing small axial holes
❑ Functions of screen pack:
▪ Filters out contaminants and hard lumps
▪ Builds pressure in metering section
▪ Straightens flow of polymer melt and removes
its "memory" of circular motion from screw
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Melt Flow in Extuder
❑ As screw rotates, polymer melt is forced to move
forward toward dies
❑ Principal transport mechanism is drag flow, Qd,
resulting from friction between the viscous liquid
and the rotating screw surfaces
❑ Compressing the polymer melt through the die
creates a back pressure that reduces drag flow
transport (called back pressure flow, Qb )
❑ Resulting flow in extruder is Qx = Qd – Qb
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Die Configurations and Extruded Products Extrusion of Solid Profiles

❑ The shape of the die orifice determines the ❑ Regular shapes such as
cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
▪ Rounds
❑ Common die profiles and corresponding extruded
▪ Squares
shapes:
▪ Solid profiles ❑ Irregular cross sections such as
▪ Hollow profiles, such as tubes ▪ Structural shapes
▪ Wire and cable coating ▪ Door and window moldings
▪ Sheet and film ▪ Automobile trim
▪ Filaments ▪ House siding

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Extrusion Die for Solid Cross Section Hollow Profiles

❑Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross

sections containing holes
❑Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
▪ Mandrel held in place using spider legs
❖ Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall
▪ Mandrel often includes an air channel for
(a) Side view cross section of extrusion die for solid regular blowing air to maintain hollow form of
shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view of die, with profile extrudate
of extrudate

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Extrusion Die for Hollow Shapes Wire and Cable Coating

❑ Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled

at high speed through die
▪ A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and
polymer to promote adhesion of coating
❑ Wire provides rigidity during cooling
▪ Usually aided by passing coated wire through
a water trough
❑ Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up
Side view of extrusion die for hollow cross sections; Section
A-A is a front view of how mandrel is held in place; Section to 50 m/s
B-B shows tube prior to exiting die; die swell enlarges
diameter
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Extrusion Die for Coating Wire

Polymer Sheet and

Film Production
Processes

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Polymer Sheet and Film Materials for Polymer Sheet and Film

❑ Film - thickness below 0.5 mm

▪ Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery
bags, and garbage bags
▪ Stock for photographic film
▪ Pool covers and irrigation ditch liners Polyethylene
❑ Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm to about 12.5 mm Polypropylene

▪ Flat window glazing

▪ Thermoforming stock
❑ All thermoplastic polymers: Polyethylene, mostly
low density PE, Polypropylene , Polyvinyl chloride, Polyvinyl chloride

Cellophane Cellophane
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Sheet and Film Production Processes
❑ Most widely used processes are continuous, high
production operations
❑ Processes include:
▪ Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
▪ Blown-Film Extrusion Process
▪ Calendering
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Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
❑ Production of sheet and film by conventional
extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening
▪ Slit may be up to 3 m (10 ft) wide and as narrow
as around 0.4 mm (0.015 in)
▪ A problem is thickness uniformity throughout
width of stock, due to drastic shape change of
polymer melt as it flows through die
▪ Edges of film usually must be trimmed because
of thickening at edges
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Slit-Die Extrusion Blown-Film Extrusion Process

❑ Combines extrusion and

blowing to produce a tube of
thin film
▪ Process sequence:
1. Extrusion of tube
2. Tube is drawn upward
while still molten and
expanded by air inflated
into it through die
▪ Air is blown into tube to
maintain uniform film
thickness and tube
diameter

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Calendaring

❑ Feedstock is passed through a series

of rolls to reduce thickness to desired
gage
▪ Expensive equipment, high

Fiber and Filament

production rates (about 2.5 m/sec)
▪ Process is noted for good surface
finish and high gage accuracy
▪ Typical materials: rubber or rubbery
thermoplastics such as plasticized
Production
PVC
▪ Products: PVC floor covering,
shower curtains, vinyl table cloths,
pool liners, and inflatable toys

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Fiber and Filament Products Materials for Fibers and Filaments

❑ Definitions: ❑ Fibers can be natural or synthetic

▪ Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at
least 100 times its cross-section (Natural and
Synthetic Fibers)
▪ Filament - a fiber of continuous length
❑ Applications:
▪ Fibers and filaments for textiles
❖ Most important application
▪ Reinforcing materials in polymer composites
❖ Growing application, but small relative to textiles
▪ Natural fibers constitute ~ 25% of total market
❖ Cotton is by far the most important staple
❖ Wool production is much less than cotton
▪ Synthetic fibers constitute ~ 75% of total fiber
market
❖ Polyester is the most important
❖ Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon

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Fiber and Filament Production-Spinning Melt Spinning

❑ For synthetic fibers, spinning = extrusion of polymer melt or ❑ Starting polymer is heated to molten state and
solution through a spinneret, then drawing and winding pumped through spinneret
onto a bobbin
– Spinneret = die with multiple small holes, the term is a
▪ Typical spinneret is 6 mm thick and contains ~
holdover from methods used to draw and twist natural 50 holes of diameter 0.25 mm
fibers into yarn or thread ▪ Filaments are drawn and air cooled before
– Three variations, depending on polymer: being spooled onto bobbin
1. Melt spinning: used for polymers that can be melted
❖ Final diameter wound onto bobbin may be only 1/10
easily e.g. nylon, polyesters, oilefin, etc.
of extruded size
2. Dry spinning: dissolving the polymer into a solution
that can be evaporated e.g. acetate, ▪ Used for polyester and nylon filaments
3. Wet spinning: solvent can’t be evaporated by
evaporation and must be removed by chemical
means e.g. viscose rayon, acrylic, etc.
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Melt Spinning Man Made Fiber Spinning

Melt spinning of
continuous filaments
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Subsequent Processing of Filaments
❑ Filaments produced by any of the processes are
usually subjected to further cold drawing to align
crystal structure along direction of filament axis
▪ Extensions of 2 to 8 are typical
▪ Effect is to significantly increase tensile strength
▪ Drawing is done by pulling filament between two
spools, where winding spool is driven at a faster
speed than unwinding spool
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Injection Molding
❑ Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and
forced to flow under high pressure into a mold
cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from the cavity
▪ Produces discrete components to net shape
▪ Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of
one minute or more are not uncommon
▪ Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple
moldings are produced each cycle
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Injection Molded Parts
❑ Complex and intricate shapes are possible
❑ Shape limitations:
▪ Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is
the same geometry as part
▪ Shape must allow for part removal from mold
❑ Part size from  50 g up to  25 kg, e.g.,
automobile bumpers
❑ Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
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Injection Molded Parts
❑ Injection molding is the most widely used molding
process for thermoplastics
❑ Some thermosets and elastomers are injection molded
▪ Modifications in equipment and operating parameters
must be made to avoid premature cross-linking of
these materials before injection
A collection of plastic injection molded parts 42
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Injection Molding Machine Injection Molding Machine

❑ The shape of the die orifice determines the

cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
❑ Two principal components:
1. Injection unit
• Melts and delivers polymer melt A large (3000 ton capacity) injection molding machine (Made: Cincinnati Milacron)

• Operates much like an extruder

2. Clamping unit
• Opens and closes mold each injection cycle

43 Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw type (some mechanical 44

details are simplified)

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Injection Unit of Molding Machine Clamping Unit of Molding Machine

❑ Consists of barrel fed from one end by hopper ❑ Functions:

containing supply of plastic pellets
❑ Inside the barrel is a screw with two functions:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject molten
plastic into mold
▪ Non-return valve near tip of screw prevents melt from
flowing backward along screw threads
▪ Later in cycle ram retracts to its former position
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment
with each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying
a clamping force sufficient to resist injection
force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate
times in molding cycle

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Injection Molding Cycle The Mold

1. Mold is Closed
4. Mold is opened and part is ejected
2. Melt is injected into cavity
3. Screw if retracted
❑ The special tooling in injection molding – custom
designed and fabricated for the part to be
produced
❑ When production run is finished, the mold is
replaced with a new mold for the next part
❑ Various types of molds for injection molding:
▪ Two-plate mold
▪ Three-plate mold
▪ Hot-runner mold

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Two-Plate Mold Two-Plate Mold Features

❑ Cavity – geometry of part but slightly oversized to

allow for shrinkage
▪ Fabricated by machining the mating surfaces of
two mold halves
❑ Distribution channel through which polymer melt
flows from nozzle into mold cavity
▪ Sprue - leads from nozzle into mold
▪ Runners - lead from sprue to cavity (or cavities)
▪ Details of a two-plate
mold for thermoplastic
▪ Gates - constrict flow of plastic into cavity
▪ Details of a two-plate mold for
thermoplastic injection molding: injection molding:
(b) Open
(a) closed
▪ Mold has two cavities to produce two
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cup-shaped parts with each injection shot

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Two-Plate Mold Features Hot-Runner Mold

❑ Ejection system – to eject molded part from cavity
at end of molding cycle
▪ Ejector pins built into moving half of mold
usually accomplish this function
❑ Cooling system - consists of external pump
connected to passageways in mold, through which
water is circulated to remove heat from the hot
plastic
❑ Air vents – to permit evacuation of air from cavity
as polymer melt rushes in
❑ Eliminates solidification of sprue and runner by
locating heaters around the corresponding runner
channels
❑ While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in
sprue and runner channels remains molten, ready
to be injected into cavity in next cycle
❑ Advantage:
▪ Saves material that otherwise would be scrap in
the unit operation

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Injection Molding Machines Shrinkage

❑ Injection molding machines differ in both injection ❑ Polymers have high thermal expansion
unit and clamping unit coefficients, so significant shrinkage occurs during
❑ Name of injection molding machine is based on the solidification and cooling in mold
type of injection unit used
▪ Reciprocating-screw injection molding machine Plastic Typical Shrinkage, mm/mm
▪ Plunger-type injection molding machine Nylon-6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
❑ Several clamping designs
Polystyrene 0.004
▪ Mechanical (toggle)
PVC 0.005
▪ Hydraulic

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Shrinkage Factors
❑ Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage
❑ Injection pressure – higher pressures force more
material into mold cavity to reduce shrinkage
❑ Compaction time - similar effect – longer time
forces more material into cavity to reduce
shrinkage
❑ Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower
polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to
be packed into mold to reduce shrinkage
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Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding
❑ Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess
dense outer skin surrounding lightweight foam
center
▪ Part has high stiffness-to-weight ratio
▪ Produced either by introducing a gas into
molten plastic in injection unit or by mixing a
gas-producing ingredient with starting pellets
▪ A small amount of melt is injected into mold
cavity, where it expands to fill cavity
▪ Foam contacting cold mold surface collapses
to form dense skin, while core retains cellular
structure
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Injection Molding of Thermosets Reaction Injection Molding

❑ Equipment and operating procedure must be
modified to avoid premature cross-linking of TS
polymer
▪ Reciprocating-screw injection unit with shorter
barrel length
▪ Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
❑ Melt is injected into a heated mold, where
cross-linking occurs to cure the plastic
▪ Curing is the most time-consuming step in cycle
▪ Mold is then opened and part is removed
❑ Two highly reactive liquid ingredients are mixed
and immediately injected into a mold cavity where
chemical reactions leading to solidification occur
▪ RIM was developed with polyurethane to
produce large automotive bumpers and fenders
▪ RIM polyurethane parts have a foam internal structure
surrounded by a dense outer skin
▪ Other materials: urea-formaldehyde and
epoxies

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Reaction Injection Molding Compression Molding

❑ Widely used molding process for thermosetting plastics

❑ Also used for rubber tires and polymer matrix composite parts
❑ Molding compound available in several forms: powders or
pellets, liquid, or preform
❑ Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to obtain
repeatable consistency in the molded product

(1) TS charge is loaded, (2) and (3) compression and curing, and (4) part
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Molds for Compression Molding
❑ Simpler than injection molds
❑ No sprue and runner system in a compression
mold
❑ Process itself generally limited to simpler part
geometries due to lower flow capabilities of TS
materials
❑ Mold must be heated, usually by electric
resistance, steam, or hot oil circulation
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Compression Molding Materials and Products
❑ Molding materials:
▪ Phenolics, melamine, urea-formaldehyde,
epoxies, urethanes, and elastomers
❑ Typical compression-molded products:
▪ Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot
handles, and dinnerware plates
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Transfer Molding Pot Transfer Molding

❑ Thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber

immediately ahead of mold cavity, where it is
heated; pressure is then applied to force soft
polymer to flow into heated mold where it cures
❑ Two variants:
▪ Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a
"pot" through a vertical sprue channel into cavity
▪ Plunger transfer molding –plunger injects
charge from a heated well through channels into
cavity (1) charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is
pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected

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Plunger Transfer Molding Comparison of Compression and Transfer Mold

❑ In both processes, scrap is produced each cycle

as leftover material, called the cull
❑ The TS scrap cannot be recovered
❑ Transfer molding is capable of molding more
intricate part shapes than compression molding but
not as intricate as injection molding
❑ Transfer molding lends itself to molding with
inserts, in which a metal or ceramic insert is placed
into cavity prior to injection, and the plastic bonds
(1) charge is loaded into pot, (2) softened polymer is to insert during molding
pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected

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Blow Molding Extrusion Blow Molding

Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate

soft plastic into a mold cavity
❑ Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts
with thin walls, such as bottles
❑ Since these items are used for consumer
beverages in mass markets, production is typically
organized for very high quantities
❑ Accomplished in two steps: 1. Fabrication of a
starting tube, called a parison, 2. Inflation of the
tube to desired final shape
Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at
❑ Forming the parison is accomplished by either: the top and sealed at the bottom around a metal blow pin as the two
▪ Extrusion halves of the mold come together; (3) the tube is inflated so that it takes
the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is opened to remove the
▪ Injection molding solidified part
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Injection Blow Molding Stretch Blow Molding

❑ Thermosetting charge is loaded into a chamber

immediately ahead of mold cavity, where it is
heated; pressure is then applied to force soft
polymer to flow into heated mold where it cures

❑ Two variants:
▪ Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a
"pot" through a vertical sprue channel into cavity
Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected in molded around a blowing ▪ Plunger transfer molding –plunger injects
rod; (2) injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow mold;
(3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow mold 4) mold is opened
charge from a heated well through channels into
to remove the solidified part cavity

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Stretch Blow Molding Stretch Blow Molding

❑ Variation of injection blow molding in which

blowing rod extends downward into parison in
step 2, stretching the soft plastic for a more
favorable stressing of polymer than conventional
blow molding
❑ Resulting structure is more rigid, with higher
transparency and better impact resistance
❑ Most widely used material is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) which has very low
permeability and is strengthened by stretch blow Stretch blow molding: (1) injection molding of parison; (2)
molding stretching; and (3) blowing
❑ Combination of properties makes it ideal as
container for carbonated beverages 71 72

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Materials and Products in Blow Molding Vacuum Thermoforming

❑ Blow molding is limited to thermoplastics

❑ Materials: high density polyethylene,
polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and
polyethylene terephthalate
❑ Products: disposable containers for liquid
consumer goods, large shipping drums (55
gallon) for liquids and powders, large storage
tanks (2000 gallon), gasoline tanks, toys, and
hulls for sail boards and small boats

Vacuum thermoforming: (1) a flat plastic sheet is softened by heating; (2) the oftened sheet
is placed over a concave mold cavity; (3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity; and (4)
the plastic hardens on contact with the cold mold surface, and the part is removed and
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subsequently trimmed from the web.

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Pressure Thermoforming

Pressure thermoforming. The equence is

similar to the previous figure, the
difference being: (2) sheet is placed over a
mold cavity; and (3) positive pressure
forces the sheet into the cavity.

Thank You

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