What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer hardware
components and the user. Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run
other programs. Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some
environment to run and perform its tasks.
The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the
computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device without
having an operating system.

Introduction to Operating System

An operating system is a program on which application programs are executed and acts
as a communication bridge (interface) between the user and the computer hardware.
The main task an operating system carries out is the allocation of resources and services,
such as the allocation of memory, devices, processors, and information. The operating
system also includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a
scheduler, memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system.

Advantage of Operating System

 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
 Easy to use with a GUI
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
 The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to
use
 Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the
hardware components
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
  Acts as an intermediator between all hardware’s and software’s of the system

Disadvantages of Operating System

 If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored
in your system
 Operating system’s software is quite expensive for small size organization which
adds burden on them. Example Windows
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time

History Of OS
 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape
storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early
1950s for their IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing
the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company
 The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a
GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS.
 Following are the Operating System examples with the latest Market Share

Types of Operating Systems

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes, and
memory. Thus operating system acts as the manager of all the resources, i.e. resource
manager. Thus, the operating system becomes an interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some widely used operating systems are as follows-
1. Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –
Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user
gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as
Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The
time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS
switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Fewer chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great
pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each other
using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own
memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of
working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one
user can access the files or software which are not actually present on his system but
some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within
the devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network
 Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined yet
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only
that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.
4. Network Operating System –
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems
allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications, and other networking
functions over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network
Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying configuration,
of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why
these computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System:
 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD,
etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like
missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and
even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving
life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily available
in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.
Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more
output from all the resources
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For
example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting one task to
another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications which are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs are
small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very
less on few applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and
they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the
designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts
signals to respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less
prone to switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.
Important functions of an operating System:
1. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

2. Control over system performance –

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response
time between service requests and system response to having a complete view of the
system health. This can help improve performance by providing important
information needed to troubleshoot problems.

3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users,
this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of
users.

4. Error detecting aids –

The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the
malfunctioning of a computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers,
and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is
assigned a certain address. Main memory is fast storage and it can be accessed
directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first loaded in the
main memory. An Operating System performs the following activities for memory
management:
It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which
user program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the
memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In multiprogramming,
the OS decides the order in which processes are granted access to memory, and for
how long. It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and
deallocates the memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O
operation.
7. Processor Management –
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes
have access to the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This
function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the
following activities for processor management.
Keeps track of the status of processes. The program which performs this task is
known as a traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is a processor to a process. De-
allocates processor when a process is no more required.

8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the
following activities for device management. Keeps track of all devices connected to
the system. designates a program responsible for every device known as the
Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets access to a certain device and
for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates devices
when they are no longer required.

9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating
System carries out the following file management activities. It keeps track of where
information is stored, user access settings and status of every file, and more… These
facilities are collectively known as the file system.

INTERFACE:
Communication between a user and a computer is two-way. One of the jobs of the operating
system is to provide a 'user interface', so that a human can communicate with the hardware that
makes up a computer. When you buy a piece of software, it too will have a user interface, so that
you can access and use the software. A user will give data and instructions to a computer and a
computer will give information back to a user. The way that a computer and a user
communicate is known as theinterface .

In computers there are different types of interface that can be used for connection with
computers to users and their connection is responsible for data transfer.

1. Command line interface

The command-line interface is an interface whenever the user needs to have different
commands regarding the input and output and then a task is performed so this is called the
command-line argument and it is used to execute the output and create, delete, print, copy,
paste, etc.
All these operations are performed with the help of the command-line interface.
The interface is always connected to the OS so that the command given by the user directly
works by the OS and a number of operations can be performed with the help of the command
line interface because multiple commands can be interrupted at same time and execute only one.
The command line interface is necessary because all the basic operations in the computer are
performed with the help of the OS and it is responsible for memory management. By using this
we can divide the memory and we can use the memory.

Command Line Interface advantages −

 Controls OS or application
 faster management
 ability to store scripts which helps in automating regular tasks.
 Troubleshoot network connection issues.
Command Line Interface disadvantages −
 The steeper learning curve is associated with memorizing commands and a complex
syntax.
 Different commands are used in different shells.
2. Graphical user interface
The graphical user interface is used for playing games, watching videos, etc. these are done with
the help of GUI because all these applications require graphics.
The GUI is one of the necessary interfaces because only by using the user can clearly see the
picture, play videos.
So we need GUI for computers and this can be done only with the help of an operating system.
When a task is performed in the computer then the OS checks the task and defines the interface
which is necessary for the task. So, we need GUI in the OS.

The basic components of GUIs are −

 Start menu with program groups
 Taskbar which showing running programs
 Desktop screen
 Different icons and shortcuts.

Advantages and disadvantages of GUI

There are various advantages and disadvantages of GUI. These are as follows:

Advantages

1. A GUI is a type of user interface that is much easier to use. Users can classify and navigate
options since data are represented as symbols, forms, and icons. Users only require to click on
 them to acquiring to their functions.
2. It's also easy to manage several jobs when you use a GUI. Users may work and view multiple
programs at the same time. For instance, when a movie file is playing in the background, it is
possible to browse the internet using a web browser.
3. The use of shortcut keys is one of the most important features of a graphical user interface.
Shortcut keys are very helpful if you require to perform a job that requires a couple of actions.
4. When it comes to attractiveness, it is much attractive. It is more stylish and elegant in its design in
comparison to CLI. Users would be more engaged with their gadget if it was more attractive.
Furthermore, GUI enables users to monitor their device's health status and other network
interfaces more flexibly than viewing the same in text format.

Disadvantages

1. There are various moving parts in a graphical user interface. As a result, it is much slower than a
CLI.
2. GUI implementation is not an as easy process as it looks while using it. The programmer must be
aware of properly creating functions so that users may use this interface more easily. A single
error on the part of the coder can render all of their efforts in vain.
3. Even though graphical user interfaces are simple to use, they are not the same when they are
created. GUIs have a lot of textual interpretations that take a lot of time and energy to create.
The programmer must create, link, and then assign specific functions to the image, which will
take a long time.
4. The design of the graphical user interface makes development more complex and expensive.
Additionally, a GUI must be linked with additional hardware, which may increase overall costs.
5. It usually uses high power and computer memory than other interfaces due to all graphical
representations. It is not resource-efficient. As a result, it will use a huge amount of computer
resources.
Features CLI GUI

Definition A CLI is an A graphical user interface enables users to interact with the operating system or
interface that application.
allows the user
to perform
tasks by issuing
commands in
successive lines
of text or
command lines.

Memory It needs less It needs more memory because it has various graphics components.
Requirement memory than
the GUI.

Ease of use It is not easy to It is easy to use.

use.

Speed It is faster than It is slower than the CLI.

the GUI.

Flexibility It is less flexible It is more flexible than CLI.

than GUI.

Device Used It needs the It needs both a keyboard and a mouse.

only keyboard.

Appearance Its appearance Its appearance may be modified or changed.

may not be
modified or
changed.

Precision Its precision is Its precision is low as compared to CLI.

high as
compared to
GUI.

Data The In a GUI, information can be viewed or presented to the user in several ways,
Presentation information including simple text, videos, graphics, etc.
can be viewed
to the user in
plain text and
files in the CLI.
Errors Spelling Spelling mistakes and typing errors are avoided.
mistakes and
typing errors
are not
avoided.

Graphics No graphics are Graphics are used in the GUI.

used in the
CLI.

Menus No menus are Menus are provided in the GUI.

provided in the
CLI.

Computer Network and its Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
 building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local
area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial
cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not
offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
 admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 o Wired Personal Area Network
o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as
a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer,
television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN

. Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a
single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting
a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL,
etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

  Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical
area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to
the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
 consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple
wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

LAN MAN WAN

1. LAN is defined as a On the other hand, MAN is On the other hand, WAN is
computer network defined as a computer defined as the
that links the local network that links the telecommunications network
areas like schools, metropolitan areas. that covers a large geographical
universities, area.
organizations, etc.

2. The full form of the The full form of MAN is The full form of WAN is a
LAN is Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network.
Network. Network.

3. LAN is a wired The connections in MAN The network of WAN is

network, i.e., all the are connected through connected through broadband
computers and modem or cables/ wires. services, 3G or 4G internet
printers are services, etc.
connected through
wires.

4. The ownership of The ownership of MAN The ownership of WAN might

LAN is private. might be public or private. be private or public.

5. The internet speed of The sped of MAN is The speed of WAN is relatively
LAN is very high, i.e., moderate, i.e., 44-155 less than MAN and LAN, i.e.,
1000 Mbps. Mbps. 150 Mbps.
6. The maintenance The maintenance cost of The maintenance cost of WAN
cost of LAN is easy. MAN is difficult. is difficult.

7. The bandwidth of The bandwidth of MAN is The bandwidth of WAN is

LAN is high. less. relatively low.

8. Examples: Examples: Examples:

o College o City o Broadband and internet
throughout the country
o School o Building or continent.

o University

o Hospital

Data Communication:
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via form of
transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data is
known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver. Data
communication aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data during the process but
not the actual generation of the information at the source and receiver.

Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,

pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender
to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable
or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender
and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
A protocol performs the following functions:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of
packets, and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and
destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within
packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a
slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating
the flow of data on communication lines.

5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure
transmission of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous
message block. In such a case, a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is
retransmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to
use the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned
to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate
with each other.
Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication
software packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log information,
which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such
information may be used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the
network resources.
The effectiveness depends on fundamental characteristics of data communications

1. Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner.late delivered Data useless.
Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or

receive data from one device to another. The data communication is divided into three
types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that
unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another device
only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example,
IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is
a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data
but not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another device is
only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is
a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data
at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also
known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that
carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication
media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
2. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.
Guided Media
In Guided media, signals are transmitted through a physical path. The features of guide
media are high speed and security. Guided media also known
as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
There are three types of Guided media:

1. Twisted pair
2. Coaxial cable
3. Optical fiber cable

1. Twisted Pair
Twisted pair cable is made up of two insulated wires twisted with each other. One wire
carries the signal from source to destination and the other wire is for ground
reference. Twisting is done to avoid the exterior electromagnetic interference. It is the
most widely used transmission media.

Advantages of Twisted pair cable:

 Installation is easy
 Lightweight cable
 High speed
 Can carry both analog and digital data
 Cheaper than other transmission media
 If some part of twisted pair cable is damaged, it does not affect the entire network

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable:

 Poor security
 Not durable, easy to break
 Attenuation is high
 Supports only lower bandwidth.

Applications of Twisted Pair Cables:

 In telephone lines.
 Local area networks such as small office and data centres.

Types of twisted pair cable

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

2. Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted-pair cable
Unshielded twisted pair cable is widely used in telecommunications. Unshielded Twisted
pair (UTP) cable is categorized as follows:

Category 1 UTP: Mostly used in telephone lines as it supports only low-speed data.
Category 2 UTP: It supports upto 4Mbps.
Category 3 UTP: It supports upto 16Mbps.
Category 4 UTP: It supports upto 20Mbps. It can also be used for long-distance
communications/
Category 5 UTP: It supports upto 200Mbps.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. It can supports high data speed, which can be used in high

speed LAN implementation.
2. Very easy to setup and install
3. It is flexible and cheap option for physical transmission media

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Bandwidth is limited.
2. Noise reduction is not possible
3. Not ideal for longer distance communications due to the attenuation.

Shielded Twisted-pair cable

Shielded twisted pair cable contains the metal foil surrounding the twisted copper wires
to avoid external interference.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Better performance than unshielded twisted pair cable.

2. Installation is easy.
3. Supports higher bandwidth and high speed because it’s shielded.

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

1. Expensive. It is more expensive than Unshielded twisted pair cable.

2. Difficult to manufacture and heavy weight.
2. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable has a centre conductor enclosed in a insulating cover, which in turn is
enclosed in a metal foil shield. The whole cable is covered in a plastic cover. The metal
foil shield protects against the noise.

As the name suggests, it consists two conductors parallel to each other.

The inner conductor is made up of copper and the outer conductor is made up of copper
mesh. These two conductors are separated by insulating cover.

The inner centre conductor is used for data transfer while the outer copper mesh
conductor protects against the noise (Electromagnetic interference).

Types of Coaxial Cable

BaseBand Transmission cable: It is used for transmission of single signal at high speed. It
is used for digital transmission.
BroadBand Transmission cable: It is used for transmission of multiple signals
simultaneously. It is used for analog transmission.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

1. High speed data transmission.

2. Better noise reduction compared to twisted pair cable.
3. High bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

1. It is more expensive than twisted pair cable.

2. The whole network consists of a a single cable so any fault can cause the failure of
entire network.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable is also known as optical-fiber cable. It is made of glass and the
transmission of data is based on the concept of reflection of light through glass.

In fiber optic cable, the optical fibers are coated in plastic. These optical fibers send the
data by pulses of light.
The plastic coating protects the cable from temperature, electromagnetic inference and
other types of wiring issues.

Components of a fiber optic cable:

Core: The core of the fiber optic cable contains optical fibers and is responsible for data
transmission in form of light pulses.

Cladding: The core is enclosed in a layer of glass and this layer is called cladding. The
main use of cladding is to reflect the light so that the light can be transmitted from source
to the destination through reflection.

Jacket: The jacket is the outer layer of fiber optic cable which is made up of plastic and
the whole purpose of jacket is to protect the cable.

Coaxial cable Propagation Modes:

Multimode: Multiple light sources moves through different paths inside coaxial cable.
Multiple data transmission simultaneously.

Singlemode: Light moves in a single path close to horizontal of the cable.

Advantages of fiber optic cable:

1. High bandwidth: The fiber optic cable supports high bandwidth compared to the
copper cables. Thus, it transfers more data compared to the copper cables.
2. High speed: Since the data is transmitted in form of light, the transmission speed is
very high.
3. Longer range: unlike copper wires cable, the fiber optic cable can be used for larger
distance data transmission.
4. Reliable: It is more reliable than copper cables as the core is protected against the
temperature and electromagnetic disturbances.
5. Durable
6. Light weight

Unguided Media
Unguided media does not use physical medium to transmit the data from source to
destination. We already know that the Guided media uses physical medium such as
cables and wires to transfer the data from source to destination. However unlike guided
media, the Unguide media uses air as a transmission medium to transfer the data. Thus,
it is called wireless transmission media.

The unguided media uses an antenna for transmitting and receiving the data in form
of electromagnetic waves.

Why we need Unguided media?

There are certain areas where it is very difficult or not possible to install the cables and
wires such as hill areas, in these areas wireless data transfer is very much required.

Types of Unguided media

1. Microwave Transmission
2. Radio Transmission
3. Infrared Transmission

1. Microwave transmission
In microwave transmission, the range of frequency of electromagnetic waves lies
somewhere between 1-300GHz. Microwave transmission is of two types:

 Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission

 Satellite Type Microwave Transmission

Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission

In this type of microwave transmission, both the sender and receiver antennas are in
direct sight with each other.

1. Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave ranges from 4 to

6GHz.
2. Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
3. Cost: If used in short distance communication, the implementation cost is cheap as
we do not need relay towers. However when terrestrial type microwave
transmission is used for long distances, the implementation cost goes high as we
need relay towers to extend the signals.
4. Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. In terrestrial type microwave
transmission, attenuation mainly depends on frequency and signal strength.
5. Implementation: Implementation is difficult as the tower needs to be line of sight
 and the signal requirement makes it even more difficult to implement.

Advantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:

1. It is cheaper than cable transmission

2. Possible to implement in areas where cable transmission is difficult to implement
such as hill areas.

Disadvantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:

1. Not secure, susceptible to eavesdropping.

2. Weather condition can affect the transmission.
3. Limited bandwidth.

Satellite type microwave transmission

This type of communication uses the satellite antenna for communication. The sender
antenna sends the signal to the satellite antenna which is revolving around the earth at a
known height. The satellite antenna then amplifies the received signal and sends it to the
receiver antenna.

Advantages of Satellite type transmission:

1. The transmission can be done to the longer distances.

2. Unlike terrestrial transmission where the implementation cost goes higher based on
the transmission distance, the satellite communication is unaffected by the distance
of the data transmission.
3. Easy to install compared to terrestrial type.

Disadvantages of Satellite type transmission:

1. Installation of satellite is extremely tough.

2. Installation cost is high and development requires more time.

2. Radio Transmission
 Radio waves are very low frequency electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in
all directions within the range.
 Radio transmission frequency ranges from 3KHz to 1GHz.
 In radio transmissions, the antennas need not be in aligned nor required to be set in
a particular manner to send and receive signals.
  Since radio waves are omnidirectional (all directions), it is not possible to isolate the
communication inside a building.

Advantages of Radio Transmission:

1. Radio waves are mainly used for Wide Area Networks (WAN) for example: Mobile
networks.
2. Suitable for longer distance communications.
3. Signals can penetrate walls.
4. Higher data transmission rate compared to other transmission mediums.

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission:

1. Waves are omnidirectional so faces interference from other signals of same

frequency so disturbance can be there.
2. Not possible to isolate the communication inside the building.

3. Infrared Transmission
1. Infrared waves are highest frequency waves, frequency ranges from 300GHz to 400
THz.
2. Suitable for short distance communication.
3. Bandwidth is high so data transmit rate is high compared to other mediums.
4. These waves cannot penetrate walls, thus they are ideal for isolated
communications.

Advantages of Infrared Transmission:

1. Secure
2. High speed
3. High frequency signals
4. High data transfer rate
5. low interference

Disadvantages of Infrared Transmission:

1. Sun rays interfere with the infrared rays so not ideal for outdoor communication.
2. Suitable for short distance communication only.
3. Cannot penetrate walls so difficult to establish a communication between two
different rooms.
 BASIS FOR
GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON

Basic The signal requires a physical The signal is broadcasted

path for transmission. through air or sometimes

water.

Alternative name It is called wired It is called wireless

communication or bounded communication or unbounded

transmission media. transmission media.

Direction It provides direction to signal It does not provide any

for travelling. direction.

Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial Radio wave, microwave and

cable and fibre optic cable. infrared.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end
user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the
layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver
that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added
to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it
is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at
a given time.
Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples
of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a

logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
 optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
 smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control
protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.
Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.
 o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number
of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
 o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device
is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.

2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.

5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the

network decreases.

3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is

connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in
the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by

having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual
Ring Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is
 in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can
act as a backup, to keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data

transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more

nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub
through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

3. Easy to troubleshoot.

4. Easy to setup and modify.

5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

 2. Expensive to use.

3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.

4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network

nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to
link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements.
Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest
distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and
it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the
failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no
routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to
lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are
only connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected
to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.

2. Robust.

3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.

3. Fault is diagnosed easily.

 4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to
the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

3. Easily managed and maintained.

4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.

2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more

topologies. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is
used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

 2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.

2. Costly.