DFVGGH

You might also like

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 21

Component-I(A) - Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Masood Ahsan Siddiqui Department of


Geography, Jam
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi
Paper Coordinator, if any Dr. Syed Zaheen Alam Dayal Singh College,
Delhi University
Content Writer/Author Dr. Syed Zaheen Alam Dayal Singh College,
(CW) Delhi University
Content Reviewer (CR)

Language Editor (LE)

Component-I (B) - Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Geography

Paper Name Geomorphology

Module Name/Title Volcanoes.

Module Id GEO-11

Pre-requisites

Objectives

Keywords
VOLCANOES

Sayed Zaheen Alam, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Dyal Singh College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi.

A volcano is an opening or rupture in the Earth's surface or crust, which allows hot
molten magma, ash and gases to escape from deep below the surface. The term volcano in
general refers to the landform built up from the accumulation of lava and pyroclastic debris.
Therefore they are very different from other mountains; since they are not formed by folding and
crumpling or by uplift and erosion.

Volcanoes are spectacular windows to the Earth's internal parts. These natural windows
allow us to catch a glimpse of the inaccessible depths of the surface of the Earth. Volcanic
activity directly provides an explanation that the earth’s interior part must be experiencing high
pressure and temperature. There are more than 500 active volcanoes on Earth’s surface,
including well-known examples such as Mt. Fuji, Mt. St. Helens, and Mauna Loa.

Skeleton of a volcano

Commonly a cone shaped volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater, and a cone. The
volcanic vent is an opening at the Earth's surface through which volcanic materials are erupted at
the surface of the earth. The shape of the vent may be roughly circular conduits or elongated
fissures. The pipe is a passageway in the volcano in which the magma rises through to the
surface during an eruption. The crater is a steep bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano
out of which volcanic materials like, ash, lava, and other pyroclastic materials are released. The
molten material beneath the surface of the Earth is called magma. Once it starts moving towards
the crust or it reaches the surface, here it is referred to as lava.
Figure: Skeleton of a typical volcano.

Did You Know?

The word "volcano" comes from the little island of Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea of Sicily.
Centuries ago, the people living in this area believed that Vulcano was the chimney of the copy
of Vulcan - the blacksmith of the Roman gods.

Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?

For volcanologist it is still a puzzling question that why do volcanoes erupts. Various hypotheses
have been proposed. It is assumed that in the beginning Earth was in molten state. Then
gradually it radiated its heat and cooled down. Earthquake waves suggests that the earth’s mantle
Figure: Process of Volcanic Eruption.

and core is hot which melts the rocks and creates the magma. The hot magma comes in contact
with water the later becomes too hot and generate steam pressure. The high pressure inside the
magma chamber caped by surrounding rock act as strong lid (like the lid of the pressure cooker)
which keeps the gas dissolved within the liquid magma. The weaker areas within the crust allow
magma and gases to penetrate the rocks and may come out in the form volcanic eruption. For
example, when you shake and open a tightly sealed cold drink bottle then the pressure inside the
bottle instantly decreases. Once that happens, the gas comes out quickly of its dissolved state and
forms bubbles. A volcano may erupt in a similar way, though obviously with much more power
and explosion. Before the eruption volcanoes may also give early warning signals by producing a
rushing, a hissing and a coughing and puffing sounds. However it is still difficult to predict the
volcanic eruption. Nevertheless scientists in order to predict the volcanic eruption monitor
seismic activity in volcanic are, the geochemical conditions, change in temperature,
topographical change and change in gas composition. The major human adjustment to volcanic
activity is evacuation. Education and awareness plays an important role in informing people
about the hazards of volcanoes.

Did You Know?`

Sometimes high-viscosity magma comes out from the pipe like toothpaste being squeezed out of
a tube. The volcanologists sometimes use the term “toothpaste lava” to denote this eruption.
Distribution of volcanoes and volcanic activity
Most of the world’s volcanoes and volcanic activity can be sighted along the plate boundaries.
The distribution can be classified into one of the following tectonic settings:

(1) Subduction Zones in the Circum Pacific Belt

The zones where one plate goes down under the other due to density difference are the sites of
most of the world’s active and explosive volcanoes. The oceanic plate having higher density is
subducted under the continental crust. The subducted slab melts under the increasing pressure
and temperature to produce magma which comes out through andesitic chain of volcanoes. The
volcanoes are mainly situated on the continental side of the trenches.

The figure portrays that the so called “Pacific Ring of Fire” is the collection of
volcanoes bordering the Pacific Ocean. This zone is infact a ring of subduction zones. It includes
some of the deadliest volcanoes known, such as Pinatubo and Mt. St. Helens. The figure
demonstrates that it starts from the Andean region of South America and extends northwards
through Central America, Mexico, Western U.S.A. and Canada to Alaska. From Alaska it
extends through Aleutian Islands towards the islands off the eastern coast of Asia and passes
through Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, Japan, the Philippines and further south to the New
Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Zealand and Antarctica. The volcanic belt of the Indian Ocean
which passes through Andamans, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sunda and Burma meets the Pacific belt
near the Malacca Island.

Figure: Pacific Ring of Fire.


(2) Divergence zones: volcanoes of the Mid Atlantic Ridge and over the Continents

In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary is a linear feature that exists between two
tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. For example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
separates the North and South American Plate from the Eurasian and African Plate.

The figure demonstrates that, this pulling apart is causing "sea-floor spreading" as
new volcanic material is added to the oceanic plates. The spreading sites are the common sites of
basaltic lava eruption. On the whole, sea-floor spreading is basically volcanic, but it is a very
slow and regular process, without the explosive outbursts of the volcanoes on land. Magma rises
through the cracks and leaks out onto the ocean floor like a long, thin, undersea volcano. As
magma meets the water, it cools and solidifies, adding to the edges of the sideways-moving
plates. This process along the divergent boundary has created longest topographic feature in the
form of Mid oceanic ridges under the Oceans of the world Most of this activity is out of sight
under the oceans which is less hazardous to people.

Figure: Volcanoes of the Mid Atlantic Ridge in divergent zones.

The map shows that over the continents, the divergence zones with fissure type of
volcanic eruptions are represented by the East African Rift Valley Zone. This belt extends from
Ethiopia to Tanzania. The Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is a well known example of this belt.
Figure: East African Rift Valley Zone.

(3) Intra-plate oceanic volcanism (Hawaiian chain and other oceanic volcanic seamounts)

Intra-plate oceanic volcanism can be represented by a single oceanic volcano, or lines of


volcanoes such as the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chains. They are also popular as hotspots and
are located within the tectonic plates instead of plate margins. The map demonstrate that the
Hawaiian volcanoes are located well within the Pacific plate rather than near a plate boundary.

Figure: Location of Hawaiian volcanoes within the Pacific plate.


(4) Mid Continental belt and Volcanoes in the Mediterranean region:

This belt is extended from the Mediterranean Alps to the Himalayan Region. Most often
visited active volcanoes are found in this belt. Vesuvius and Stromboli are well known example
of this belt. Mount Etna in Sicily is Europe’s largest volcano. Its frequent eruptions often attract
visitors.

Figure: Etna in Sicily, Europe’s largest volcano.

Products of volcanic eruption


The products of volcanic eruption may be in the form of gas, solid and liquid. They are as
follows:

Gases

It is assumed that interactions between the gases contained in molten magma increase
pressure and heat within the ascending lavas which results in explosive activity. Therefore, the
most explosive eruptions are probably the consequence of gas-rich magmas. Major part of gases
consists of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N). The hydrogen is
largely present as water (H2O). Volcanoes also emit methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) but in
trace amounts. They also have an important effect on the regional and global environment and
may contribute greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Do You Know?

Volcanologists also use typical gas mask near volcanoes to safe their own life from the
hazardous effect of volcanic gases.

Solid
When fragments are blown out by explosive eruptions, soild materials are ejected, known
generally as pyroclastic materials or pyroclasts (Pyro = Fire Clast = Fragments). The term
tephra covers all the pyroclastic debris that collects through vertical airfall. The finest of these is
the dust which can remain suspended in the air for long time and can travel long distances. The
size of pyroclasts may be less than 2 millimeters to pieces that weigh several tons.

The horizontal bar diagram shows different types of solid material which comes out
from the volcanoes: Very fine dust and sand-sized volcanic ash (2 mm across). If the ash is
found in compact form it is known as volcanic tuffs. The material of intermediate size (2 to 64
mm across) is called Lapilli or little stones which is almost the size of walnuts. The largest
pyroclasts (more than 64 mm across) having rounded masses are known as volcanic bombs.

Figure: Relative Size of Solid Volcanic material.

Did you know?


In context to volcano the term ‘Ash’ is a misnomer since it is not the outcome of combustion, but
composed of fine particles of lava.

Liquid

The most important product of volcanic eruption is the lava. The lava is the molten magma
which reaches the surface. The nature of lava also determines the form of volcanic cone. The
lava is classified into three types on the basis of proportion of silica content: basaltic (or basic
or mafic), andesitic (or intermediate), and rhyolitic (or silic). The Figure shows that the basaltic
lava has less than 50 per cent silica, andesitic has 55 to 65 per cent Silica and the rhyolite
contains more than 65 per cent silica. The figure also demonstrates that with the increase in silica
in the lava the viscosity of lava also increases.

Figure: Classification of Lava on the Basis Silica Content.

When Lava solidifies it may take a number of forms, some of which have been given
Hawaiian names. For example pahoeho type and aa (Pronounced as ah-ah) type. The figure
shows that the surface of the former is smooth, wrinkled and resembles coils of rope. In the latter
the lava surface appears angular, jagged and blocky. The aa type of lava is the result of gases
escaping violently from within the lava and the effects of the drag of the still molten material
under the resisting crust. The draining of lava from beneath the solidified crust may give shape to
lava tunnels and lava caves.
Figure: Pahoehoe Lava.

Figure: Aa Lava (Pronounced as ah-ah).

Types of volcanoes
Volcanologists have developed many schemes to categorize volcanoes into various types.
On the basis of Periodicity of Eruption, Nature of Eruption and shape and morphology of
volcanoes, the volcanoes can be classified into various types. The most popular classification is
based on periodicity of Eruption i.e. active, dormant and dead volcano.

(A) Basis: Periodicity of Eruption

(i) Active volcano- A volcano is generally considered active if it has erupted within
recent history. It is generally regarded as active so long as the magma reservoir is present. The
map shows location of the recently active volcanoes of the world. It can be observed from the
map that most of them are located in the so called “Pacific Ring of Fire belt”. St. Mount
Helens in Cascade Range of United States is a well known example of this category. The
catastrophic eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, and related mudflows and flooding
caused significant loss of life and property damage (USGS).

Figure: Distribution of Recently Active Volcanoes of the World.

(ii) Dormant Volcano- When the volcano has not erupted in recent times but is fresh
looking is regarded as dormant. A dormant volcano exhibits no indication for future eruption but
they may erupt suddenly and violently causing enormous damage to life and property. Vesuvius
volcano is a classic example of this category which erupted in 79 A.D and destroyed the Roman
cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. It again erupted in 1631 A.D. the frequency of eruption
again increased in 19th century.

(iii) Extinct- A volcano is considered extinct when it has no recent eruptive history.
Impact of erosion can be seen on this type of volcano. They are unlikely to erupt again. For
example, Arthur’s Seat in Scotland.

Points to Ponder

It may be hazardous to classify any volcano as dead or dormant volcano, since it may
erupt without any indication.

(B) Basis: Nature of Eruption


The most commonly used classification by volcanologist is that originally proposed by Lacroix
in 1908. There are four principle types of eruptions i.e., Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian
and Plinian. The figure demonstrates that degree of explosiveness, height of eruption and
viscosity of magma increases from Hawaiian to Plinian type of volcano.

Figure: Types of Volcanoes on the Basis of Nature of Eruption.

(C) Basis: The Shape and Morphology of Volcanoes

On the basis of shape and morphology volcanoes can be clasiified into shield, Cone and
Composite cones, or stratovolcanoes.

(i) Shield volcanoes:

The basaltic lavas are comparatively fluid and spread quietly, easily and widely. The figure
shows that the gradual build-up of thousands of these flows slowly constructs broad flat shield
volcano. They are named as shield volcanoes because they are shaped like a warrior’s shield.
The classic example of a shield volcano is Mauna Loa on Hawaii.
Figure: The internal structure of a typical shield volcano.

Figure: Hawaii shield volcanoes. (Image credit: ©Google earth 2015).

(ii) Cone volcanoes or Cinder Cones

Cinder cones are the most abundant of all volcanoes. Small cones consisting mostly of
pyroclastic debris each having a single vent are called cinder cones. When pyroclastic fragments
fall and accumulate close to the vent, they may pile up to form a very symmetric cinder cone.
The figure shows a classic example of Cinder cones on Lanzarote Island of Canary Islands.
Figure: Cinder cones on Lanzarote Island, Canary Islands, Spain (Image credit: ©Google
earth 2015).

(iii) Composite cones, or stratovolcanoes

Figure: Composite cones, or stratovolcanoes

Sometimes pyroclastic material either flows through break in the crater wall or comes out from
edges of the cone which forms composite volcanoes or alternatively, stratovolcanoes. The figure
shows that they are known as composite volcanoes because they are built up of layers of more
than one kind of material. The mix of lava and pyroclastics allows them to grow larger than
either cinder cones or volcanic domes. The composite volcanoes have a crater at the summit
which generally contains a central vent or a clustered group of vents. Some of the most
beautiful volcanic mountains in the world are composite volcanoes, including Mount
Cotopaxi in Ecuador and Mount St. Helens in U.S.A.

Features formed
Volcanoes have shaped the earth’s crust since its existence, producing dramatic volcanic
cones, volcanic domes, volcanic plateaus, fertile farmlands, islands, Craters and collapsing
Calderas on the surface of the Earth. The volcanic activity also creates unique intrusive
landforms in the form of Batholiths, Dyke, sills, Laccolith , Lapolith and Phacolith. Some minor
features such as Hot Spring, Geysers and Fumaroles are also sites of tourist’s attraction. The
basic extrusive and Intrusive volcanic features are as follows:

(A) Extrusive Feature

(i) Craters and Calderas

The crater is a bowl or funnel-shaped depression or cavity usually of volcanic origin. It is


usually more or less circular in the plan at the summit of the volcanic mountain. The diameter of
crater is commonly less than 1.6 kilometres. Craters may result from either explosive activity or
from subsidence. The figure exhibits an areal view of a crater at the summit of Mt St. Helens
(USA). It should be noted that craters may also form due to impact of meteorites and mining
process but in this case it will not be associated with volcanic activity.

Figure: Areal view of a crater at the summit of Mt St. Helens (USA). Image credit: ©Google
earth 2015).
The huge carter-like depression is called Caldera. The diameter of a caldera is usually
several times that of a crater. The figure demonstrates the formation of caldera due repeated
volcanic eruption. The caldera may also form due to coalescence of several small craters. The

Figure: formation of caldera due to repeated volcanic explosions.

The collapsing of summit of the volcano due to development of underground cavity may
also form caldera. The Figure shows formation of caldera and caldera lake on the on the
northern Kuriles Islands of Russia. It exhibits that the roof of former volcano has collapsed and
created a caldera in which a younger volcano starts to form from the old vent within the caldera
lake. In the world the Buldir caldera between the islands of the Aleutian island chain is the
largest known caldera.
Figure: On the northern Kuriles Islands (Russia) a roof of former volcano collapsed and
created a caldera in which a younger volcano starts to form from the old vent within the
caldera lake (Image credit: ©Google earth 2015).

(ii) Volcanic Plateaus and Plains

On the surface of the Earth many extensive fairly leveled lava plateaus have been built by fissure
eruption. They have completely covered up the surrounding region. The figure shows that the
Deccan lava plateau covers almost 6, 50,000 square kilometers of India’s geographical area.

Figure: Deccan lava plateau.

The basaltic plains in comparison to lava plateau contain much thinner and less extensive
accumulation of lava sheets. They are common throughout the world.

(B) Intrusive Features

Intrusive igneous landforms are formed due to cooling and crystallization of magmas
beneath the surface. The intrusive landforms can be exposed at the earth’s surface by erosion of
overlying rock. Therefore they provide important information about internal structure earth.
Some of the important intrusive volcanic landforms forms are as follows:

(i) Batholiths

A batholith (from Greek bathos, depth + lithos, rock) represents huge mass of intrusive
(plutonic) igneous rock which accumulates in the crust. It forms the root or heart of the volcanic
mountain. The batholiths may be up to 100 kilometers wide and are exposed at the surface only
after considerable denudation of the overlying mass. The figure shows that similar to batholiths
intrusions but smaller in size are bosses or stocks. The northern part of isle of Arran (UK)
contains the conspicuous example of stock.

Figure: Stock in the northern part of isle of Arran (U.K). (Image credit: ©Google earth
2015).

(ii) Dyke

The figure demonstrates that dyke is a igneous intrusion that cuts across the bedding of
the country rock through near vertical fissures. Hundreds of parallel dykes can be traced in
North-Western Scotland, especially in the Islands of Mull and Arran. The denudation processes
can expose the comparatively harder Dyke to from ‘walls’ or Cliff across the beaches.
Sometimes a zone of dykes may surround a circular or dome-shaped intrusion in more or less
arcuate from; these are known as ring-dykes (Monkhouse, 1970).
Figure: Dyke.

(iii) Sills

The figure shows that sill is the tabular or sheet-like intrusive body formed when magma is
injected along sedimentary bedding surfaces. They are usually formed from low viscosity
magma. The Great Whin Sill situated in Great Britain is a well known example.

Figure: Sill.

(iv) Laccoliths

The figure shows that in this type magma collects as a mushroom-shaped mass that arches the
overlying strata upward. Laccoliths are formed due to injection of magma along the bedding
planes of the horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks. They cover large areas, The Karnataka
plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples
of laccoliths or batholiths.
Figure: Laccolith.

(c) Minor Volcanic Features

Geysers and Hot Spring

Sometimes water at depth is heated beyond 100° C or superheated by a body of magma or


hot rock. The water may come out with great force along with the mixture of steam and diluted
minerals. Such sites in the volcanic region are called geysers. The word geyser comes from the
Icelandic word meaning “to gush”. The Figure shows that the ‘Old Faithful’ geyser in
Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A is one of the most famous geysers in the world which erupts
faithfully at regular interval of about 65 minutes or so. This geyser shoots water between 30 to
50 metres into the air. Minerals dissolved in the hot water are often precipitated around the vents
because temperature and pressure drop suddenly as water or steam enters the atmosphere. This
produces spectacular deposits of travertine (chemically precipitated calcium carbonate and
other minerals). The heated water may also flow quietly generally along the fault zones in the
form of hot spring. Such hot springs are quite common in volcanic region.

Figure: Geyser and Hot Spring.

Thank You

You might also like