08. ОБЩАЯ ЭФИРОДИНАМИКА - Ацюковский В.А. (2) (1) -300-578

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298 Chapter 8.
Chapter 8. Electromagnetic phenomena

The ethereal theory... gives hope to find out what is the actual
substrate of electrical movement, what kind of thing causes
electrical movement by its movements.
sky phenomena.
F. Engels [1]
8.1. Brief history of the theory

electromagnetism
As is known, the development of the theory of electromagnetism went through the following stages:
- spontaneous accumulation of facts;
- experimental accumulation of facts;
- attempts to create physical theories that explain electromagnetic
tism;
- attempts to create physical and mathematical theories that describe electromagnetic
phenomena and make it possible to create methods for their calculation;
- generalizations of physical and mathematical theories of electromagnetism

ZMA and the creation of a unified mathematical theory;
- experimental studies aimed at testing and confirming the provisions of the general
theory;
- implementation of the results obtained into widespread practice.
Based on numerous experimental data, calculation methods were developed that made
it possible to accurately calculate power and low-current devices and assemblies,
transmission lines and electrical circuits. And in the twentieth century, on the basis of the
knowledge acquired by that time, the most important branches of modern industry were
created - electrical engineering, radio engineering and electronics, without which the
existence of modern humanity is unthinkable. The proposition that “there is nothing more
applied than a good theory” has fully justified itself in practice.
tick.
The modern theory of electromagnetism was preceded by a long period of accumulation

of knowledge about electricity and magnetism. In the XVII and XVIII centuries. The works of
M.V. Lomonosov, G.V. Richman, B. Franklin, S.O. Coulomb, P. Divish and
other scientists. The creation of the first continuous current source by A. Volt was of decisive
importance. In the first third of the nineteenth century there were pro-
Numerous studies of chemical, thermal, light
and magnetic phenomena caused by electric current (works
Electromagnetic phenomena 299
V.V.Petrov, H.K.Oersted, D.F.Arago, M.Faraday, J.Henry, A.M.Amper, G.S.Ohm and others). In the
second half of the 19th century. These works have received numerous practical implementations in
many developments that have found wide application in industry [2–4]. And with all this, practically
no one knows what the essence of electricity and magnetism is, what they are, what their physical
nature is. It must be said that in the 19th century. Some attempts have been made to understand the
question of what electricity and magnetism are physically, what they consist of and how they are
structured. One
way or another, they were all forced to bring into consideration the submissions
about the ether, the movements of which, in their opinion, lay at the basis of electricity
magnetism.
M. Faraday suggested the existence of power tubes of electricity (“Faraday’s power lines”) [5,
6]. Ideas about electromagnetic phenomena as vortex movements of the ethereal fluid were formulated
by G. Helmholtz [7, 8], W. Thomson [9–13], Chellis [14], Maxwell [15–17], as well as some other auto-
rami - Heaviside [18, 19], Campbell [20], Larmore [21], Langevin [22], Abraham [23], etc. A significant
contribution to the understanding of the processes associated with the passage of electric current
through wires was made by the German physicist P. Drude [24-26], who created the electronic theory
of conductivity of metals, and the Dutch physicist G. Lorenz [27, 28], who significantly developed
and supplemented this theory. In the twentieth century, similar ideas were expressed by J. Thomson
[29, 30], N.K. Kasterin [31], V.F. Mitkevich [32–37].
The mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism was created and practically completed in
the second half of the 19th century. Its apotheosis was the famous “Treatise on Electricity and
Magnetism” [38], written by Maxwell in 1873. In it, Maxwell managed to summarize the results
works of a number of scientists such as W. Thomson, M. Faraday, G. Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, Rankin,

Coulomb, Ampere, Riemann, Neumann, Oersted, Lenz and many others (Stokes, Weber, Chellis,
Fizeau, Verde, Reeve, Beer, Hall, Quincke, Green, Jenkin, Lagrange, Felici, Foucault, Knoblauch,
Poulier) and complement the achievements of researchers of electromagnetic phenomena of that time
with the theory of the electromagnetic field. In the Treatise, Maxwell finally formulated the famous
equations of electrodynamics, which received his name. In this form, the theory of electromagnetism
has survived to this day practically unchanged. Maxwell's treatise was the basis for all subsequent
textbooks on electrical engineering and electrical engineering.
namike.
300 Chapter 8.
Perhaps no less important was the work of G. Lorentz “The Theory of Electrons and Its
Application to the Phenomena of Light and Thermal Radiation,” written by him in 1909 [28].
Maxwell's work and, in particular, his equations of the electromagnetic field had a
decisive influence on the development already in the twentieth century of such fields of
science as electrical engineering, electrodynamics, radio engineering, electronics and even
optics. From these famous equations it followed that there could be electromagnetic waves
propagating through space at the speed of light. This prediction was made by Maxwell in his
work “On Physical Lines of Force” (1861–
1862) [16]. In this work, Maxwell, using a model of a certain vortex mechanism in the ether,
for the first time comes to his famous equations and introduces the concept of displacement
current. Maxwell most definitely takes the position of Faraday, associated with the recognition
of the reality of the physical state of the environment, represented by lines of force. The
concept of short-range action was finally formed for him, and his further task was to reflect
the structure of the field in models and equations, which he accomplished in 1873 in his
“Treatise on Electricity and Magnetization.”
meh."
Based on Maxwell's equations, based on ideas about the vortex movements of the ether,
the German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1886–1889 . With the help of a vibrator he invented, he
experimentally proved the existence of electromagnetic waves and studied their properties
(reflection from mirrors, refraction in prisms, etc.). Hertz confirmed all the main conclusions
of Maxwell's theory about the properties of electromagnetic
waves
After the publication of Hertz's works on electrodynamics in 1888, the Russian physicist
and inventor A.S. Popov in 1895 created the equipment necessary for the transmission and
reception of electromagnetic waves, which laid the foundation for radio engineering.
Thus, the equations of electromagnetic processes derived by J.C. Maxwell on the basis
of ideas about the vortex movements of the ether not only have a theoretical basis, but have
also been thoroughly tested in practice.
It is useful to recall that the equations of electrodynamics were derived by Maxwell on

the basis of models of the movement of the ether, in the existence of which Maxwell was
convinced.
“Indeed,” writes Maxwell, “if in general energy is transferred from one body to another
not instantly, but in a finite time, then there must be a medium in which it temporarily resides,
leaving the first body and not reaching the second. Therefore, these theories must lead
existence of the environment in which this spread occurs

nie".
The level of knowledge of the properties of the ether then turned out to be insufficient,
perhaps for this reason it was not possible to create any satisfactory qualitative theory of
electromagnetic phenomena, and the attention of researchers was turned to the quantitative
study of electrical and magnetic phenomena, identifying patterns and creating on them
based on calculation methods. Along this path, outstanding
results that made it possible to create a modern mathematical theory of electromagnetism.

But not physical.
In connection with the difficulties of creating a physical theory of electromagnetism,
as well as in connection with the success of quantitative methods, many theorists and
practitioners have the impression that there is no need to understand the essence of
electrical and magnetic phenomena. However, such an opinion is deeply erroneous.
Misunderstanding of the physical essence of phenomena leads to the fact that the created
quantitative methods begin to be used without any restrictions, which sometimes leads to
large errors in calculations. Moreover, many significant circumstances are not taken into
account. And even more, new problems appear that cannot be solved using the created
methods, and they remain unsolved. There are many examples of this in electrical
engineering, and in radio engineering, and in other areas, one way or another related to
electromagnetic phenomena, even in optics.
If a qualitative theory of electromagnetic phenomena were created, then, probably,

most of the functional descriptions and the quantitative calculation methods resulting from
them would remain unchanged, but in some cases they would undergo significant
refinements. And this would make it possible to create not only new calculation methods,
more accurate ones, but even new directions. One way or another, although they widely use
the mathematical dependencies of the theory of
electromagnetism and sometimes even draw general philosophical conclusions from
them, theorists and practitioners still do not have the slightest idea about the essence of
electricity. The vast majority of
I’ve gotten used to this and don’t consider it necessary to raise this issue. But we should not
forget that sooner or later the imperfection of the theory will inevitably lead to a clash with
the interests of practitioners when it turns out that the created theoretical foundation is not
enough to solve applied problems. This will require further development of the theory, but
the development of a theory that has no idea about the essence of the things it considers
phenomena is impossible.
302 Chapter 8.
Many scientists have paid attention to the need for an essential approach to the study of
electromagnetic phenomena. More F. Engels in
In 1882 he wrote [1]:
“Exclusive empiricism, which allows itself to think at best only in the form of mathematical
calculations, imagines that it operates only with indisputable facts. In reality, it operates
primarily with traditional ideas, mostly outdated products of the thinking of its predecessors.
The latter serve as the basis for endless mathematical calculations, in which , due to the rigor
of mathematical formulas, the hypothetical nature of the premises is easily forgotten. This
empiricism is no longer able to correctly depict facts, because it inserts a traditional
interpretation of these facts into their depiction.”
In 1906, in the famous work “The Theory of Electrons,” G. Lorentz noted

et:
“Although the equations (of the electromagnetic field - V.A.) are useful in considering
many problems, they cannot be applied in all cases without exception. Even if this were the
case, our theory would cease to satisfy us when trying to look deeper into the nature of
phenomena: indeed, in this general theory we express the special properties of various weighty
bodies, simply by attributing to each of them special values of the dielectric constant ,
conductivity and magnetic permeability. If we want to understand how (my italics - V.A.)
electrical and magnetic properties depend on temperature, density, chemical structure or
crystalline state of a substance, then we cannot be satisfied with simply introducing these
coefficients, the values of which must be determined from experience: we will be forced to
resort to some hypothesis regarding the mechanism underlying all these phenomena.”
It should be noted with regret that the successes of applied sciences have created the
current theory of electromagnetic phenomena and, in particular, Maxwell’s theory, an aura of
absolute truth, and modern theoretical physics has excluded the idea of the existence of ether
in nature, the vortex movements of which were considered by Maxwell as the basis of
electromagnetic phenomena . Thus, any possibility of further deepening into
understanding the essence of electromagnetic phenomena. A direct consequence

This was due to the fact that the mathematical dependences of electrodynamics, created by
Maxwell more than a hundred years ago, were practically not developed at all.
fell.
Attempts by some researchers to change anything in these equations always ended in

failure. This gave reason for L. Boltzmann to write in his notes to the translation of Maxwell’s
work “On Physical Lines of Force” in 1898 [16, p. 194]: “I could say that Maxwell’s followers
in these equations are probably nothing They didn't
change anything except the letters. However, this would be too much. Of course, one
should not be surprised that anything at all could be added to these equations, but much
more so how little to
it was added."
Today, more than a hundred years later, this surprise of Boltzmann remains powerful:
practically nothing has been added to Maxwell’s equations, although during this time
hundreds of textbooks on the theoretical foundations of electrical engineering,
electrodynamics and radio engineering have been written, thousands of applied problems
have been solved, and a wide variety of devices have been created. It would seem that there
is no reason to return to this issue. However, it is not.
Firstly, idealized ideas about the movements of the ethereal fluid have led to paradoxes
in models of electromagnetism, similar to those that occur in the hydrodynamics of an ideal
fluid, for example, the energy of a unit length of a vortex is equal to infinity, regardless of its
intensity. In electrodynamics, a paradox arose similar to the one considered: the energy of a
unit length of a conductor carrying current is equal to infinity, regardless of the magnitude
of the current. True, since a single conductor does not exist in nature, it becomes possible
to resolve this paradox by considering the entire structure as a whole, including the return
conductor, then this paradox is resolved. However, a paradoxical situation should not exist
for any system, including a conventional single conductor.
There are also some other shortcomings of existing models: most of them do not
consider the interaction of matter and electromagnetic fields, thereby separating them from
each other, some expressions do not reflect the interaction of the sources of fields and the
bodies on which they act, etc. .
Secondly, it turned out that many calculations based on Maxwell’s equations give very
approximate results that differ from those found empirically by tens of percent, sometimes
several times. This applies, for example, to the mutual induction of large circuits. True,
application engineers are accustomed to this; they attribute non-conformities to failure to
take into account accompanying factors and make the necessary adjustments in the process
of debugging devices. But the analysis shows that deviations in calculations cannot be
explained by unaccounted factors alone.
Zya.
304 Chapter 8.
Thirdly, it was discovered that there is a series of problems in electrodynamics that

cannot be solved on the basis of existing concepts. This is due, first of all, to the fact that
the authors of the models considered only the first approximations to electromagnetic
phenomena, and as new data are accumulated, there can be any number of such
approximations, which led to the fact that some applied problems of electrodynamics turn
out to be unsolved, and there are problems that fundamentally cannot be solved on the basis
of Maxwell’s equations.
Such problems, for example, include the joint movement of two identical charges,
motionless relative to each other: while they are both motionless, they repel each other
according to Coulomb’s law, but if they are together, without moving one relative to the other,
they move
in space, they now become currents attracting each other. Why?
Such a problem, for example, is the problem of the propagation of electromagnetic

waves by a Hertz dipole placed in a semiconducting medium. A Hertz dipole, i.e. a dipole with
lumped parameters that are known, placed in a semiconducting medium, the parameters of
which are also known, emits a current of a known magnitude, the frequency of which is also
known. It is necessary to determine the current density in the medium at a given point in
space. This problem is completely physically defined. Despite the triviality of the formulation
and the tempting possibility of obtaining from the general solution of this problem many
particular results as a limiting case - radiation in an ideal medium in the absence of active
conductivity, the damping of a plane wave in a semiconductor at infinite distances from the
dipole and some others - the problem of The problem of radiation of a Hertz dipole in a
semiconducting medium has never been solved by anyone, and attempts to solve it invariably
ended in failure. There are, however, attempts to form a ready-made solution by multiplying
two particular solutions - solving the problem of field propagation by a Hertz dipole in an ideal
medium and solving the problem of a plane wave, but this approach is completely incorrect.
In fact, this problem cannot be solved on the basis of Maxwell's equations, since it leads to a
system of equations that do not have a general solution.
Limit problems on the electric field in a pulsating homogeneous electric field and many
others have not been solved. There are even entire classes of electrodynamic problems,
physically completely defined, which, nevertheless, cannot be solved using Maxwell’s
equations.
Fourthly, it should be noted that not all concepts used in theoretical electrical engineering
have a clear physical meaning. What
is “vector potential A”? This is a quantity whose vortex is the magnetic

induction vector B:
B = rot A.
There is no physical meaning of this quantity.

Fifthly, there are some inconsistencies in the logic of
electromagnetism. For example, Maxwell's static postulate
ÿ DdS = q,
S
placed in textbooks on the theoretical foundations of electrodynamics in

sections of statics, after presenting it in differential form
divD = ÿ
is already placed in the dynamics section, although the last form of representation in
its physical essence is no different from the previous one. As a result, the delay in the values
of electrical induction D when moving charges q inside the space covered by the surface S is
ignored . And sixthly, it is necessary to recall that not a single phenomenon can be described
completely, that
every description is approximate, and if an equation is written that reflects a certain
process, then the very fact of writing this equation with a finite number of terms means that
this equation partially describes the process , approximately. This means that sooner or later
there will be a need to clarify it. This applies to all specific processes and physical phenomena,
and electromagnetic phenomena
nia are no exception.
The stated points, as well as some other considerations, are not

allow us to consider the development of the theory of electromagnetism completely
completed. However, its further evolution is possible only on the basis of a detailed qualitative
consideration of the processes occurring in
electromagnetic phenomena, which forces us to return to the development
the development of models of these phenomena, taking into account the shortcomings that were
inherent in early hydromechanical models.
Therefore, attempts to clarify the equations of electrodynamics
should not cause protest. You just need to make sure it's correct
problem setting.
However, any clarification of the equations should be based on an
idea of the essence of the phenomenon, on its qualitative model.
306 Chapter 8.
J.C. Maxwell followed the dynamic method of research in electromagnetism. He imagined

electrical and magnetic phenomena as some kind of vortex processes occurring in the ether
- a medium that fills all cosmic space. And since he believed that the ether was something like
an ideal fluid, he widely used the ideas of hydromechanics of his time about the properties
and forms of motion of such a fluid, in particular the ideas of G. Helmholtz, W. Rankin and
other researchers. Considering that Maxwell’s ideas about electromagnetic phenomena,
expressed by his equations, received good confirmation, although not absolute, it would be
logical to return to his model, adjusted for modern ideas about the ether.
Currently, there is every reason to return to the models of electricity and magnetism
developed by J.C. Maxwell and his predecessors, to try to understand their shortcomings
from the standpoint of today's ideas about the ether and the physical essence of electricity,
magnetism and electromagnetic phenomena, for which is why it is necessary to clarify the
physical model of electromagnetism and, on this basis, make appropriate refinements to the
equations of electromagnetic phenomena. At the same time, we should not forget that both
the refined model and the equations arising from it cannot be complete and further refinements
of the model and electrodynamics equations are inevitable in the future.
The foregoing provides the basis for an attempt to fulfill the instructions of F. Engels,
expressed by him in 1882 in “Dialectics of Nature” [1, p.
452]: “Electricity is the movement of particles of the ether and the molecules of bodies take
part in this movement. ...Different theories depict the nature of this movement in different
ways, ...based on the latest research on vortex movements, they see in it - each in its own
way - also a vortex movement. ...Ethereal theory... gives hope to find out what is the actual
material substrate of electric motion, what
the thing itself causes electrical phenomena by its movement.”

There should be no doubt that the attempt made below to present the essence of
electromagnetic phenomena, like any such attempt, is partial. This is more a statement of
the problem than a solution. Nevertheless, the author is confident that such attempts
are useful because they help to better understand the essence of electromagnetic phenomena,
identify new areas of research, and in some cases clarify already known mathematical
dependencies.
The models of electromagnetism presented below apparently have their drawbacks, so
in the future they should also be clarified and supplemented, like any other models.
Today, the desire to understand the physical essence of electromagnetic phenomena is

more than timely. It can be assumed that this problem should have been addressed much
earlier, since all the materials for this were available. A number of authors have made similar
attempts. Among them, we should note the works of V.F. Mitkevich (Leningrad, 20–30s ) [32 –
37], the modern work of G.N. Nikolaev (Tomsk) [39], which contains an extensive list of
paradoxical view of modern electrodynamics of phenomena, as well as some others. Their
disadvantage should still be considered the incompleteness of physical ideas about
the essence of electromagnetism, which did not allow the authors to create a unified and
consistent physical picture of electromagnetic phenomena. Below is an attempt to fill this gap
to some extent.
It should be noted that when implementing this attempt, certain difficulties arose related
to the lack of development of certain provisions of gas mechanics and certain provisions of
even such a branch of mathematics as vector analysis. The first include the clearly insufficient
level of the theory of the boundary layer in compressible media, the theory
interaction of helical jets, theories of interaction of helical vortex-vortex toroids and some
others. The second includes some ideas that are rooted in vector analysis, but are not
sufficiently substantiated physically, for example, the prohibition of dividing collinear
(coincident in direction) vectors into each other. Although the physical meaning of such an
operation is obvious, it is prohibited to represent such a quantity as the gradient of a vector,
although here the physical meaning is clear (for example, the gradient of the velocity of
water flow in a river). Some of these difficulties were avoided, but a detailed study of all such
issues remains ahead.
di.
8.2. The physical essence of electromagnetism
8.2.1. Units of electrical and magnetic quantities in the ISS system
Until recently, electrical engineering used the absolute electrical system of units SGSE,
the absolute electromagnetic system of units SGSM, as well as the absolute Gaussian
system of units, in which the main units were centimeter, gram and second, but in the SGSE
system the absolute dielectric constant is considered dimensionless and equal to unity for
vacuum:
308 Chapter 8.
ÿÿ = 1;
in the SGSM system, absolute magnetic permeability is considered dimensionless and

equal to unity for vacuum:
ÿÿ = 1;
and in the Gaussian system of units, the absolute dielectric and magnetic permeabilities
are considered dimensionless and are taken at the same time equal to unity for vacuum:
ÿÿ = ÿÿ = 1;
As a result, the same electrical or magnetic quantity turns out to have different
dimensions. For example, the amount of electricity (electric charge) has the following
dimension: in SGSE and Gaussian systems of units – cm 3/2 g 1/2 s–1 ; and in the SGSM
system of units – cm1/2 g1/2; magnetic flux in the SGSE system of units has the dimension –
cm3/2 g–1 ,
in the SGSM and Gaussian systems of units - cm The 3/2 g1/2 s–1 .
presence of three almost simultaneously operating systems of electrical and magnetic
units has always caused great difficulties in calculations, but the main difficulty was the
absence of any physical meaning in these units: how to understand, for example, a square
gram of a gram, or a centimeter raised to the power of 3/2!?
The International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units ISS, based on the same ideas as the
ISS system about the units of mass - kilogram, length - meter and time - second, added to them a
new basic unit - the unit of current strength Ampere. In it, the above quantities have integer powers,
which is its fundamental advantage compared to previous systems of units: amount of electricity -
A s; magnetic flux -
m3 kg A–1 s–2 , as well as all other electrical and magnetic quantities. However, the
disadvantage of the MCSA system is still the lack of physical content in the concept of
“current strength”, and in connection with this in its unit “Ampere”, and further in all electrical
and magnetic quantities. Now, based on etherodynamic concepts, it becomes possible to
correct this shortcoming and reduce everything to three
invariant categories - mass, space and time.

Above, the physical content of the concept of “electric charge” was established as the
circulation of ether density over the surface of a particle
q, Cl = ÿ vÿ Sp , kg/s, (6.20)
and through this the concept of “current strength”
I = dq/ dt, kg/s². (8.1)
This creates the possibility of extending the ISS system of units to all electrical and
magnetic quantities by substituting the value of the current unit into them. Table 8.1 shows
the units of measurement of the main electrical and magnetic quantities in the ISS system of
units.
Table 8.1
Magnitude Name Designation Unit Unit
units reading measurements measurements
in MKSA* to the ISS
Work and Energy Joule J m²·kg·s– kg· m²·s–²

Power Watt W ² m²·kg·s–³ kg· m²·s–³
Amount of electricity Pendant Cl As kg s–¹
(electric charge)
Current strength Ampere A A kg s–²

Electrical flow Pendant Cl As kg s–¹
displacement (induction)
Electrical displacement Pendant on Kl mÿ² A s m–² kg m² s –²
(induction) square
meter
Voltage, potential Volt IN
m²·kg·A–¹·s–³ m²·s–¹
difference,
Electromotive
force
Electrical capacity Farada F A s4 m–² kg–¹ kg m–²
- Kl m Asm
Electric mo- kg m s–¹
cop
-
Polarization vector Cl mÿ² A s m–² kg m–² s–¹
(polarization)
ÿ³
Electric Farad F·mÿ¹ A s4 mÿ³ kgÿ¹ kg m
permeability per meter
Electric field Volt V mÿ¹ m·kg·Aÿ¹·sÿ³ m·sÿ¹
strength Electrical per meter
resistance Specific Ohm Ohm m²·kg·Aÿ²·sÿ³ kg ÿ¹·m²·s
electrical resistance
Specific electrical - Ohm m m³·kg·Aÿ² sÿ³ kg· m³·sÿ²
-
Ohm ÿ¹·mÿ¹ ÿ²·s³·mÿ³·kgÿ¹ kgÿ¹· mÿ³·s²
310 Chapter 8.
natality
Ion mobility - -
m²·Vÿ¹·sÿ A·s²·kgÿ¹
¹
Magnetic flux Weber Wb m³·kg· Aÿ¹·sÿ² m²
Magnetic induction Tesla Tl kg Aÿ¹ sÿ² mxy mzÿ¹

Magnetic moment -
A·m² A m² kg m² sÿ²
-
Vector intensive- A.mÿ¹ A mÿ¹ kg mÿ¹ sÿ²
magnetization
(magnetization)
Inductance and mutual Henry Gn m²·kg·Aÿ¹ ·sÿ² kgÿ¹·m²·s²
inductance
Magnetic permeability Henry on Hn mÿ¹ m kg Aÿ² sÿ² kgÿ¹ m s²

bridge meter
Tension mag- Ampere per A mÿ¹ A mÿ¹ kg mÿ¹ sÿ²
thread field meter
Magnetomotive Ampere A or Av A kg sÿ²
force or Am-
pervitok
-
Magnetic resistance A·Bbÿ¹ A²·s²·mÿ²·kg kg mÿ² sÿ²
laziness
or
Av·Vbÿ¹
*According to the Handbook of Physics for Engineers and University Students. M.,
Nauka, 1971.
8.2.2. Free electron structure

As was shown above, when the flows of ether that make up the electronic shells of
metal atoms are combined into a common structure, part of the screwed and compacted
ether in the structure of these shells turns out to be superfluous and is thrown into outer
space. The helical stream cannot be maintained in this form, because one end, moving
forward, is a source of gas, and its opposite end is
drain. The front end of the stream must necessarily close to the rear
end, as a result of which a new helical toroid of the ether of small
mass is formed - a free electron. In principle, the number of such
electrons in a metal should be equal to the number of atoms, i.e. ,about
By- 1029m –3
since each atom, when combined into a common structure, emits a stream of ether,
forming a free electron.
On the surface element of the newly formed toroidal screw
In the first vortex - the electron - there is a difference in forces: on the outside there is the
pressure of free ether, on the inside there is the sum of the forces of internal pressure, which
is significantly less than the external pressure, since by rotation the gas is thrown from the
central region to the periphery of the vortex, and centrifugal force. Such a system is unstable
and begins to spontaneously contract, since in the interatomic velocity region
the flow of ether is less than in the electron shells of the atom, the velocity gradients are
smaller, therefore, the pressure of the ether is higher here.
For a free vortex, the angular momentum of both the toroidal and annular rotation must
be preserved, which, when compressed, will lead to a spontaneous increase in both the
linear and angular speed of both movements, with the linear speed being proportional to the
first degree of compression, and the angular speed being squared . The process of
spontaneous compression of a gas vortex and the energy relationships of this process were
discussed above.
The compression of the vortex and the increase in the rotation speed will continue until
the density of the vortex increases to a certain critical value, presumably the same as that of
a proton, i.e. to a value of the order of 1017–1018 kg/m3 . As a result, the resulting vortex
helical ring will acquire dimensions significantly smaller than those of the original vortex.
This will be a free electron.
The described mechanism of the formation of free electrons in a metal crystal is caused
by the restructuring of the outer shell of metal atoms in connection with the formation of a
common crystal lattice. The combination of external attached vortices of atoms into a single
structure should lead to the release of free vortices - electrons, which begin to wander around
the crystal in the form of the so-called “electron gas”. Something similar was discovered by
the author and confirmed experimentally in covalent reactions, in which each pair of interacting
molecules releases part of the screwed compacted ether, which immediately forms an oroidal
vortex of the ether.
Thus, a free electron is a helical vortex ring of compressed ether, in which the sign of
the helical motion, i.e. the orientation of the circular motion relative to the toroidal one is
opposite to the sign of the screw motion of the ether in the body of the proton, but the
amount of circular motion is the same. Consequently, it carries a charge of the same
magnitude as a proton, but the sign of the charge is not positive, like a proton, but negative.
The presence of a ring motion in an electron is confirmed by the fact that the electron
has a spin - the angular momentum of the rotational motion.
312 Chapter 8.
niya, equal to ½ in units of ÿ. The main axis of the electron is the axis of ring
rotation (Fig. 8.1).
Rice. 8.1. Structure of a free electron: a – in a metal; b – in free

space
If an electron in free ether has the same density as a proton, then the radii of the
electron and proton are related to each other as the cube root of the ratio of their masses,
i.e.
re/rp = (me/mp) 1/3 = ( 9.1.10–31/1.67.10–27) 1/3

= 0.082 (8.2)
and, therefore, the radius of the electron will be:
re = 0.082rp = 0.082.1.12.10–15 = 9.10–17 m. (8.3)
The surface area of the electron will be
2
Se rep. = 4ÿre = 4ÿ (9.10–17) 2 = 1.1.10–31 m 2 , (8.4)
and the magnitude of the annular velocity will be determined from the magnitude of the charge
e = ÿvÿSe = 1.6.10–19 C (8.5)
where
vÿ = e/ ÿSe = 1.6.10–19/8.85.10–12 . 1.1.10–31 = 1.64.1024 m.s–1 . (8.6)
The circulation value of the annular velocity is determined as
(circ)e = 2ÿ revÿ= 2ÿ.9.10–17.1.64.1024 = 9, 27.108 m 2 .s–1 (8.7)
The cross-sectional area of the electron will be
2 Se sec. = ÿre = ÿ (9.10–17) 2 = 2.75.10–32 m 2 (8.8)

It should be noted that inside metals, electrons are not in an atmosphere of

free ether. There are other attached
vortices, which can be conditionally called van der Waals shells and which provide interatomic
bonds of a non-chemical (non-electronic) nature. An electron located inside such vortices
will experience a pressure less than in free ether and its dimensions will be significantly
larger. Moreover, moving in space between metal atoms, the electron constantly moves from
one region of the van der Waals shell to another, the speeds of the ether flows and the speed
gradients in them are different, therefore, the pressures in them are different, so the electron
cannot keep its dimensions unchanged, they change all the time, the radius of the electron
ring is not constant and changes depending on external factors. The idea of an electron as
a vortex ring with a variable radius was introduced by V.F. Mitkevich [36, 37]. The main
objection to Mitkevich's model was the assertion that the charge and magnetic moment of
the electron are spherically symmetrical. However, subsequent
work by Wu and some other physicists showed that the electron behaves like a rotating
vortex ring, the spin of which is directed along the axis of its motion. This fact removes
these objections.
As is known, an electron has its own energy equal to
E=h ÿ = me c², (8.9)
and spin - mechanical torque
s = ½ h = merÿvÿ = merÿ² ÿ To
= Jÿ ÿ To (8.10)
Spin reflects only the mechanical torque of the circular motion, while energy reflects the
total internal energy of the electron, taking into account both circular and toroidal motion.
For
roundabout
Ek = Jk ÿ To
/2. (8.11)
If, in accordance with Maxwell’s principle, energies are distributed uniformly

across degrees of freedom, then
Ek = Et (8.12)
314 Chapter 8.
and, at least for the first case - the existence of an electron in a free ether - it can be argued
that the linear velocities of the annular and toroidal movements of the ether on the surface of
the electron are equal and, consequently, the particles of the ether in the body of the electron
move along a helical line with an inclination screw about 45ÿ. If an electron enters an area
where there are any ether flows,
then, since the velocity gradient increases, the pressure on the surface of the electron
drops, and the vortex ring increases in size.
8.2.3. The physical essence of the electric field
From a comparison of expressions for the energy density of the electric field in vacuum
ÿoE²
we = ÿÿ
, J/m³, (8.13)
2
where ÿo is the dielectric constant of vacuum, F/m; E – electric field strength, V/m, and the
corresponding expression of the energy of the annular motion of the ether
ÿ evk²
wÿ = , J/m³ (8.14)
ÿÿ
Where ÿ – density of the medium, kg m–3 ; vÿ is the velocity of the medium at the equator of
uh
the proton, m/s; it immediately follows that the electric field strength has the dimension of
velocity. By definition, the electric field strength is the force acting on a unit electric charge,
So
F
E= ÿÿ.
(8.15)
q
However, any force can arise as a result of the appearance of a gradient

ent pressure, which, in turn, can arise as a result
gradient of ether flow speeds in an electric field and on the surface
ity of the particle interacting with it. Taking into account the transverse nature of the
propagation of the electric intensity vector, it should be assumed that the interaction of the
electric field and the particle involves an ether flow directed not in the direction of the particle,
but in the perpendicular direction. In this case, interaction occurs due to velocity gradients,
the vector of which is directed towards the particle. Such interaction is possible if in the
structure of the electric field itself there is not only a longitudinal, but also a transverse flow
of the ether. When an electric charge appears on the surface of the electrode, i.e. When
electrons reach its surface, an electric field is established in the vicinity of the electrode.
From Fig. 8.2 it is clear that when helical vortex toroids—electrons or protons—emerge
onto the surface of the electrode, they create helical vortex tubes of moving ether in the
space outside the electrodes. In a vortex tube formed in a medium by a helical toroidal ring,
ether flows move not only along the ring in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the tube, but
also parallel to this axis. In this case, in the central part of the vortex tube the ether moves
from the helical toroid, and along the periphery - to the helical toroid, so that the total amount
of translational motion of the ether along the tube is on average zero. This
translational motion is of great importance, since, being different in magnitude and direction
at different distances from the axis of the tube, this movement creates different values of the
screw factor, and along the axis of the tube the screw motion has the same sign, and along
the periphery -
opposite (Fig. 8.2).
Rice. 8.2. Vortex field created by helical vortex toroids (electric field)
316 Chapter 8.
As shown in [40, 41], only helical flows can be summed up, for which the helical factor is
constant and the same along the entire length of the vortex. Such a screw motion must satisfy the
equation
rot v = ÿv; (8.16)
ÿ ÿx ÿÿ ÿz ÿ
— = —— = —— = —— = —
,
v vx vÿ vz r
wherein
vgrad ÿ/ r = const. (8.17)
There is nothing similar for vortex tubes of electrical induction; therefore, the flows of these
vortex tubes cannot be summed up, but can only develop in the longitudinal direction, sliding along
each other’s surface, and shift in the transverse direction under the pressure of neighboring vortex
tubes.
Thus, the lines of force of the electric field - electric induction - exist as separate vortex tubes
(“Fara-day tubes”), however, not all this movement corresponds to electric induction, but only its
annular component. The electric field is a set of helical vortex tubes of the ether (“Faraday tubes”)
with a helical factor variable over the cross section.
The intensity of the electric field is determined by its strength, i.e. the number of tubes per unit
cross-sectional area of the conductor, and, accordingly, the cross-section of each tube: the higher
the electric field strength, the greater the number of tubes per unit area and the smaller the cross-
section of each tube will be, which is in full accordance with the theory of gas vortices . For a gas
vortex, with constant gas circulation along the vortex, the intensity and linear speed of rotation are
greater, the smaller it is
section.
For a single charge, the total angle occupied by the annular motion is 4ÿ, therefore, for n tubes,
the angle occupied by each of them is
ÿ = 4ÿ/n, (8.18)
Moreover, for each tube, in accordance with Helmholtz’s theorems, the circulation and
angular momentum are preserved throughout its entire length for each elementary stream:
ÿ = 2ÿrv; L = mvr = const. (8.19)
As shown above, the magnitude of a single charge is determined

How
e = ÿevÿ Sp.
Since the toroidal motion smears the annular motion throughout the sphere
of space, the mass flux of the annular motion through the sphere is determined
from the expression
ÿ
ÿÿvÿ dS = nÿÿvÿSp, (8.20)
or
ÿ DdS = q, (8.21)
where q is the entire charge located inside the sphere; D = ÿevÿ – flow of annular
velocity of ether density, or, in other words, flow of electrical induction. The
resulting expression corresponds to Gauss's theorem.
The process of the emergence of an electric field when ordered charges appear on the
surface of the electrode is that the vortex motion of each tube begins to propagate along
the axis
tubes. In this case, at the end of the tube, the movement of the ether lies in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the tube, and therefore the speed of propagation
of the electric field in a vacuum is equal to the speed of second sound in the ether -
the speed of propagation of transverse motion provided by the viscosity of the
ether, this is the speed of light. The speed of propagation of the electric field in
any material is kÿ times less,
____
kÿ = ÿÿÿ/ÿÿ (8.22)
ÿÿ – density of the ether involved in the movement of the electric field in the
material; ÿÿ – density of ether in free space.
In optical media kÿ = n, i.e. equal to the refractive index. Typically the
refractive index is between 1.4 and 1.6, so
318 Chapter 8.
the density of ether involved in movement in an electric field is only 2–2.5 times
greater than the density of free ether, i.e., it is about 2·10–11 kg m–3 . Comparing
it with the mass density of
the same optical glasses, which is a value of the order of (2.65–3) 103 kg m–
3 , we see that in motion
In the electric field, a very small part of the ether is involved, about 10–14 of the
total mass of ether forming the material. In metals, perhaps this proportion is
greater.
8.2.4. Capacitor (electric capacity)
Consider a charged capacitor, on one of the plates of which a charge q is placed, and on
the other – q. The presence of equal and opposite charges means that elementary charges are
concentrated on the inner surface of one of the plates
n = q/ e, (8.23)
creating a field of n vortex tubes, the ends of which all enter the second plate,
i.e. the number of tubes leaving one plate is equal to the number of the same
tubes entering the second plate. If the charges were not equal or had the same
sign, such equality would not exist.
The cross-sectional area of one tube will be (on average)
Sÿ = Sÿ/n, (8.24)
where Sc is the area of the capacitor plate, and the speed of annular motion
along the periphery of the tube is equal to
vo = ÿ/2ÿro, (8.25)
where ÿ is the intensity of ether circulation in the tube.

When the area of the tube changes due to an increase in the number of
these tubes - an increase in the charge on the plates - the density of the ether in
the tubes ÿ will change compared to the density of the ether in the free environment ÿe:
ÿ/ ÿÿ = So/S = ro²/r². (8.26)
As shown in [42–44], Bernoulli's equation is applicable to helical flow in

general. The pressure difference in the elementary stream at the periphery of the
vortex and in the free ether is
ÿP = ÿÿv² /2, (8.27)

and for a vortex tube with a circular cross-section, the average pressure drop along the
tube is [16, p. 115]
ÿP = ÿÿv² /4, (8.28)
for non-circular tubes
kÿeG
²
ÿP = kÿÿv ² = ———.
(8.29)
4ÿ²r²
Here k is a proportionality coefficient that takes into account the cross-sectional

shape of the tube.
Since the gas flow in each tube
voÿo = vÿ = const, (8.30)
we get
vo 2ÿo 2 ÿ 2ÿo 2
2
ÿP = kÿv = k ——— = k ———, (8.31)
ÿ 4ÿ2 r4 ÿ
where ÿ is the relative density of ether in a vortex tube in a dielectric.

The total force acting on the capacitor plate is
2
ÿ 2ÿo 2S ÿ 2ÿo 2S ÿ 2ÿon 2 q
F = ÿPS = k ——— = k' ——— = k ——— 4ÿ r2 ÿ = ———.
(8.32)
4 2
4S ÿ 4ÿS 2ÿoÿS
Thus, the physical meaning of the relative dielectric

permeability ÿ – the ratio of the density of ether in vortex tubes in a medium (dielectric) to
the density of ether in a vortex tube in vacuum (in
substance-free ether).
It should be noted the following significant circumstance for the passage of vortex
tubes of the electric field through the dielectric. The flows of ether in these vortex tubes
represent a stationary movement of the ether, which can only lead to a constant
displacement of the etheric vortices, of which the dielectric substance itself consists, by
a certain amount, and at the same time to a transient process, i.e. some energy will be
expended on the elastic displacement of molecules. Otherwise
320 Chapter 8.
the presence of a stationary vortex flow of ether in a dielectric cannot lead to any
vibrations of particles of matter. This means that the energy of the vortex is not consumed
and is reactive in nature (the energy does not turn into heat - the energy of atomic
vibrations).
8.2.5. Free electron in an electric field

Let's consider the movement of an electron - a helical vortex ring of a densified ether
in a helical ether field - an electric field. Once in the vortex field, also created by the helical
toroidal formations of the ether, the electron is forced to turn around so that the plane of
its annular motion coincides with the plane of the annular motion of the ether in the tubes.
Since in a vacuum there are no collisions with the molecules of the substance, the
orientation of the electron unfolding along the field will be maintained indefinitely. After
this, under the influence of the pressure difference acting on the electron, the latter should
begin to move along the axis of the vortex tube.
If the directions of the annular motion of the vortex field vÿ and electron vÿ coincide
on the side of the particle that faces the field-forming vortices, the velocity gradient of the
annular motion will be less than on the opposite side, and therefore the ether pressure on
the side facing the field source will be greater than with the opposite one (Fig. 8.3).
Rice. 8.3. Electron in an electric field tube.

In accordance with the Bernoulli equation, these pressures will be determined
expressions:
in area a:
Pa = Po – ÿÿ(ve – vÿ)²/2; (8.33)
in area b:
Pb = Po – ÿÿ (ve + vÿ)²/2; (8.34)
in the area with:
Pc = Po – ÿe[ve – (vÿ – bÿvÿ/ÿr )]²/2; (8.35)
in area d:
Pd = Po – ÿe[ve + (vÿ – bÿvÿ/ÿr )]²/2. (8.36)
Here b is the thickness of the electron body; ve is the speed of the circular motion of the
electron body; vÿ is the speed of the circular motion of the electric field; dvp/dr – gradient of
the annular field velocity.
Having made the appropriate calculations and neglecting small terms, we obtain the
values of the pressure difference that creates a turning moment for the electron, and always
in the direction of aligning the axis of the conductor and
vector of toroidal motion of the electron:
ÿP = veÿÿb dvÿ/ÿr = veÿÿE. (8.37)
where E = b dvp/
dr The force acting on the electron area element will be
dF = ÿPEsinÿ = ÿÿvevÿ sinÿdSt, (8.38)
where St is the annular cross-sectional area of the electron, ÿ is the angle between the main
axis of the electron and the axis of the electric field tube; E – electrical intensity. Over the
entire area of the
electron, the constant component of the annular velocity of the field does not create any
force, since the increase in pressure in those areas where the directions of the flows of the
annular velocities of the electron and the field coincide is balanced by a decrease in pressure
in those areas.
322 Chapter 8.
areas where they have the opposite direction. Therefore, additional

pressure on the electron is created not by the actual speed of the ether
flow vp, but by the circulation of speed around the circuit and,
consequently, the force acting on the electron from the electric field,
will be determined as
F = ÿÿve ÿÿ(ÿvÿ/ÿr) sinÿdrdSÿ = qEsinÿ, (8.39)
Where
E = ÿ(dvp/ dr)dr. (8.40)

0
Thus, the electric field strength, i.e. strength, power

acting from the electric field on a unit charge
E = F/ q, (8.41)
has its origin in the gradient of the annular velocity of the ether, multiplied
by the size of the electron. From here the physical meaning of electrical
induction D can be determined as the amount of annular motion of the
ether per unit volume:
b
D = ÿÿÿ = ÿÿÿ(ÿvÿ/ÿr)dr. (8.42)

0
For an electron moving in free space in the direction of force E, sinÿ = 1 (the main axis
of the electron coincides in direction with the direction of the axis of the electric field tube).
Since pressure is potential energy proportional to the square of the speed of molecules, the
force acting on the electron element will decrease by an amount proportional to the square of
the relative speed of the electron vq to the speed of propagation of the ring motion in a free
medium - the speed of light c, i.e. . by the amount (vq/ s)², investigator-
But,
E = Eÿ [1 – (vq/c)² ] (8.43)
and at a particle speed equal to the speed of light, i.e. at vq = c, E = 0, no

matter how the value of Eo changes.
The latter means that as the particle speed approaches the speed of light, the force
acting on the particle decreases. similar to how, when the sliding of the rotating magnetic
field relative to the rotor in an asynchronous machine decreases, the torque developed by
the rotor decreases. This can fundamentally explain the fact that it is impossible for a
charged particle to be accelerated by an electric field of any, even the highest intensity, to
the speed of light, and not at all by the fact that the speed
The growth of light is fundamentally irresistible.

Thus, an expression has been obtained for the electric field strength as a force acting
on a unit charge. Assuming that the rotation speed of the vortex toroidal rings - electrons -
is constant, we obtain that the electric field strength is proportional to the vortex field
strength, which is proportional to the number of vortex field tubes per unit field area.
If an electron is left to its own devices in free space, then the electron, like any gaseous
toroidal vortex, will begin to accelerate in the direction of the flow emanating from its central
hole. However, unlike ordinary gas vortices, due to the special rarefaction
ether and its small coefficient of viscosity, and also due to the fact that in the electron body
the density of ether is tens of orders of magnitude higher than the density of ether in free
space, the acceleration time constant of the electron turns out to be very large and amounts
to tens and hundreds of years. This explains the nature of cosmic rays, but under normal
conditions
During the experiment, the electron practically remains motionless, since the
its surface area is small, and the viscosity of the ether is also small, therefore the force of
repulsion of the electron from its environment is small, and the acceleration time
correspondingly large.
8.2.6. The physical essence of electric current

in metal
In the absence of an electric field, electrons in a metal undergo chaotic thermal motion
and have a chaotic, i.e., uniformly distributed orientation in space.
Under the influence of an electric field, the chaotic movement of electrons in a

conductor is somewhat ordered. This ordering manifests itself in two ways: firstly, during
the free path, electrons begin to be oriented along the field, that is, the direction of their
axes acquires a common component along the direction of the electric field; secondly,
electrons acquire some acceleration in the general direction -
324 Chapter 8.
along the field, increasing the speed and thereby its kinetic
energy. Therefore, despite the fact that the collision of electrons with the electron shells of
the conductor atoms again disorients them, in general a flow of electrons is formed that
already have some general orientation in the direction of the electric field (Fig. 8.4 ).
Rice. 8.4. Orientation of electron spins along electrical

sky field.
This orientation by electrons is lost after each collision with

surfaces of metal molecules, but then partially restored
during the travel time between collisions. As a result, on average, the entire set of electrons
in the metal is displaced along the axis of the conductor and, in addition, turns out to be
rotated at a certain general angle relative to the plane perpendicular to the axis of the
conductor. The magnitude of this angle can be determined based on the characteristics of
the structure of the magnetic
field that arises around a conductor when an electric current passes through it
tric current.
The amount of current flowing through the conductor will be
I = eNSvq = edn/dt = dq/ dt, (8.44)
where e is the electron charge, equal to 1.6·10–19 C; N is the number of electrons per unit
volume of the conductor; S – conductor cross-section; vq is the speed of electron
displacement along the axis of the conductor; n is the number of electrons in charge q flowing
through the cross section of the conductor.
The speed of electron movement vpr along a wire with cross section Spr
will be determined by the expression
I
vpr = ———. (8.45)
eNSpr
If we assume that the number of electrons N in a conductor is equal to the number of

metal atoms, then a unit volume contains about 1030 m–3
electrons, therefore, the average distance between electrons is d = 10–10 m and with a
conductor cross section of Spr = 1 mm2 , we obtain that its cross section contains ns = 1014
electrons, which corresponds to the charge
qÿ = ns·e = 1014·1.6 ·10–19 = 1.6·10–5 C.
With a current of 1A, a charge of 1 C must pass through a cross-section of a conductor

4
of 1 s, therefore, 6.25 10 must pass charges qp.
Considering that the average distance between electrons is 10–10 m, we obtain the average
speed of electrons moving along the wire.
Nika
= d qÿ = 10–10·6.25·104 = 6.25·10–6 m/s = 6.25 µm/s. ve pr
The electric field strength E is the force acting on a unit electric charge. The force acting
on the electron is defined as the product of E, where e is the charge of the electron. Under
the influence of this force, an electron having mass m will acquire an acceleration equal to
a = Ee/m (8.46)
and during the time ÿt between collisions with the surfaces of atoms it will acquire an additional
speed ÿv. If ÿ is the distance covered by the electron between two collisions and vt.sr is the
speed of the electron, then the value of this time interval will be equal to
ÿt = ÿ / vtsr; (8.47)
The conductor conductivity ÿ is greater, the higher the concentration

charges per unit volume of metal, the greater the magnitude of the charge and the higher the
mobility of the charge m, i.e., the increment in speed related to the force acting on the charge,
i.e.
Its ÿ
ÿ = Nem; m = ÿvq/E; ÿvq = aÿt = ———, (8.48)
mu
and therefore
326 Chapter 8.
Ne2ÿ
ÿ= ——. (8.49)
mu
The given formula for calculating the conductivity of metals was first derived by Drude
in 1900 [26]. However, it should be noted that the mobility of electrons itself depends on the
density and viscosity of the ether in the van der Waals shells, within which the free electron
moves.
Calculation of electron mean free path in various metals

based on reference data gives good agreement in orders of magnitude with those expected
from theory. So at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius for copper ÿ = 2.65·10–10 m; for
aluminum 1.64·10–10 m; for tungsten 0.84.10–10 m; for bismuth 3.7·10–13 m. The latter
circumstance indicates a very small amount of interatomic space in bismuth, in which free
electrons can move.
Having acquired additional kinetic energy, the electrons hit the electron shell of the
atoms of the conductor with greater force, which explains the increase in the temperature of
the conductor when an electric current passes through it. And since the amplitude of
vibrations of the surface of the electron shell of atoms increases, the number of collisions of
electrons with atoms increases, which is the reason for the increase in the electrical
resistance of the conductor when heated.
When a conductor is heated, its resistance increases due to an increase in the amplitude
of vibrations of the electron shells of atoms and, in connection with this, a reduction in the
mean free path of electrons. For copper, the relative reduction in the path length is 4.33 10–3
K–1 , For
aluminum – 4.6·10–3 K–1 , and when the temperature changes by 10 degrees. the
electron free path lengths will be 2.54 10–10 m and 1.56 10–10 m
respectively.
The current density flowing through the conductor will be determined from the
expression
j = Neÿv, (8.50)
since it is proportional to the volume density of electrons in the metal, the magnitude of the
elementary charge and the average speed of electrons along the axis of the conductor.
Substituting the corresponding values of quantities,
we get:
Ne² ÿ
j= ——— E = ÿE, (8.51)
mu
which expresses Ohm's law in differential form.

Multiplying the left and right sides of the expression by the volume of the conductor V =
SL, where S is the cross-sectional area of the conductor, and L is its length, we obtain
jSL = ÿÿSL. (8.52)
Since the value of the current in the conductor is
I = jS, (8.53)
and the voltage drop across the conductor is
U = EL, (8.54)
we get
US U
I = ÿ —— =
——, (8.55)
L R
Where
1 L ÿL
R= —— = —
(8.56)
ÿSS
is the active resistance of the entire conductor, and ÿ = 1/ÿ is its resistivity.
The power expended to create current in the conductor will be:
P = FÿvV, (8.57)
where F = EeN – force acting on electrons; ÿv – electron velocity increment; V = SL – conductor

volume. Substituting the corresponding values, we get
Her l
P = EeN —— SL = E ²ÿSL = EL·EÿS = UI = I ²R = U ²/ R, (8.58)

mu
328 Chapter 8.
where U is the voltage drop across the conductor, I is the current in the conductor.
The expression reflects the value of the active power that must be expended in a
conductor having resistance R to pass current I through it. This power is expended on heating
the conductor and is not returned back to the circuit.
From the stated positions, the mechanism of superconductivity can also be considered.
As the temperature decreases, not only the thermal speed of the electrons themselves
decreases, but also the amplitude of the waves on the surfaces of the electron shells of the
molecules. Starting from a certain value, the electrons of the metal, trapped in the electric
intensity tubes, cannot overcome the holding force of the gradient flows of the tubes and stop
interacting with the electron shells of the atoms. Resistance
scratches.
All of the above does not yet explain why, when electrons move along a conductor, a
magnetic field appears around it. But
To do this, you must first imagine the essence of the magnetic field itself.
8.2.7. The physical essence of the magnetic field
The specific energy of the magnetic field is equal to
ÿo H² B² ÿoc² B² ÿ e (Bc)²
wÿ = —— = —— = ———— =
————, J/m³, (8.59)
2 2 ÿo 2 2
where ÿo is the magnetic permeability of vacuum; H – magnetic field strength; B – magnetic

induction; ÿo – dielectric constant; e – density of ether in vacuum; c – speed of light. From
be ÿ here, from the vacuum, it is clear that the magnetic induction B should formally
dimensionless. In fact, magnetic induction is not dimensionless at all, but is the ratio of the
speed of the ether flow vÿ, in the structure of the magnetic field lying in the xy plane, to the
speed of light, i.e. to the speed of second sound in the ether in the z direction. These two
speeds are perpendicular to each other, and they cannot be reduced in dimension:
vm
B = ÿÿ, mxy/mz . (8.60)
With
Thus, the physical essence of magnetic induction is the speed of the flow of
ether in the structure of the magnetic field, expressed in fractions of the speed of
light.
Since the magnetic field strength
H = V/ ÿo, (8.61)
That
ÿ = vÿ/ ÿÿÿ = ÿÿvÿc. (8.62)
From this it is clear that the physical essence of the magnetic field strength
is the translational speed of the ether density in the structure of the magnetic
field, i.e. specific quantity of motion of the ether.
From the resulting expression, the speed of the ether flow in the structure of
the magnetic field, corresponding to a magnetic field strength of 1 A/m, can be
directly determined:
vm = N / ÿec = 1/ 8.85·10–12·3·108 = 376.65 m.s–1 . (8.63)
The value of magnetic induction of 1 Tesla corresponds to the ratio of the

speed of the ether flow to the speed of light in
B = ÿÿ ÿ = 4 ÿ10–7 = 1.256·10–6 mxy/mz (8.64)
A conductor with a cross section of 1 mm2 has a radius of rpr = 0.564 mm,
2.
its surface is 3.54·10–3 m area Per conductor electron
2
accounts for a surface area of 3.54 10–27 m , which exceeds the area
conductor in
3.54 10–27
———————— = 1.4 .105 times.
2.75 10–32
If the electron were oriented with its plane parallel to the plane of one of the sections
of the surface of the conductor, then this would correspond to a speed of
vpov = ve/1.4 105 = 1.64 1024/1.4 105 = 1.17 1019 m.s–1 .
If a current of 1 A flows through a conductor, then a

magnetic field, the strength of which will be
330 Chapter 8.
i 103
N = ———— = ———————— = 282 A/ (8.65)
m, 2ÿr 2ÿ· 0.564
which corresponds to a speed of 1.06215·105 m/

s. And this means that the electrons are rotated only by an angle of
2 1.06215 105
ÿ = ———————— = 1.8·10–14 rad.
1.17 1019
As shown in the previous paragraph, under the influence of an electric

field, all electrons, no matter what position they are in, rotate their axes so that
a certain common component of the projections of their spins onto the axis of
the conductor is formed (Fig. 8.5).
Rice. 8.5. Formation of a magnetic field around a conductor: a – orientation of the electron spin
vector parallel to the axis of the conductor; b – summation of helical flows outside the conductor.
With respect to any part of the surface of the conductor, half of the electrons
turn out to be turned towards this surface, half towards the opposite one, so
that the circulation from each pair of electrons will give a total circulation, the
axis of which will be oriented along the conductor.
ka.
Based on the fact that when moving in space, no additional magnetic fields are detected,
which is confirmed by specially designed experiments, and also taking into account the
experience of Oersted, who showed that the magnetic needle is set perpendicular to the
conductor with current, almost the only thing emerges
possible structure of a magnetic field line as some kind of tube, in which

ether flows along the surface in one direction, and inside the tube returns
in the opposite direction, and the tube itself rotates, so that ether flows
along its surface along a helical line with an angle of 45° to the axis tubes.
Moreover, since the formation of a magnetic field line is carried out by
electrons, which themselves are screw
toroids The most probable structure of a magnetic field line is a set of
helical toroids. The interaction of helical ether flows is shown in Fig. 8.6.
Rice. 8.6. Structure of magnetic field lines
Thus, the structures of the magnetic field and electric field lines are largely identical,
but they also have differences. The electric field has a source of helical motion at the end,
and the magnetic field is from the surface of the entire tube, so the magnetic tube can be
structured into a set of helical toroids, but the electric tube cannot. From the expression
ÿ = vÿ/ ÿÿÿ (8.66)
and the law of total current
i = ÿ Hdl; H= i/2ÿR
(8.67)
flows out
iÿÿ
vm = ——, (8.68)
2ÿR
332 Chapter 8.
and if the speed of the screw flow in the material is higher, then
iÿoÿ
vÿ = ——, 2ÿR (8.69)
where ÿ is the relative flow rate of ether in the material compared

with the density of the same flow in vacuum.
A change in the speed of the ethereal flow in the material is ensured by a change in
the orientation of the domains, which, with flows located on their periphery, either increase
the overall flow speed (paramagnetic and ferromagnetic) or decrease (diamagnetic).
Let us compare Ampere’s law for the force interaction of conductors with the obtained
dependence:
ÿoÿ i1i2
dF = ————dl 2ÿR (8.70)
and present it in the form
dF i1ÿoÿ
—— =
———, (8.71)
dli2 2ÿR
from which one can see the complete identity of the expressions for the speed of the helical
flow of the ether and Ampere’s law for the force interaction of the conductor
cov.
As follows from the law of total current, the decrease in the magnetic field strength
around a straight conductor with current should occur according to a hyperbolic dependence
and, therefore, the ratio of the strengths should correspond to the expression
H1/H2 = R2/ R1, (8.72)
where R2 and R1 are, respectively, the distance from the center of the conductor to the points
of measurement of magnetic field strengths. However, the ether is compressible, therefore,
for the magnetic field this circumstance should have a significant effect. The above
relationship is valid only for small values of magnetic field strength, for which its compression
can be neglected. As tension increases, we must
deviations from this law can be observed. This circumstance served as the subject of
experimental studies that confirmed this assumption.
If the magnetic field has the property of compressibility, then the given dependence
should be violated, and the more
voltage or current flowing in a conductor. By analogy with
compressed by a liquid, this can be explained as follows: the liquid coming out of the
turntable (Fig. 2.5 in the upper part) is under greater tension than the liquid located at a
certain distance from the turntable. This means that with distance from the spinner, the
liquid will expand and add its energy to the movement, i.e. the speed of the compressible
liquid away from the center will be greater than the speed of the incompressible liquid.
In Fig. 8.7 shows the experimental dependences of the H/ Ho ratio on the relative
distance to the center of the conductor at different
current values.
Rice. 8.7. Experimental studies of the law of total current: a – mechanical analogy –
change in the flow rate of a compressible fluid driven by a turntable with blades; b – change in
magnetic field strength depending on the distance from the axis of the conductor; 1 – theoretical
curve calculated from the condition of constant magnetic field circulation; 2 – experimental results at
current I = 1 A; 3 – experimental results at current I = 10 A. Measurements were carried out at
frequencies of 50, 400 and 1000 Hz
As can be seen from the measurement results, with increasing current in the primary
conductor, the deviation of the magnetic field strength from the value determined by the law
of total current becomes greater. With increasing distance from the conductor, i.e. with
decreasing absolute value of the magnetic field strength, the dependence of the decrease in
magnetic field
334 Chapter 8.
tension approaches hyperbolic, determined by the law of total current, and to a greater extent,
the lower this tension. At the same time, it would seem that the role of edge effects should
have increased, but in reality it turned out that edge effects are leveled out.
Interpretation of magnetic field strength as lami- velocity

the natural flow of ether may cause certain objections.
Firstly, as is known, Maxwell gave preference to treating the magnetic field not as
translational, but as rotational motion in connection with the property of the magnetic field
discovered by Faraday to rotate the plane of polarization of light in some crystals. However,
Maxwell did not take into account that the gradient of the translational speed of the ether can
have the same effect.
Secondly, the magnetic field is not necessarily a purely translational movement of the
ether. It may contain a rotation component, and in different physical phenomena the ratio
between the speeds of translational and rotational movements may be different. This
possibility requires separate consideration, but this
this option will not contradict either the above-stated ideas about the electric field as a set of
helical tubes with a helical factor variable over the cross-section, or the stated ideas about
the magnetic field strength as the speed of translational motion of the ether. Nevertheless,
such modeling will make it possible to clarify ideas about the physical essence of the
magnetic field and its manifestations in different
ny phenomena.
8.2.8. Free electron in a magnetic field
Let us consider the behavior of an electron in a magnetic field. The magnetic field itself
cannot in any way affect the orientation of the electron due to the mutual balancing of all
forces acting on the electron from the field, regardless of the structure of the magnetic field
itself and the predominance of the annular or translational component of the ether movement
in it .
In fact (Fig. 8.8), in region 1 there is an attraction of vortices due to ether flows in the
plane of the picture, but repulsion due to the rotation of the gas, since the direction of the
conjugate gas flows is the same - in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the picture. In
region 2 - everything is the other way around - the repulsion of vortices occurs due to the
rotation of ether flows in the plane of the picture, and the attraction - due to the opposite
direction of gas movements in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the picture.
In this case, the components of the forces caused by the translational movement of the
ether are balanced with each other, just as the components of the forces caused by
the rotational movement of the ether are also balanced with each other.
Rice. 8.8. Balancing the pressures acting on an electron in a magnet

thread field
The situation changes significantly if an external force, for example an electric field,
imparts translational motion to the electron with a speed v. In this case, the speed of
translational motion of the electron is added to the speed of the ether flow in the electric
field vÿ along the surface of the ring. The difference in speeds lying in the plane of the
drawing in area 1 will be
ÿv1 = ve + vÿ + v, (8.73)
and in area 2 , respectively
ÿv2 = ve – vÿ + v. (8.74)
Their squares are respectively equal
(ÿv1)² = ve² + vÿ² + 2vÿvÿ + v² + 2vev + 2vÿv; (8.75)
(ÿv2)² = ve² + vÿ² - 2vÿvÿ + v² + 2vÿv - 2vÿv. (8.76)
The difference in the squares of the speeds in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the figure is respectively equal to:
336 Chapter 8.
ÿv'1 = ve – vÿ; ÿv'2 = ve + vÿ. (8.77)
Here the squares of the speed differences will be
(ÿv'1)² = ve²– 2vevÿ + vÿ²; (8.78)
(ÿv'2)² = ve² + 2vevÿ + vÿ²; (8.79)
The sum of the squares of the velocities in each area will be equal to
(ÿv1)² + (ÿv'1)² = 2ve² + 2vÿ² + v² + 2vev + 2vÿv; (8.80)
(ÿv2)² + (ÿv'2)² = 2ve² + 2vÿ² + v² + 2vev - 2vÿv; (8.81)
and their difference will be
[(ÿv1)² + (ÿv'1)²] – [(ÿv2)² + (ÿv'2)²] = 4 vÿv. (8.82)
In accordance with the Bernoulli equation we have
P = ÿeS – ÿÿv²/2 (8.83)
and therefore
ÿP = 2ÿÿvÿv. (8.84)
The force acting on the equivalent surface of the electron Seq is

will be determined as
F = ÿPSeq = 2ÿ Seq vÿv = [Bv], (8.85)
which corresponds to Lorentz’s law for something moving in a magnetic field

electron. At the same time, as can be seen from Fig. 8.9, the direction of the force is perpendicular
cular to the direction of electron motion.
Rice. 8.9. Appearance of deflection force during electron motion

in a magnetic field
8.2.9. Inductance. Mechanism of self-induction phenomenon
The attached ethereal flows are likened to a compressed spring that has stored potential
energy and tends to push electrons away from each other. In this case, the pressure
increment will be proportional to the amount of current passing through the conductor.
For a solenoid, such pressure will be proportional to the number of

ampere turns iw per unit length l:
iw
p= —— . (8.86)
. l
In the ISS system, the unit of current i is [kg sÿ2 ], the length l is [m]
and, therefore, the unit of measurement of the pressure of the attached jets
[kg will be ÿ1 sÿ2 ] or [N] (Newton), i.e. i.e. the same as for normal pressure.
m The work performed during compression of the attached ether flows
is determined in the same way as the work performed during compression of ordinary
springs. If for a conventional spring the compression force is proportional
to the deformation, i.e.
F = kx, (8.87)
where k is the elasticity coefficient, and the work done is determined by the expression
xo kxÿ² Fÿ²
—— =
W = ÿFdx = ——, (8.88)
O 2 2k
338 Chapter 8.
where Fo is the compression force of the spring, then for compressed ether flows we will
have per unit length of the solenoid
p² k' (iw)²
w= — = —· —
(8.89)
2k 2 l²
Comparing the resulting expression with the known expression for the solenoid energy
ÿ (iw)²
w= ———
, (8.90)
2 l²
We discover that the physical meaning of the magnetic permeability of vacuum corresponds
to the elasticity coefficient of the ether.
In the presence of iron in the inductor core, the magnetic field created by the solenoid
windings - ordered flows of ether - spends its energy turning domains - conglomerates of iron
molecules. Such
conglomerates are in a disordered position in the core,
oriented in space in all possible directions relatively evenly. But under the influence of a
magnetic field - ordered annular flows of ether, resulting from the ordered orientation of
electrons in a current-carrying wire - the domains also unfold and form a magnetic field of the
core. Here the magnetic field is already a set of helical vortex tubes, and its structure, thus,
differs from the magnetic field created by the current. Thus, a sequential chain of events takes
place: the electric field in the conductor of the solenoid winding forces the electrons of the
conductor to turn with their main axes in the direction of the axis of the conductor, thereby
creating flows of annular motion of the ether around the conductor. Ether flows
penetrate into the iron core and force the domains to turn accordingly in the general direction
so that the axes of the helical magnetic field tubes created by the domains are oriented
partially in the general direction, perpendicular to the direction of the external flow acting on
them. Since each such helical tube is connected to a corresponding
domain located in connection with the rest of the core material, then
these connections are strained like a spring, and if the external flow disappears,
then they will return the domain to its original position. The magnetic field created
by the core will disappear. This is the case with soft magnetic material.
For a hard magnetic material the situation is different. If the resistance of
domain bonds in a material can be overcome by an external flow, then they may
not return the domain to its original state. Then the magnetic field will remain
even after the current from the solenoid winding is turned off.
But the simplest way to weaken the connections between domains and mathematics is
rial is, as is known, the heating of a hard magnetic material up to
until it melts. Then an external magnetic field easily orients the domains in the desired
direction, and then, after the material cools, intermolecular bonds fix the domain in this
position. Material
becomes a permanent magnet.
In the presence of iron in the choke, the total stored energy is magnetically
th field will be proportional to the volume of iron:
ÿ ÿÿ (iw)²
W= ————
(8.91)
2 lzh ²
,
Since the volume of the inductor iron is Vl = Sll where Sl is the cross-section of the
core, and ll is the length of the magnetic field line in the core, we get
ÿ ÿÿ (iw)²
W = ———— Szhlzh, (8.92)
2 lzh ²
where ÿ is the relative magnetic permeability of iron. After reductions we will

have:
ÿ ÿÿ (iw)² Sw² i² i²
W = — S ——— = ÿ ÿÿ ——— = L —— , (8.93)
2 lzh 2 2
Where
Sw² w² lzh
= ———.
L = ÿ ÿÿ ——— lÿ ——— ; Rm = (8.94)
Rÿ ÿ ÿÿ Szh
Here Rm is the magnetic resistance of the core.

340 Chapter 8.
Thus, the usual formula for the inductance of ca-

carcasses with an iron core.
From the foregoing it is clear that the role of the iron core in inductance comes down
to the fact that the reactive energy of the magnetic field is stored in it. But in order to create
this energy in it, it is necessary to do work, that is, to rotate the domains of the iron core and
to do this overcome the elastic resistance of their connections. This work is done by
increasing the pressure in the space between the conductor and the iron. This pressure itself
is created by electric current,
flowing through the conductor. Therefore, the total stored energy is proportional to the
square of the current.
The annular (circular) movement of the ether around the conductor is perceived as a
magnetic field. The energy of the translational speed of the ether around a conductor that
does not have an iron core is the energy of this field. If there is an iron core, then the potential
energy of elastic rotation of the core domains is added here. This entire system is tense and
is kept in a tense state by electrons turned in the general direction - along the axis of the
conductor. The electrons themselves are held in this state by the strength of the electric
field.
If the electromotive force in the conductor disappears, then the reason that holds the
electrons in the general oriented direction disappears, and the pressure that keeps the flows
in a tense state also disappears. The balance is broken and the whole process is reversed.
Now the external flows of ether put pressure on the internal ones, and the lines of the circular
current of the ether, contracting, enter the conductor. Their energy is spent to increase the
thermal speed of the electrons of the conductor. IN
This is the mechanism of self-induction.

The reverse course of the process leads to the fact that the EMF on the conductor,
created by the ether flows moving inside the conductor, acquires the opposite sign, this EMF
will be proportional to the stored energy inductance, i.e. the magnitude of the inductance, but
if the current does not stop immediately, then the electrons of the still remaining current
continue to hold part of the pressure. Thus, at a qualitative level, the formula for self-induction
EMF can be justified:
e = – L di/dt. (8.95)
8.3. Electromagnetic interactions

8.3.1. Force interaction of conductors with current

com.
As is known, when flowing through two parallel conductors

currents, conductors experience mutual attraction if currents flow in
in the same direction, or repulsion if the directions of the currents are opposite. In accordance
with Ampere's law, the force of interaction of parallel conductors with current in a vacuum is
determined by the expression
I1I2l
F = – ÿÿ ———, 4ÿd (8.96)
of the = 4ÿ·10–7 Gn·m–1 – magnetic permeability of vacuum; I1 and I2 are the magnitudes
currents in the first and second conductors; l – length of conductors; d –
the distance between their axes.
The given well-known expression corresponds to experimental data, however, it does
not express the physical essence of the interaction of wires with current. To understand the
physical essence, let us consider the interaction of two electrons - compacted toroidal vortex
helical rings of a spherical shape, each located in one of two wires located parallel to each
other.
The electron located in the first wire, under the influence of the toroidal component of
the electric field motion, turns around so that the main axis of the electron turns out to be at
an angle to the longitudinal axis of the wire less than ÿ/2. For simplicity of derivation, we
assume that the main axes of the electrons and the axes of the wires coincide in direction;
the real angle of rotation will be taken into account later.
In accordance with Bio-Savart's law, the toroidal component of the helical velocity of the
ether flow decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance, and the annular component,
in accordance with Gauss's theorem, decreases in proportion to the square of the distance.
Therefore, in the following, the toroidal component of the velocity is not taken into account,
and we can assume that the interaction of electrons is carried out only under the influence of
the ring component of the ether flows around the electrons.
The speed of electron movement along the wire at a constant current of magnitude I, A,
wire cross-section Spr, content of free electrons in the metal N, m–3
, the charge of one electron e is:
vepr = ———. (8.97)

eNSpr
342 Chapter 8.
Physically, the interaction between conductors is carried out by

due to the fact that electrons oriented in space create helical ether flows around conductors,
which are perceived as a magnetic field of currents (Fig. 8.10).
With parallel orientation of electrons in both wires, the directions of the annular motion
of the vortex field vp and the electron vk on the side of the particle that faces the field-
forming vortices are opposite, the velocity gradient of the annular motion will be greater
than on the opposite side, and therefore the pressure there will be less ether on the sides of
the wires facing each other than on the opposite side
nykh.
Rice. 8.10. Interaction of electrons in parallel conductors: a –

when currents flow in one direction; b when currents flow in opposite directions
In accordance with the Bernoulli equation, these pressures will be determined

expressions:
in area a:
P = Po – ÿÿ(ve – vÿ)²/2; (8.98)
in area b:
P = Po – ÿe [ve – (vÿ – bÿvÿ/ÿr )]²/2; (8.99)
Neglecting small terms, we obtain the pressure difference acting on the electron:
ÿP = 2ÿÿvevÿ , (8.100)
where ve is the speed of the ether flow on the surface of the electron; vÿ – speed
of the flow of ether created by the electron located in the first wire, on
surface of the electron located in the second wire.
If the electron in the second wire were rotated so that the direction of its main axis
coincided with the direction of the axis of the conductor, then the force acting on one
electron in the second wire would be equal to:
F = 2ÿÿvÿSe.sec. =2ÿÿvevÿ ÿre². (8.101)
When taking into account the real angle ÿ2 of rotation of the electrons
located in the second wire, the force on all electrons of the second wire is
puts:
F2 = ÿÿve 4ÿre²vÿÿ2/2 = en2vÿÿ2/2, (8.102)
where e is the electron charge; n2 is the number of electrons in the second wire.
Let's transform the expression for Ampere's law
F I1I2
—
= – ÿÿ ——. (8.103)
l 4ÿd
For the current the following relation is valid:
I = vpreSpr.sec.N, (8.104)
where vpr is the speed of electron movement along the conductor; e – charge
electron; Spr.sec. – cross-sectional area of the conductor; N is the number of
electrons per unit volume of metal, and
e = ÿÿveSe = 4ÿÿÿvere², (8.105)
here ÿÿ is the density of the ether; ve is the speed of the annular flow of ether on the surface
of the electron, Se is the surface area of the electron; re – electron radius.
Substituting the expression for the current into Ampere's law and taking into account that
344 Chapter 8.
ÿo = 1 / ÿec², (8.106)
we get
F vpr1 e Spr1N1 vpr2 e Spr2N2 ÿ1 e Spr1N1 ÿ2 e Spr2N2

— = —————————— = —————————— =
l 4ÿÿec²d 4ÿÿed
ÿ14ÿ ÿÿvere²Spÿ1N1 ÿ24ÿ ÿÿvere²Spÿ2N2

= ————————. ———————— =
4ÿÿed
vere²N2 ÿ1
=
—————. 4ÿÿÿvere²Sÿ2N2ÿ2 = ÿÿvÿ (ÿirc). (8.107)
d
Here vÿ is the speed of ether flows caused by the rotation of electrons in the first conductor;
(ÿirc) – total circulation of electrons in the second conductor:
vere²N2 ÿ1
vÿ = —————; d (8.108)
(ÿirc) = 4ÿvere²Sÿ2N2ÿ2; (8.109)
e – electron charge; vpr1 and vpr2 – speed of electron movement along the first and second
conductors; Spr1 and Spr2 – cross-sectional areas of the first and second conductors; N1 and N2
– the number of electrons per unit volume of conductors; ÿ1 and ÿ2 are the angle of rotation of the
ether flows in the conductors, so
What
ÿ1 = vpr1/s; ÿ2 = vpr2/s. (8.110)
Now the same formula of Ampere's law has acquired a clear physical meaning of the
interaction of electrons in wires: the velocity gradients of the ether currents on the surface of the
electrons create an additional pressure difference, the electrons acquire additional speed in the
direction of the second conductor and give the resulting increase in momentum to the molecules
of their conductor. This leads to the emergence of strength
interactions of conductors. It should be noted here that the obtained expressions for the
angles of rotation of the ether flows ÿ1 and ÿ2 are not the angles of rotation of the electrons,
which are significantly larger. The average rotation angles of the electron axes ÿ can
presumably be determined through the ratio of the speed of movement of the electron along
the conductor vpr to the average speed of thermal movement vt:
ÿ ÿ tg ÿ = vpr/vt. (8.111)
It is of interest to give a numerical estimate of some parameters

frames involved in the force interaction of conductors.
If a direct current with a force of 1A flows in two conductors in the same
direction, then the force of attraction to each other of conductors having a
length of 1 m and located in the axes at a distance of 1 cm from each other is
vit
F = 4ÿ·10–7 /4ÿ·10–2 = 10–5 N.
In this case, each conductor contains 1024 electrons located relative to

each other at a distance of 10–10 m, i.e., each electron is located within one
metal molecule, the speed of electron movement along the axis is 6.25 10–6 m/
s, and the angles of rotation of the ether flows caused by the rotation of
electrons are only 6.25·10–6 / 3.108 = 2.08·10–14 rad. Such a small angle of
rotation of the ether flows does not mean the same value of the angle of rotation
of the electrons themselves, which is significantly larger in this case for a
temperature of +20ÿ C
amounts to
ÿ = 6.25·10–6 /1.15·105 = 4·10–11 rad.
Thus, the force interaction of the conductors carries out -

This is not due to the movement of electrons relative to the conductor, but due to the joint
orientation of their spins relative to the axis of the conductor, which leads to the ordering of
ethereal flows outside the conductor, which are perceived as a magnetic field formed by the
current. These flows affect the electrons, giving them additional momentum in the transverse
direction, which leads to force interaction between
water workers
8.3.2. Mutual inductance of conductors

346 Chapter 8.
As is known, in electrical engineering there is no concept of “mutual inductance of

conductors,” although there is a concept of “mutual inductance of circuits.” From the concept
of mutual induction of circuits, it is impossible to deduce the mutual induction of individual
conductors, since the area of the circuit is present in the formulaic expressions for the
mutual induction of circuits. On the contrary, from ideas about the mutual induction of
individual conductors, it would be fashionable to derive the laws of mutual induction of
circuits of any shape. Therefore, it is advisable to find the patterns of mutual induction of
conductors.
In accordance with the usual concepts of electrodynamics at
By changing the current in the first circuit, an electromotive force is induced in the second
circuit
e2m = – ÿ21 di1/dt, (8.112)
where M21 is the coefficient of mutual induction of the circuits.

The concept of mutual induction of circuits can be derived on the basis of Faraday's law
S dB
———
e2m = – , (8.113)
2ÿ dt
where S is the contour area; B – magnetic induction.

Despite the fact that Faraday’s law itself and Maxwell’s equations, leading to the same
law, were derived based on the concept of the ether,
assuming direct interaction of the electromagnetic field and conductors, in fact, the concept of
long-range action is clearly expressed here, since the process of changing the magnetic field
occurs in one place (inside the circuit), the electromotive force appears in another place - on
its periphery, and the mechanism of interaction of the field not provided with a conductor.
However, in another law - the law of electromagnetic induction
e = – Blv, (8.114)
where B is magnetic induction; l is the length of the conductor crossing the field; v is the
speed of movement of the conductor relative to the magnetic lines (Fig. 8.11), the law of short-
range action is reflected, since here there is a direct connection between the magnetic field
and the conductor - the speed of the conductor crossing the magnetic field, although the
mechanism for the occurrence of EMF
not disclosed here either.
Rice. 8.11. Induction of EMF when a conductor crosses a constant

magnetic field – electromagnetic induction
To determine the EMF of mutual induction of two rectangular circuits,

it is necessary to invoke the law of total current
i = ÿ Hdl, (8.115)
where
H = i / 2ÿR, (8.116)
where R is the distance from the current-carrying wire to the point of

measurement of magnetic intensity H.
Rice. 8.12. To derive the coefficient of mutual induction of circuits
In accordance with Faraday's law, the coefficient of mutual induction

between two wire lines is determined by the expression [45, p. 406]:
ÿÿÿ l r1'2 r12'

ÿ1 = —— ln ————. (8.117)
2ÿ r12 r1' 2'
348 Chapter 8.
Here r12, r12', r12' If , r1”2' – distances between conductors (Fig. 8.12, a).
the contours are in the same plane, then
r1'2 = d; r12' = d + h1; r12 = d + h2; r1'2' = d + h1 + h2. (8.118)
Here d is the distance between nearby conductors of two con-

tours; h1 and h2 are the distances between conductors in each circuit.
The mutual influence of the side conductors in the circuits can be neglected (tested
experimentally). In this case, the magnetic field emerging from the wires of the first circuit
enters the area of the second circuit, weakening as it moves away from the current-carrying
wires of the first circuit according to the law of total current (Fig. 8.10, b). In accordance with
Faraday's law, the electromotive force in the second
circuit at h1 = h2 = h will be determined by the expression
ÿÿÿ l di1 d+h dR d+2h dR

e2m = – ———— [ ÿ —— – ÿ ——] =
2ÿ dt d R d+h R
ÿÿÿ l di1 (1 + h/ d)² l di1

=– ———— ln ———— 2ÿ dt = —— M1, (8.119)
1 + 2h/d dt
Where
ÿÿÿ (1 + h/ d)² ÿÿÿ

M1 = —— ln ———— —— f1, 1=+ 2h/d 2ÿ (8.120)
2ÿ
Where
(1 + h/ d)²
f1 = ln ———— 1 + .
2h/d
As can be seen from the resulting expression, with an increase in the area of the
circuit, the EMF in the second circuit increases indefinitely according to the logarithmic
law. For h >>d we have:
ÿÿÿ h
M1 = —— ln —— 2ÿ , (8.121)
2d
and as the value h tends to infinity, the coefficient of mutual induction per unit length of
the contour also tends to infinity, albeit according to the logarithmic law.
An approach to the same problem based on the concept of short-range action

fundamentally changes its formulation. The magnetic field emerging from the conductors
of the first circuit first crosses the near conductor of the second circuit, and then, weakening
as it moves away from the source, its far conductor. In this case, an emf of the opposite sign
is induced in the far conductor compared to the near conductor, and this emf decreases in
accordance with the law of total current as the far conductor moves away from the primary
circuit. If the near conductor is located at a distance in axes from the nearest conductor of
the primary circuit at a distance of 3 mm, and the far conductor is at a distance of 3 cm, then
the emf arising on the far conductor will be only 10% of the emf arising on its near conductor ,
and if at a distance of 30 cm, then only 1%. Thus, there is a saturable dependence here, and
there cannot be any infinite increase in the emf on the secondary circuit.
The total electromotive force arising in the second circuit under the same conditions is
determined by the expression:
ÿÿÿ lRÿ di1 2 1 l di1

e2m = – ————— ( 1– ——— + ———— ) = —— M2 , (8.122)
2ÿd dt 1+ h/d 1 + 2 h/d dt
where the mutual induction coefficient M2 is equal to
ÿÿÿRpr 2 1 ÿÿÿRpr
M2 = ————
————f2, 1+———
( 1– h/d 1 ++2————
h/d 2ÿd ) = (8.123)
2ÿd
Where 2 1
f2 = 1 – ——— + ————
1+ h/d 1 + 2 h/d
Here, as the value of h tends to infinity, the coefficient of mutual induction tends to a
constant value
ÿÿÿRpr
M2 = ———. (8.124)
2ÿd
350 Chapter 8.
There is a significant difference between the expressions for M1 and M2 : if with increasing
ratio h/d the first function tends to infinity, then the second function is limited. When the
return conductors of the circuits are removed to infinity, only the coefficient of mutual
induction of nearby conductors remains in the expression. For practice, this is of particular
importance, since often the location of the return conductors is generally unknown (for
example, when grounding the source and receiver of signals). In cases where h << d, we
have
ÿÿÿ ldi ÿÿÿ lh di h
e21 = – ———— ln ( 1 + — ) = ————; (8.125)

2ÿ dt d 2ÿ d dt
ÿÿÿ lh²Rÿdi
e22 = – —————; 2ÿ d (8.126)
³dt
where d is the distance between the axes of the first circuit conductor closest to the second
circuit; h is the distance between the conductors of the second circuit; l is the length of the
contours.
Here it becomes possible to determine the coefficient of interaction
induction of conductor segments.
Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of conductors depends on which conductor is
primary and which is secondary, and the coefficients of mutual induction of the first wire
with the second and the second wire with the first are different, depend on the radii of the
conductors and are in
ratio
M12 Rpr1
—— = ——
, (8.127)
M21 Rpr2
which is similar to the transformation ratio in a transformer.

Thus, the EMF induced in the second wire from the side of the
of the first wire, will be the value
l di ÿÿÿ Rÿldi
e2 = – M2 —— = – ————; dt 2ÿ d dt (8.128)
where does the induced tension come from?
e2 di ÿÿÿ Rodi
— =–
E2 = = – M2 —— dt ————, 2ÿ d dt (8.129)
l
or
e2 di ÿÿÿ Rodi
—
E2 = = – M2 —— = – ————; dt 2ÿ d dt (8.130)
l
and for a sinusoidal alternating current the induced emf will be equal to
ÿÿÿ RoI1ÿl
e2 = – —————. (8.131)
2ÿd
Experimental studies of mutual inductance of conductors

was carried out using two single-wire rectangular circuits, the length of the adjacent sides
being 1 m. A wire of the BPVL-0.35 type was used, the outer diameter of the insulation of
which was 1.5 mm. An alternating current of various frequencies was passed into the first
wire, and the induced EMF was measured in the second. The distances h1 and h2 between
the circuit conductors changed equally. The measurements were carried out at a current
value in the primary circuit equal to 1 A, in the frequency range from 50 Hz to 10 kHz.
Both dependencies are shown in relative form in Fig. 8.13. The dependences f1 and f2 are
also given there , calculated respectively on the basis of Maxwellian and etherodynamic
concepts about the mechanism for inducing emf in circuits. Crosses indicate the values
obtained
as a result of the measurements taken.
As can be seen from the graphs, the results obtained completely satisfy the function
f2, obtained on the basis of ether-dynamic ideas about the induction of EMF in conductors,
and differ from the Maxwellian dependence f1 already at values of h/d = 10 by more than 4
times less side. The results presented by relative values do not depend on the frequency and
current values in the primary circuit. Thus, the studies carried out on the dependences of the
emf induction in large contours (with an area of more than 1 m2 ) showed their significantly
better agreement with the given expressions than
with Maxwellian ones.

352 Chapter 8.
The results obtained confirmed the independence of the induced emf from the area of the
circuit at a sufficiently large distance of the return conductors. Therefore, in the future it is
advisable to use the concept of mutual induction of conductors.
Rice. 8.13. Results of measuring the induced emf in a flat circuit:

dependence f1 (h/d) ~ M1 and dependence f2 (h/d) ~ M2.
Let us show the connection between the dependencies of the force

interaction of conductors and the mutual inductance of conductors. Let's
transform the expression of Ampere's law
I1I2l
F = – ÿÿ ——— 4ÿd (8.132)
in a slightly different form:
F I1
——
k (F) = = – ÿÿ ——. (8.133)
I2l 4ÿd
At I1 = 1 A and d = 1 m k (F) = 10–7 N/m A = 10–7 (dimensionless).

Let us write down an expression for the induced voltage for the changes -
sinusoidal current
e2 di ÿÿÿ Rpr1Iÿ
— =– ————
E2 = = – M21 —— dt = k (F) 2Rÿÿ; (8.134)
l 2ÿd
here Rpr1 is the radius of the current-carrying wire; ÿ is the circular frequency of the current
flowing in it. This shows the connection between Ampere’s law for the force interaction of two
wires with current and the mutual induction between them.
Despite the fact that the obtained dependences of the coefficient of mutual induction of
conductors better reflect the real relationships, the physical essence of the process is also
not reflected in them.
From the expression for electrical intensity for alternating current it follows that
e2 di ÿoÿ Rprdi ÿoÿ RprIÿ vprqen2 ÿRpr

E2 = —
= – M2 —— =– ———— =– ———— = —————— =
l dt 2ÿ d dt 2ÿ d 2ÿÿec²d
2vprvÿrÿ² n2 ÿRpr ÿ Rpr

= ———————
= 2ÿ1vere² n2. —· ——. (8.135)
c² cÿ d
Let us compare the resulting expression with the expression for a wave propagating
around a conductor in which alternating current flows:
dvp
E2 = ——·2re. dr (8.136)
Here dvp/dr is the velocity gradient of the annular flows of ether in the secondary
conductor, caused by the rotation of electrons in the primary conductor; re – radius of
electrons in the secondary conductor.
The magnetic field excited in the surrounding current-carrying wire is
nick space, propagates like a wave:
ÿ = ÿ(r)sinÿ(t – r/ c), (8.137)
and, consequently, the annular speed of the ether flows will spread
do the same:
vÿ = vÿ (r)sinÿ(t – r/ c), (8.138)
where
dvÿ vÿ(r)ÿ
E2 = ——· 2re = ———· 2re. dr (8.139)
With
354 Chapter 8.
Comparing this expression with expression (3.63), it is clear that
Rpr
vÿ(r) = verÿ n2ÿ1. ——, (8.140)
d
and, thus, the process of inducing EMF in the secondary conductor by the primary current-
carrying conductor acquires a simple physical meaning: the electromotive force in the
secondary conductor is created as a result of the passage of the gradient wave of the
transverse velocity of the ether, excited in space by the electrons of the primary conductor,
the main axes of which partially oriented along its axis.
Let us determine the order of magnitude of electromagnetic interference in the cable at

following parameters:
wire cross-section 0.35 mm2 (Rpr = 0.334 mm), current in the current-carrying wire I =
1 A; wire length l = 1 m; distance in axes between wires R
= 2 mm; AC frequency f = 10 kHz.. The EMF in the return wire can be neglected due to its
remoteness. In this case, the induced emf in the second wire will be:
ÿÿ lIÿR1 4ÿÿ10–7 ÿ1ÿ1ÿ2ÿÿ104 ÿ0.3344

e21 = =
= 2.1 mV.
– ———— – ———————————
(8.141)
2ÿd 2ÿÿ2
Thus, the dependence obtained based on the concept

short-range interaction not only better reflects the essence of the phenomenon, but also
gives a significantly more accurate result.
Some considerations should be added to the above. In [46, p. 166]
interference was measured on parallel wires of the BPVL type at interaxial distances
of the order of 2 mm. A linear dependence on frequency was obtained, and with a current in
the current-carrying wire of 1A at a frequency of 10 kHz, 20 mV/m was obtained on the second
wire. However, it should be taken into account that a significant role in this
has an electrodynamic component exceeding the value

electromagnetic component. This is due to the fact that there is a capacitive coupling
between the wires, and the wires themselves have an inductance of the order of 1.6 - 2 ÿH/
m. It is possible to get rid of the electrodynamic component only partially by shielding the
wires, since the shields also have a distributed inductive reactance.
laziness.
The fact that the coefficient of mutual induction depends on the ratio
wire diameters were also tested experimentally. As shown above, the coefficient of mutual
inductance of conductors depends on the ratio of their diameters. The emf induced in the
second wire from the side of the first wire will amount to
l di ÿÿÿ Rÿldi
e2 = – M2 —— = – ————; dt 2ÿ d dt (8.142)
For alternating current with frequency f this value will be
ÿÿÿ Rÿl f I
e2 = —————, (8.143)
d
and, if the secondary wire lies directly on the surface of the primary
primary conductor, so that the distance between the axes of the conductors is not
differs significantly from the radius of the current-carrying wire, then
e2 = ÿÿÿ lf I. (8.144)
For a current of 1 A and a frequency of 1 Hz with a conductor length of 1 m, the EMF

value will be
e2 = 4 ÿ 10–7 V = 1.25 ÿV.
As shown above, the coefficient of mutual inductance of conductors depends on which

conductor is primary and which is secondary, and the coefficients of mutual inductance of
the first wire with the second and second
wires with the first are different, depend on the radii of the conductors and are found -
xia in the ratio
M12 Rpr1
——
= f( —— ). (8.145)
M21 Rpr2
Measuring the EMF induced by a magnetic field is complicated by the fact that at the
same time an EMF of electrodynamic origin is induced through a distributed capacitance,
which is approximately an order of magnitude greater than the EMF of electromagnetic
origin, and both values equally depend on the same parameters - That-
356 Chapter 8.
ka, frequencies, locations. And even shielding does not sufficiently reduce the electrodynamic
component due to the presence of distributed inductance near the shield. This masks the
whole process, however, the qualitative side can still be revealed by using wires of
significantly different diameters, using first one or the other wire at the same value of
current and frequency and measuring the induced emf on the second.
To test the dependence of the coefficient of mutual induction on the diameters of

interacting conductors, an experiment was carried out to determine the magnitude of the
EMF induced from one conductor to another. At the same time, the diameters of the
conductors were significantly different (0.5 mm and 5 mm), and one of them was covered
with vinyl chloride and fabric insulation (the outer diameter of the conductor with insulation
was 6.5 mm), the second was covered with varnish insulation. The center distance was 3.5
mm. The conductors were tightly adjacent to each other. The load on the second
(measuring) conductor varied from 10 to 1/3 Ohm. Such a low load resistance was
necessary to remove the capacitive component of the interference, which was completely
impossible to do. Then conductors according to the diagram
swapped places.
A current of 3 A was passed, frequencies from 500 to 4000 Hz were used, all
measurements were made using magnetoelectric instruments with thermocouples. The
measurement results are summarized in table. 8.2 and 8.3.
EMF on the secondary wire at a current in the primary wire of 3 A,

conductor length 1.7 m
Table 8.2
Diameter Diameter frequency Hz
primary wire, secondary 500 1000 2000 3000 4000
mm wire, mm
0.5 6.5 10 mV 19 44 83 122
6.5 0.5 15 32 64 99 125
K2tr/k1tr 1.5 1.68 1.45 1.08 1.025
Recalculation of the EMF on the secondary wire with current in the primary pro-
water 1 A, conductor length 1 m.
Table 8.3
Primary Secondary frequency Hz
diameter diameter 500 1000 2000 3000 4000
wires, mm wires, mm
0.5 6.5 2 mV 3.8 3 6.4 8.8 16.6 24.4
6.5 0.5 1.5 1.68 12.8 19.8 25
k2tr/k1tr 1.45 1.08 1.025
As can be seen from the tables, the coefficient of mutual induction of conductors really
depends on which of them is primary and which is secondary. For 1000 Hz, the calculated
value of the EMF induced from a primary conductor of a smaller diameter to a secondary
conductor of a larger diameter with simple proportionality should be only 0.09 mV, and when
they interchange the conductors - 1.16 mV. And although the relationships were obtained
differently, which can be explained, for example, by the fact that with such proximity of the
conductors it is no longer possible to consider all the current concentrated in their axial line,
as well as the presence of capacitive (electrodynamic) coupling between the conductors, the
dependence of the mutual induction coefficient on the ratio wire diameters can be considered
qualitatively confirmed.
Thus, the possibility and feasibility of introducing into electrical engineering the concept
of mutual induction of conductors is experimentally confirmed, on the basis of which it is
already possible to determine the mutual induction of circuits by carrying out the appropriate
integration.
8.3.3. Electric transformer

As you know, an electrical transformer is a static device designed to convert the
magnitude of alternating emfs and currents. A transformer consists of several electrically
unconnected and motionless windings relative to each other, interconnected by
electromagnetic induction. One of the windings is primary, it is connected to an external
source of EMF, the remaining windings are secondary, the EMF in them arises as a result of
the intersection of their magnetic field lines created by the current of the primary winding.
A transformer with an iron core, due to a significant increase in the coupling coefficient
between the windings, allows, with significantly smaller dimensions than a transformer
without a core, to transform significantly greater powers.
Transformer calculation is based on Faraday's law
e = – ÿÿÿSÿB/ ÿt, (8.146)
where e is the emf arising on a winding wound on an iron core, the cross-sectional area of
which is equal to S and the material of which has a relative permeability ÿ; dB/dt – rate of
change of magnetic
358 Chapter 8.
filament induction in the core. Typically, the calculation of transformer windings is carried
out using a different formula resulting from Faraday’s law:
e = – 2ÿÿÿÿw²f I S / l, (8.147)
where e is the EMF on the winding, ÿ is the relative magnetic permeability of the iron core,
ÿÿ is the magnetic permeability of vacuum, w is the number of turns of the winding, f is the
frequency of the supply voltage or current, I –
amplitude of alternating current, S – cross-sectional area of the core, l – average length of
the magnetic flux line in the core.
The transformation coefficient k with an unsaturated core is defined as the ratio of
the number of turns of the secondary winding w1 to the number of turns of the primary
winding w2 (in some reference books it is defined as the reciprocal value):
k = w1/w2 = U1/ U2. (8.148)
Here U1 and U2 are the voltages on the primary and secondary windings, respectively,
in the absence of load on the secondary winding of the transformer (no-load mode).
When analyzing the operating principle of a transformer, a series of questions arise:
1. How is energy transferred by a magnetic field from the primary winding to the
secondary?
2. What role does the iron core play in increasing the coupling coefficient between
the primary and secondary windings?
3. Why, when the load resistance in the secondary winding decreases and, as a
result, the current in it increases accordingly?
current in the primary winding, i.e. what is the mechanism by which the current in the
secondary winding influences the current in the primary winding?
The answer to the first question is fundamentally considered above when analyzing
the electromagnetic relationship of conductors. Electrons in the primary
The conductor, under the influence of external EMF, orients its axes of ring rotation (spin)
along the conductor, as a result of which ring flows of ether and a magnetic field arise
around the conductor. These flows spread into external space. If the flow of ether, directed
perpendicular to the axis of the conductor, is static, then all pressures on the surface of the
electron are balanced (Fig. 8.14, a) and it is not subject to any forced orientation. If the ether
flow is not stationary, then a gradient of ether flow speeds arises in the conductor, this leads
to unbalanced pressures on the surface of the electron and
a moment of force is created that orients the electron in such a way that its main axis (spin)
is oriented along the axis of the secondary conductor (Fig. 8.14, b). Thus, the process of
transferring EMF from the primary conductor to the secondary is underway.
Rice. 8.14. The impact of the ether flow on an electron in a

conductor: a – electron in a stationary ether flow; b – electron in a
gradient flow of the ether.
If the secondary conductor is open, then the resulting EMF concentrates electrons at
one end of the conductor. Toroidal flows of electrons already located at the end of the
conductor create a moment of force on the remaining electrons of the conductor, balancing
the moment of force created by the induced emf, the displacement of electrons along the
conductor and their forced rotation stop.
If the secondary conductor is connected to the load, then the electrons are displaced,
the moment opposing the orientation is weakened, all the electrons of the conductor are
oriented due to the difference in the moments of the acting forces. Current appears in the
secondary conductor.
The presented qualitative picture of the interaction of the magnetic field and
electrons is quite arbitrary and should be refined in the future.
If the transformer does not have an iron core, then the magnetic field in space is not
distributed intensely; this process is described above in relation to the interaction of
conductors and circuits. However, if the transformer has an iron core, then the picture
changes significantly. If the secondary winding of the transformer is open and there is no
current in it, then the transformer is a conventional inductor, an iron-core inductor, discussed
above. The magnetic field is trapped in the space inside the iron core and therefore, as the
current increases in the primary conductor, it becomes tense like a compressed spring. This
compression of the magnetic field prevents the electrons from turning around in the primary
conductor, where the current becomes less than what would be in it in the absence of the
iron core. Then the following chain of interactions is formed: the EMF of the network creates
electrical tension in the primary winding, under the influence
360 Chapter 8.
as a result of which the electrons of the primary network are oriented in space, creating ring
flows of ether around them. These flows penetrate the iron core and unfold the domains,
thereby straining the connections of the domains with the rest of the core substance. The
larger the cross-section of the iron, the more domains need to be rotated. This force is
transmitted through the field to the electrons of the primary winding, resulting in a rotation
angle
there are fewer electrons than if there were no iron core
was.
The presence of an iron core prevents the magnetic field from spreading beyond its
boundaries. As a result, the pressure energy of the magnetic field is more fully used by the
secondary winding and there it is possible to maintain the same EMF value with lower load
resistance.
Here the closest mechanical analogy is a pipe filled with gas, which is pressed by a
piston. There is a turbine in the pipe that can do work. While it is motionless, the gas
pressure is high, it is leveled, the piston is motionless and does not do work. However, if
the turbine begins to rotate, doing work, then the gas is passed through the turbine blades
to the outlet of the pipe, begins to flow out, a pressure gradient is established in the vessel
from the piston to the hole, and a certain gas flow rate is also established. The piston, while
moving, does work (Fig. 8.15).
If the walls of the pipe do not have sufficient elasticity, then when the pressure
increases, the gas expands the walls of the pipe, a gas outlet is formed parallel to the
turbine, and the efficiency of the turbine decreases. In this
By analogy, the role of the walls of the pipe is played by the iron core. When pumping
When the core is removed, it stops shielding the magnetic field, elasticity
field decreases, and the proportion of energy entering the secondary winding decreases.
All this corresponds well to the known equivalent circuit of a transformer.
The presence of an open secondary winding does not change the situation in any way.
However, if the secondary winding is connected to a load, then part of the energy of the
ether flows created by the primary winding is transferred to the electrons of the secondary
winding, the speed of the ether flows decreases, and
the velocity gradient increases, accordingly, in proportion to the increase
As the current in the secondary winding increases, the voltage gradient increases
magnetic field.
Rice. 8.15. Change in the gradient of the magnetic field strength in the
transformer with a change in the load on the secondary winding: a – winding
arrangement diagram in the experiment; b – electrical diagram of the experiment; V -
change in emf on the measuring winding when the load on the secondary
winding changes; d – equivalent mechanical circuit of energy transfer in a gas
pipeline; I – position of the elastic wall at low pressure; II – position of the
elastic wall at high pressure; d – diagram of pressures in the gas pipeline; e –
diagram of velocities in the gas pipeline
Checking this circumstance can be done quite simply. It is necessary

to place the primary and secondary windings of the transformer at
opposite ends of the iron core, and in the middle place the third winding,
consisting of two identical
back-to-back windings. An EMF will appear on it, which will increase as the load resistance
decreases and the current in the secondary winding increases. This EMF indicates a change
in the magnetic field gradient when the current in the secondary winding changes. The
experiment completely confirmed this. However, this does not in any way follow from the
existing theory of the transformer.
In conventional formulas for calculating a transformer, the dependence

of the EMF on how the windings are located on the transformer core is
not provided for, because in conventional transformers the primary and
secondary windings are placed directly above one another. However, in
this case, there are some inconsistencies with the calculations,
362 Chapter 8.
but they are explained by the so-called magnetic stray fields. In fact, the
discrepancy with the calculations must be explained by the difference in
the locations of the primary and secondary windings.
Rice. 8.16. Dependence of the relative value of the transformation coefficient on the relative
position of the windings: a – diagram of the arrangement of the windings on the ring core during
the experiment; b – change in the transformation ratio when the distance between the windings
changes.
As mentioned above, the coefficient of mutual inductance of

conductors directly depends on the distance between them. Therefore,
as the windings on the transformer move away from each other, the
coefficient of their mutual induction should also decrease. To test this
circumstance, the following experiment was performed (Fig. 8.14).
On a ferrite ring with an outer diameter of 98 mm, an inner diameter
of 60 mm and a thickness of 15 mm, two windings of 10 turns each were
located, one of which could move along the ring (Fig. 8.16, a). The primary
winding was powered from a sound generator, and the emf was measured
on the secondary winding in no-load mode. The measurements were
carried out at frequencies of 20 and 200 kHz. The measurement results
are summarized in a table and shown in graph form in Fig. 8.16, b.
Table 8.4
Frequency Voltage Separation angle of windings on the core, degrees
on sec. exchange, (distance between winding centers, mm)
coefficient trance. 0° 45° 90° 180°
(0) (30.6) 149 141 (55.9) (79)
20 kHz U2, mV 136 134
1 0.949 0.913 0.899
ktr
200 kHz U2, mV 1534 1459 1401 1364
1 0.951 0.913 0.899
ktr
Some scatter in the readings can be attributed to the inaccuracy of fixing the location
of the windings during the experiment. However, the final result - more than 10% reduction
in the transformation ratio due to the separation of the windings on a common core - cannot
in any way be attributed to this, just as it cannot be attributed to the traditional explanation
of the effect due to stray fields magnetic
fields.
8.3.4. Electromagnetic induction
As is known, the law of electromagnetic induction
e = – ÿlv (8.149)
reflects the process of inducing an electromotive force e in a conductor of length l when

moving it at a speed v in a magnetic field, the induction of which is equal to B. This is the law
of short-range action, directly reflecting the interaction of a magnetic field and a conductor
moving in it. Let's consider the physical essence of this process.
As was shown above, the main type of movement of the ether in a magnetic field is still
not rotational, but translational movement of the ether, which can be combined with
rotational, but may not be.
read.
In the absence of a magnetic field, i.e. in the absence of external ether flows, the
electrons in the conductor are in thermal motion, the average position of their main axes is
distributed evenly in space. The position does not change if ether flows penetrate through
the conductor, since no matter what position the electron is in, all moments of pressure
around it will be balanced. External flows of the ether - an external magnetic field - create a
braking pressure on each electron on the side of the electron
that faces the flow. In accordance with the laws of gas mechanics, a gas compaction is
formed on this side, but the excess of this pressure, which creates a moment of force trying
to turn the electron, is balanced by the same moment of pressure force on another part of
the same electron. If the conductor begins to move relative to the flow of ether,
then the symmetry of the moments is broken.

The speed of movement of the conductor is added to the ring rotation of the ether, and
on one side of the electron the speed of the ring motion
364 Chapter 8.
The speed of the electron is added to the speed of movement of the conductor, and at the
opposite end it is subtracted. (Fig. 8.17).
Rice. 8.17. Reorientation of electrons in a conductor as it moves in

magnetic field
A change in pressure on the side of the electron facing the flow causes an increase in
the density of the ether on that side of the electron, so
ÿÿ = kÿÿÿ; kÿ = kvvÿ > 1. (8.150)
Here kÿ is the coefficient of increase in ether density; kv is the coefficient of

proportionality between the coefficient of increase in the density of the ether and the speed
of the external flow of the ether vm, proportional to the value of magnetic induction B.
The change in pressure in that section of the electron in which the circular motion
coincides with the movement of the conductor is
ÿP1 = kÿÿÿ (ve + vÿ)², (8.151)
and in the area where the circular motion has the direction opposite to the movement of the
conductor, the change in pressure will be
ÿP2 = kÿÿÿ (ve – vÿ)², (8.152)
where vÿ is the speed of circular motion on the surface of the electron; vÿ –

speed of conductor movement.
The difference between these pressures will be
ÿP = ÿP1 – ÿP2 = 4kÿÿÿ ve vÿ0 = 4kvveÿÿvÿ, (8.153)
and the magnitude of the moment that turns the main axis of the electron in the direction of
the axis of the conductor is
M = ÿPsere = 4kvvevÿvÿSere, (8.154)

where Sÿ is the equivalent part of the electron surface experiencing excess pressure from
the oncoming flow; rÿ – electron radius.
The rotation of all electrons will create an electromotive force in the conductor,
proportional to this angle of rotation, and the angle of rotation of the electron itself ÿe will
be proportional to the turning moment
E ~ ÿÿ ~ M ~ vÿvÿ ~ Bvÿ , (8.155)
the voltage along the entire length of the conductor l will be equal to
e = El = Blvÿ. (8.156)
8.3.5. Interaction between DC and magnet
The interaction of a permanent magnet with the Earth's magnetic field has been known
since ancient times. The interaction of a magnetic needle with a magnetic field created by a
direct current flowing through a conductor was discovered by the Danish physicist H.K.
Oersted only in 1820 [2, 3]. It was this discovery that sparked a large number of studies that
ultimately led to the creation of electrodynamics and electrical engineering. Oersted's
experiment showed that a magnetized arrow placed above a conductor with current is
deflected and installed across the conductor (Fig. 8.18, a).
Rice. 8.18. The influence of direct current on a magnetic needle (Oersted’s experiment): a –
diagram of the experiment; b – interaction of the field of the magnetic domains of the arrow and the
magnetic field of the conductor with current
366 Chapter 8.
The mechanism of interaction between the laminar flow of ether, created by the current
passing through the conductor, and the axial component of the magnetic flux created by the
compass needle, is visible from (Fig. 8.16, b). With parallel flows, the velocity gradient is
significantly less than with antiparallel flows, hence the nature of the interaction. It is possible
that the vortex component is also involved in the interaction of the magnetic needle with the
magnetic field of the conductor, but this component should play an auxiliary role.
From the standpoint of etherodynamic concepts, the explanation of this phenomenon

is that it manifests the interaction between
flows of ether created around a conductor with current by electrons oriented in space, the
main axis of which is partially rotated in the direction of the axis of the conductor, and the
surface of iron domains oriented along the axis of the arrow.
As can be seen from the figure, each domain will experience, from the side of the ether
flow created by the electrons of the conductor, a moment of force determined by the density
of the ether near the surface of the domain, the speed of the flow of ether on the surface of
the domain, the gradient of the flow speed near the surface of the domain and the angle
between the directions of the external ether flow and flow direction on the surface of the
domain.
The ether pressure in the area where the flows intersect will be determined by the expression
marriage:
P = Pod + ÿedvÿvÿcosÿ, (8.157)
where Pod is the ether pressure on the surface of the domain in the absence of a magnetic
field; ÿed - density of ether on the surface of the domain; vÿ – velocity of the magnetic field
ether flow on the surface of the domain; vd is the speed of the ether flow on the surface of
the domain itself; ÿ is the angle between the threads.
From this it is clear that the minimum pressure will occur in opposite directions of ether
flows in the magnetic field and on the surface of the domain, i.e. at the maximum gradient of
the ether flow velocity.
Since the speed of the flow of ether in a magnetic field is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current flowing in the conductor, and inversely proportional to the distance
D to it, and is also proportional to the magnetic moment of the pointer pm, then the total
moment Mc acting on the pointer from the side conductor, is determined by the expression
Ipmcos ÿ
Ms = k ————, (8.158)
D
where k is the proportionality coefficient; ÿ is the angle between the arrow and
conductor.
8.3.6. Interaction of permanent magnets
The magnetic field lines of permanent magnets, in principle, are helical flows of the
ether. Most likely, the magnetic field is a system of vortex tubes, in which the ether moves
along the tube axis in one direction along the periphery, and in the center -
in the opposite. The tube can be structured into a set of helical toroids. In this regard, the
structure of the magnetic field vortex tubes has a certain similarity with the structure of the
electric induction vortex tubes with the significant difference that the electric induction tubes
have their source in the annular motion of microparticles, and the magnetic tubes have a
toroidal motion. An electron entering a tube of electrical induction experiences a turning
moment and additional ether pressure from the source. An electron trapped in a tube of
magnetic intensity experiences only a rotation, and a pressure difference arises only when
it moves.
If the magnetic field represented only laminar flows of the ether, then during the
studies of the ethereal wind by Michelson and subsequent researchers it would inevitably
be discovered as a manifestation of the ethereal wind on the surface of the Earth, since with
a magnetic field strength of the Earth from 33.4 A/m at the equator to 55.7 A/m at the pole,
the speeds of the aether flows would respectively range from 12.580 km/s to 20.98 km/s.
However, this component of the ethereal wind was not detected; therefore, it was less than 3
km/s, i.e. the same value of the ethereal wind that was discovered by Morley and Miller at the
Euclidian heights in 1905.
Thus, we have to state that the axial component of the flow along the axis of the
magnetic field line, at least for the Earth’s magnetic field, is small compared to the vortex
(rotational) component. This is confirmed by the fact that the Earth’s magnetic field decreases
with distance from the center of the Earth in proportion to the cube of the radius, i.e.
according to Biot-Savart's law . However, this does not mean that in all cases
This is true for the magnetic field.
The mechanism of interaction between two permanent magnets is different from the
above. When opposite poles interact (Fig. 8.19, a) in the air gap, the directions of rotation of
the tubes turn out to be the same, as well as the directions of the axial movement of the
ether, the tubes unite, the flow speeds increase, the pressure in
368 Chapter 8.
falls, and the external pressure of the ether pushes the poles of the magnet towards each
other. When the poles of the same name interact (Fig. 8.19, b), the rotation of the vortex tubes
in the air gap between the poles turns out to be opposite, as well as the directions of the axial
flows. This causes the tubes to bend, which creates internal stress in them. The ether
pressure increases, the poles repel.
Rice. 8.19. Interaction of permanent magnets: for opposite names

Lyusov (a); for like poles (b)
In the case of permanent magnets, the main role is played by rotational

component of the movement of the ether in the vortex tubes of the magnetic field.
It should also be noted that the simple screw motion of the ether, combining
translational motion with rotational motion without structuring into a set of screw toroids,
can also be perceived as a magnetic field. All the provisions stated above remain valid for
this option. To make a final judgment about the structure of the magnetic field, it is necessary
to conduct special studies.
The above ideas about the structure of the magnetic field are of a very preliminary
nature and must be clarified.
8.4. Electromagnetic field
8.4.1. Maxwell's equations and their limitations
The development of hydromechanical models of electrical and magnetic phenomena

both in the 19th century and now still faces great difficulties, since these phenomena are very
diverse in form, and the models themselves can only be based on ideas about turbulent and
vortex phenomena.
movements of a liquid or gas, which have not been fully studied to date. Nevertheless, the
development of such models in the past brought great benefits; it was these models that
formed the basis of the entire theory of electromagnetism and made it possible to create its
entire mathematical base. Almost all hydrodynamic models of electromagnetic phenomena
can be divided into two groups. In the first group of models, the magnetic field is
considered as a manifestation of the translational motion of the ether,
and the electric field is a manifestation of the rotational (vortex) movement of the ether. This
point of view was held, in particular, by G. Helmholtz, V. Thomson, J. Thomson, N. P.
Kasterin. In the second group of models, the magnetic field was considered as a manifestation
of the vortex motion of the ether, and the electric field as a manifestation of translational
motion. This point of view was held, in particular, by J. Maxwell and V.F. Mitkevich.
Let ÿ, ÿ, ÿ be the ether velocity components, u, v, w be the angular velocities of the

vortices, and ÿe be the ether density. Taking these notations into account, we write the
following equations for the first group of models:
dÿ dÿ to ÿ
—— + —— + —— = ÿÿ;
dx do dz
to ÿ dÿ
—— – ——
= u;
du dz
dÿ toÿ
—— – ——
= v;
dz dx
dÿ dÿ
—— – ——
= w,
dx dy
and define the following correspondences:
ÿÿÿÿÿ – magnetic permeability of vacuum;

ÿ, ÿ, ÿ ÿ ÿÿ, ÿÿ, ÿz – components of the magnetic field; u, v, w ÿ ÿÿ,
ÿÿ, ÿz – components of the electric field.
For the second group of models we have the following correspondences:

370 Chapter 8.
ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ – dielectric constant of vacuum;

ÿ, ÿ, ÿ ÿ ÿÿ, ÿÿ, ÿz – electric field components; u, v, w ÿ Hx, Well, Hz –
components of the magnetic field.
The latter ideas were supported by the phenomenon of rotation of the plane of
polarization of light in a magnetic field, discovered by Faraday.
In the models of the first group, the idea of a magnetic field as a progressive movement
of the ether leads to the conclusion that a magnetic field arises during any movement
through the ether, which in fact does not exist and which caused fair criticism from the
authors of the second group of models. However, in the models of the second group, the
idea of an electric field as a translational movement of the ether leads to similar conclusions
about the emergence of an electric field during any movement through the ether. This
phenomenon was also not detected. Thus, the disadvantage of both groups of models was
their obvious discrepancy with the experimental
data.
An important drawback of existing models of electromagnetism is the idealization and
unlimited distribution of movements of the ethereal fluid and, as a consequence,
electromagnetic phenomena to the entire space surrounding the actual area of
electromagnetic interactions and phenomena. This idealization was a consequence of
Helmholtz’s ideas about the movements of an ideal medium, according to which vortices
could neither appear nor be destroyed, but could only move and change in cross-section
while maintaining circulation. Thus, the question of the emergence and destruction of vortex
movements did not arise. Meanwhile, vortices can appear and be destroyed. This is all the
more understandable when considering phenomena associated with the passage of
alternating current
along conductors: in the absence of current, there is no magnetic field in the space
surrounding the conductor, but when it appears in it, a magnetic field is formed, i.e. vortex
movements of the ether. There is a contradiction between the model and reality.
As is known, the equations of electrodynamics according to Maxwell in a modern

image have the form [47, p. 501]:
1. rot E = – dB/ dt; (8.159)
2. rot H = j + dD/ dt; (8.160)
3. div D = ÿ; (8.161)
4. div B = 0; (8.162)
Here: E and H , respectively, the strength of the electric and magnetic fields; D = ÿE
and B = ÿH - electrical and magnetic induction, respectively; ÿ and ÿ - electrical and magnetic
permeability of the medium; j = ÿE - conduction current density; ÿ - specific electrical
conductivity of the medium; ÿ – electric charge density in the medium.
Wherein
ÿ Edl
rot E = lim ———; ÿSÿ0 (8.163)
ÿS
ÿ ÿHdl
rot H = lim ———. (8.164)
ÿSÿ0 ÿS
To solve the system of Maxwell's equations, a scalar

electric ÿ and vector magnetic potentials A , so
B = rot A; E = – grad ÿ – dA/ dt. (8.165)
Moreover, if the scalar potential ÿ has a physical meaning of the

work that needs to be done to move a unit charge from infinity to a
given point in the electric field, then the vector potential has only a
purely mathematical meaning as some auxiliary function, the use of
which is only methodical
meaning.
The above Maxwell equations have a differential form. They

correspond to the equations of electrodynamics in the integral
form:
1. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
e = ÿ Edl = – dÿÿ/dt . (8.166)
2. Total current law
i = ÿ Hdl = dq/ dt. (8.167)

372 Chapter 8.
3. Ostrogradsky - Gauss theorem for the electric field
Fe = ÿ ÿDdS = q (8.168)
4. Ostrogradsky - Gauss theorem for magnetic field
ÿÿ = ÿ BdS = 0. (8.169)
Here Fe and ÿÿ are, respectively, the flows of electric displacement D and

magnetic induction B through the closed surface dS, covering the free charge
q. Let us analyze
sequentially the physical meaning of the equations.
1. Maxwell's first differential equation

rot E = – dB/dt (8.170)
and the corresponding integral equation
e = ÿ Edl = – dÿÿ/dt (8.171)
express the fact that if the magnetic flux changes in a closed loop, then an emf e is excited
in the loop itself , the magnitude of which is determined by the indicated equations. In
particular, if the contour lies in the xy plane, then the magnetic induction has the direction
of the z axis, perpendicular to the xy plane. Then we will have:
exy = – ÿSdHz/ dt, (8.172)
where S is the contour area.
1) The above equation assumes the possibility of changing the magnetic

intensity along the z axis without any transverse movement of the magnetic
field in space. However, it should
note that in reality such a process does not exist in nature. In fact, changing
the magnetic field strength can be achieved
only by condensing the lines of force and adding them to the contour from the sides
contour (Fig. 8.20).
Rice. 8.20. Induction of EMF in the circuit: a – according to Maxwell; b – in reality
2) Maxwell's first equation describes the process in the plane, but not in the volume.
Actually, there is no change in the voltage Hz along the z axis . Rotation of the plane in the
coordinate axes, when all three Cartesian coordinates fall on both the right and left sides of
the equation, essentially
doesn't change.
Why do Maxwell’s first equation and Faraday’s integral law of magnetic induction,
which follows from it, make it possible to perform calculations well, for example, of
transformers and many other magnetic systems? The answer is simple. The change in the
magnetic field inside the circuit is a consequence of the addition of magnetic field lines from
the sides of the circuit.
round, numerically they almost coincide, and this allows, ignoring the essence of the process,
to perform in most cases the necessary calculations with satisfactory accuracy. But not in all
cases, sometimes deviations in calculations exceed permissible errors, and quite significantly.
3) In the equation, the right and left sides are not equivalent. The right side of the
equation is the cause, and the left side is its effect. If by changing the magnetic induction at
a constant speed it is possible to create a constant EMF on the circuit, then the opposite
effect cannot be realized, because By creating a constant EMF on the circuit, no permanent
change in magnetic induction can be obtained. Therefore, it would be correct to put not an
equal sign between the right and left sides of the equation, but a “ÿ” sign, indicating that the
left side is a consequence of the right:
rot E ÿ – dB/ dt; (8.173)
the same applies to the integral form:

374 Chapter 8.
e = ÿ ÿEdl ÿ – dÿÿ/dt. (8.174)

It should be noted that there are no ways to swap cause and effect in nature, i.e. if, by
changing the magnetic flux over time, it is possible to create an EMF in the circuit, then the
reverse operation is impossible: it is impossible by creating a constant in the circuit EMF,
obtain a time-varying magnetic field in it.
2. Maxwell's second differential equation
rot H = j + dD/dt (8.175)
and the corresponding integral equation (total current law)
i = ÿ ÿHdl = dq/dt (8.176)
express the fact that if a current flows in a conductor, then a magnetic field arises around
the conductor, the magnitude of which can be determined.
Fundamentally, Maxwell's second equation can be divided into
two parts:
rot H' = j; (8.177)
rot H" = dD/ dt. (8.178)
The integral form - the law of total current - reflects only the first part;
for the second part there is no similar form, although it can be easily
written, for example, in the form
ÿ Hdl = SdD/dt. (8.179)
In contrast to the first equation, Maxwell's second equation and the

law of total current reflect the real process of the emergence of a magnetic
field around a conductor. However, here too some substitutions can be made.
aspirations.
1) The law of total current is an analogue of the law of constant circulation

lations for vortex motion of inviscid and incompressible fluid:
ÿ vdll = ÿ,
where v is the speed of fluid flow around the center of the vortex, and ÿ is the intensity of the
vortex. This law reflects vortex statics, i.e. movement of fluid in a steady vortex. Accordingly,
both the total current law and Maxwell’s second equation reflect the statics of the magnetic
field, and not the dynamics at all.
2) Both in Maxwell’s second equation and in the total current law there are no changes
in processes over time, therefore,
for example, if the current value has changed, then in accordance with the equation
The law of total current is the magnitude of the voltage
ÿ = i/ 2ÿr
should instantly change regardless of the distance from the current-carrying conductor itself
to the magnetic field line. The equation does not provide for any delay in the process, which
contradicts the meaning, because there must be a delay of the effect (magnetic field strength)
in relation to the cause that caused it (current).
3) The second Maxwell equation, like the first, describes the process in the plane, but
not in the volume. Actually, there is no change in tension E along its direction. And just like
in the first
equation, rotation of the plane in the coordinate axes, when the equation
give both the right and left sides of the equation all three Cartesian
coordinates does not change the
essence. 4) In Maxwell's second equation, as in the first, the right and left sides are not
actually equivalent. Here, too, the right side of the equation is the cause, and the left side is
its effect. If by changing electrical induction at a constant speed or passing -
By reducing direct current through a conductor, you can create in the vicinity
conductor magnetic field, then the reverse action cannot be real-
called because by creating a constant magnetic field in the vicinity of the conductor
field, no permanent change in electrical induction or the appearance of direct current in the
conductor can be obtained. Therefore, here, too, it would be correct to place between the
right and left sides of the equation not an equal sign, but a “ÿ” sign, indicating that the left
side is a consequence of the right:
rot H ÿ j + dD/dt (8.180)

376 Chapter 8.
and the corresponding integral equation (total current law)
i = dq/dt ÿ ÿ Hdl. (8.181)
3. Maxwell's third differential equation
div D = ÿ; (8.182)
and the corresponding integral equation – the Ostrogradsky–Gauss

theorem for the electric field
Fe = ÿ DdS = q (8.183)
They have the same sin: they lack the time factor, therefore, these are
static equations. True, if the Ostrogradsky-Gauss theorem in textbooks
is usually placed in the section of electrostatics, then the differential
expression of the same thing - Maxwell's third equation is placed in the
same textbooks in the section of dynamics, which is not justified in any
way. The fact that the integral form is a static form is easy to see from that
the fact that the electric displacement determined from this expression
swearing
D = q/4ÿr² (8.184)
must change instantly when the charge q changes. The usual objection to this is that it is
impossible to change a single charge, and the introduction of an additional charge is an
additional process, which is described in a completely different way. Nevertheless, the
mathematical description must still include the presence of a retarded potential, but this is
not in the equation.
In addition, the equation should also determine the causal

investigative relations in the form of their corresponding spelling:
Fe = ÿ ÿDdS ÿ q, (8.185)
and
D ÿ q/4ÿr². (8.186)
4. Maxwell's fourth differential equation

div B = 0 (8.187)
and the corresponding integral equation – the Ostrogradsky–Gauss

theorem for the magnetic field
ÿÿ = ÿ BdS = 0 (8.188)
do not cause any special objections, except perhaps for their insufficiency, since they also
record some statics, in addition, they also lack the time factor. Maxwell's fourth differential
equation is also placed in the dynamics section of textbooks without any justification.
The integral form, placed in the statics section, expresses the

obvious fact that magnetic lines of force are always closed and,
consequently, as many of them come out of a closed surface, the same
number must enter it. It does not reflect any time processes.
Thus, the dynamic processes occurring in the electromagnetic field
are reflected not by all four Maxwell equations, but only by the first and
half of the second, and the first equation does not reflect the real
process of the occurrence of EMF in a conductor when the magnetic
field changes over time. The first half of Maxwell’s second equation, as
well as the third and fourth equations, are equations of vortex statics
and, in principle, have nothing to do with electrodynamics
have.
Both the first and second Maxwell equations ignore fields located
outside the contours. However, neighboring unidirectional vortices, having
its periphery in adjacent areas, flows of the medium - ether in the opposite direction, create
mutual compensation of fields (Fig. 8.21). This circumstance is not taken into account by the
first two equations. If this were taken into account, then both the electric and magnetic
intensities would not always be the same for the first and second equations. Finally, all
Maxwell's equations are derived from the assumption that the ether is ideal and, therefore,
imply
the absence of viscosity and compressibility. In such an ether, vortices can neither form
nor disappear, which is completely inconsistent with experimental data:
voltages and magnetic fields arise and disappear, but this is not included in the physics
equations. The physics of Maxwell's equations also does not include
378 Chapter 8.
compressibility of fields, directly resulting from the compressibility of the ether

ra.
Rice. 8.21. Field compensation: a—magnetic field in a distributed current system; b

— electric field in a distributed system of magnetic fields
currents
The electromagnetic field equations obtained by Maxwell on the

basis of hydromechanical concepts of electromagnetic phenomena and
their comprehensive testing in many practical applications confirm the
validity of the method of analogies used by Maxwell, and it would seem
that this does not imply the need for any clarification of the
electrodynamics equations. However, these equations, in accordance
with Helmholtz’s ideas about the behavior of vortices in a liquid, reflect
just the process of moving vortices in space and do not reflect the
process of formation of these vortices. In order to consider the process
as a whole, it is necessary to carry out additional constructions.
Thus, Maxwell's equations of electrodynamics are not perfect, just
as nothing in the world is perfect. And therefore we need to continue to
work on them.
8.4.2. Some refinements to the electrode equations

namiki
Let us consider the elementary volume of the medium under the

influence of the applied emf, as well as external magnetic fields (Fig. 8.22).
Rice. 8.22. Formation of electric current Rice. 8.23. Formation of magnetic flux in the
in the medium. medium.
Taking into account the electric field model, it follows that the current is a consequence
of the electrical tension acting in the circuit, and the magnetic field around the conductor is
a consequence of the ordered orientation of electric charges in the conductor. For a medium
element in a given circuit, it is necessary to take into account four electrical voltages that
are summed with each other and create an electric current: Eÿ –
voltage from an external source of EMF; EN v1 – voltage induced by other currents, varying
in time, external to the volume under consideration; it should be remembered that the
magnetic field that creates this EMF itself has a wave character; EN v2 – tension induced
from the source moving relative to the volume under consideration.
The current density ÿÿ arising in the circuit is determined by these voltages and the
conductivity of the medium. In turn, the current will cause a magnetic field, the intensity of
which is equal to EH L, so that
rot HEL ÿ ÿÿ = (ÿ + ÿ — ) ÿÿ, dt (8.189)
Where
Eÿ = Eÿ + EH v1 + EH v2
Similarly, when considering the elementary volume of a medium under the influence
of an applied external MMF (magnetomotive force), as well as under the influence of external
magnetic fields (Fig. 8.23), we obtain:
380 Chapter 8.
rot EHL ÿ ÿÿ = – ÿ — ÿÿ dt , (8.190)
Where
ÿÿ = Hÿ + HE v1 + HE v2
Here Hi is the magnetic field strength created by an external MMF source; HE v1 is the
magnetic field strength induced in the volume by electric currents external to the volume;
HE v2 –
magnetic field strength induced from the side of an electric field source moving relative to
the volume under consideration (introduced by analogy with the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction); ÿm
– magnetic current density.
It should be immediately noted that the analogy used here is not strictly correct and must be further
experimentally confirmed.
In the absence of sources moving relative to the volume

magnetic and electric fields, the equations are transformed into the form
rot Hÿ ÿ ÿÿ = (ÿ + ÿ - )(Eÿ + EN v1) (8.191)

dt
rot ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ = – ÿ — (Hÿ + HE v1) (8.192)

dt
The given expressions are modified Maxwell's Second and First Equations, different
from the latter topics,
that the “external current” usually used in Maxwell’s equations is expressed through
tensions, as well as taking into account sources of electric and magnetic fields external to
the volume under consideration.
The electromagnetic field equations presented in this form allow us to draw some
conclusions that differ from the usual ones.
Indeed, in the general case, the magnetic and electric field strengths used in both
equations are different, and not the same, as is the case in Maxwell’s equations. The
magnetic field strength Hÿ, which is on the left side of the first equation (the modernized
First Maxwell Equation), is part of the entire electric strength on the right side of the second
equation (the modernized
lated Second Maxwell Equation); the electric field strength Eÿ, which is on the left side of the
Second Equation, is part of the entire magnetic strength on the right side of the First Equation.
To show that the result obtained is not as trivial as it might seem at first glance, consider
the special case in which ÿÿ ÿ 0, while ÿÿ = 0, i.e. the current flows and changes over time,
and there is no magnetic field.
Indeed, if the electric field is directed along the z axis, and in

plane xy is distributed uniformly, then
deÿx deÿy
——
= 0; —— = 0 dx
du
and therefore
deÿx deÿy
—— ———
rot ÿÿz = = 0, whence

du dx
Hÿ + HE v1 = 0,
those. the magnetic field is completely compensated. In fact, the entire second equation will vanish, but
the first equation remains in its original form.
Similarly, if the magnetic field is directed along the z axis , and is distributed uniformly in
the xy plane , then
dNÿx dNÿy
——
= 0; —— = 0 dx
du
That
dNÿx dNÿy
—— ———
rot ÿÿz = du = 0, whence

dx
Eÿ + EN v1 = 0,
382 Chapter 8.
those. the electric field is completely compensated. Then the first equation goes to zero, and
the second equation remains in the same form.
de.
At each point in space, the fields were completely compensated,
internal and external in relation to any volume under consideration, although at first glance a
paradoxical situation arises: in the presence of a time-varying electric current, the magnetic
field is completely absent. In fact, this field is completely compensated at every point in
space, and if a certain volume of the conductor is removed, then a corresponding magnetic
field will immediately appear along the boundaries of this removed volume and in the volume
itself. This is clearly visible in Fig. 8.19.
Experimental verification of the stated provisions confirmed them. The experiment used
a plane on which a number of wire circuits were placed, connected in series, through which
alternating current was passed. The circuits created an alternating magnetic field in the space
surrounding them. A measuring frame was placed above the contours, to which a measuring
device was connected. Switching of circuits was carried out in such a way that the
corresponding circuit of wire circuits could be connected in turn (Fig. 8.24).
Rice. 8.24. Change in EMF on the measuring circuits as the number of connected current-
carrying circuits increases: a – location of the measuring circuit
body circuits on a plate with current-carrying coils creating a magnetic field; b – EMF on the measuring
circuit as current-carrying currents are connected
coils
It should be noted that the analyzed problem with uniform fields pulsating in time using
Maxwell’s equations cannot
be solved, since in them the electric and magnetic intensities in both equations are equal to
each other, there are no “extraneous currents” here either. Trace the fact of mutual
compensation of the component fields by
these equations are difficult. A zero result as a solution to a problem based

on Maxwell’s equations is possible only if all components of the fields and
currents are equal to zero, which contradicts the initial conditions of the problem.
The presented modernized equations of electrodynamics almost
completely coincide with the first two Maxwell equations if
at the boundary of the field (in the direction of propagation) there are no
sources of this field. Then the equations take the form of Maxwell’s equations:
d
rot Hÿ ÿ ÿÿ = (ÿ + ÿ — )ÿÿ (8.193)
dt
d
rot ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ = – ÿ — Hÿ dt (8.194)
Accordingly, Faraday's law can be refined
e = ÿ Edl = – SdBÿ/dt. (8.195)
In a refined form it will take the form
e = ÿ ÿEdl = – Sd(Bi – Be)/dt, (8.196)
and for Bi = Be e = 0.
The indices “i” and “e” mean “internal” and “external”. By analogy with Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction, based on the equation of the electromagnetic field, we can
propose an expression for magnetoelectric induction
d
(Hl) = S (ÿ + ÿ - ) (Ei - Ee); dt (8.197)
where S is the area of the circuit covering the current flowing in the medium.
The difference from the total current law here also lies in taking into
account fields external to the circuit. Let
us consider the process of propagation of the electrical induction field in
space. The fact of propagation of vortex fluid motion
384 Chapter 8.
along the axis of the vortex allows us to formulate the proposition that the flux of the vortex
vector, and, accordingly, the induction flux entering a certain volume, is not equal to the
vector flux, and, accordingly, the electric induction flux leaving this volume, and the
difference will be determined by delay of the vortex flow along the axis.
If the flux of the electric induction vector D from charge q passes through the surface of
a parallelepiped with sides dx, dy, dz (Fig. 8.25), then the fluxes of the vector D passing
through the faces are equal, respectively:
through the nearest edge:
– Dxdydz; (8.198)
through the far edge:
dDx dDx
(Dx + —— dx + —— dt) dydz; dx (8.199)
dt
through the left edge:
– Dydxdz; (8.200)
through the right edge:
dDy dDy
(Dy + —— dy + —— dt) dxdz; dy (8.201)
dt
through the bottom edge:
– Dzdxdy; (8.202)
through the top edge:
dDz dDz
(Dz + —— dz + —— dt) dxdy; dz (8.203)
dt
Summing the flows through all faces and dividing their sum by the volume of the parallelepiped,
we find:
dDx dDx dDy dDy dDz dDz

—— + —— + —— + —— + —— + —— = ÿ, (8.204)
dx cx dt dy cy dt dz czÿt
Where
ÿx = dx/ dt; ÿy= dy/ dt; ÿz= dz/ dt; (8.205)
and thus,
dDx dDy dDz

div D + —— + —— + —— = ÿ, (8.206)
cx dt cy dt czÿt
1 1 1 1
—— = —— + —— + ——
(8.207)
2 2 2 2
c cx cy cz
or
dD
div D + —— = ÿ, c dt (8.208)
which differs from Maxwell’s third equation by the presence of the term dD/ cdt.
Dividing vector D by vector c should not be confusing, since both of these
vector - electrical displacement and the speed of its longitudinal propagation are collinear,
i.e. are directed strictly in the same direction, their ratio is a scalar.
The resulting differential equation of the first degree for ÿ = 0

has a solution
D = D ( t – r/ c), (8.209)
those. this is a wave, and the equation itself is a wave equation of the first degree and
reflects the longitudinal propagation of the wave.
Gauss's theorem is slightly modified and takes on the following form:
Fe = ÿD(t – r/c)dS = q(t). (8.210)

S
386 Chapter 8.
Rice. 8.25. To the derivation of the equations for the propagation of electrical induction
In Fig. 8.26 shows the longitudinal propagation of electrical

fields in the case of a pulsating charge.
Rice. 8.26. Construction of the power density flux vector during longitudinal propagation of the electric field: a –
for a pulsating charge; b – for a dipole
Since the current in the medium propagates along the flow D and its density ÿ is
proportional to D , then for the current density the following relation is valid:
sewing:
dÿ
div ÿ + —— = 0, c dt (8.211)
whence it follows that
ÿ = ÿ ( t – r/ c), (8.212)
those. The propagation of current in the medium is of a wave nature.

This position contradicts the well-known static Kirchhoff law that the sum
of all currents for any point in an electrical circuit at any time is equal to zero,
i.e. What
n
ÿ Ii = 0. (8.213)
i=1
From equation 8.211 it follows that Kirchhoff’s law is valid only on average,
but at each moment of time
n
ÿ Ii ÿ 0. (8.214)
i=1
since the wave process implies the compressibility of the current.

To test this position, an experiment was carried out according to the
diagram in Fig. 8.27.
Rice. 8.27. Experiment to determine the fact of current compressibility: a–

diagram of taps from the conductor; b – pulses arising at the taps
Two wires, each several meters long, were connected to a constant voltage
source (a regular battery). From everyone
Branches were made from the wires every 1 m. The wires were periodically
closed by contact. The leads were connected to a high-frequency electronic
oscilloscope. The idea of the experiment was to
388 Chapter 8.
determine how current flows through a wire when a circuit is closed, at the open ends of
which there is a total potential difference.
As a result of the experiment, it turned out that when a contact is closed, a sharp pulse
appears on the taps closest to it, with an amplitude almost equal to the full voltage of the
source; on the next taps, this pulse is smaller in amplitude, but wider in time; on the next
ones even smaller in amplitude and even wider in time.
Thus, the fact of current compressibility was confirmed.

If there are several charges in the medium, from each of them at each point of the
medium there will be a summation of the intensity vectors
electric field:
Eÿ = ÿ E k. (8.215)
k=1
If each of the charges changes its value over time according to sin-
to the soidal law, then
n i[ÿ(t – rk / c)]
Eÿ = ÿ Ek e (8.216)
k=1
where i = ÿ1 , rk is the distance from a point in the medium to the center of the charge.
Since the current density emitted into the medium is related to the intensity by the
expression
ÿ = (ÿ + ÿÿoÿ)E, (8.217)
where ÿ is the specific conductivity of the medium, ÿ= 2ÿf, f is the frequency, ÿo is

dielectric constant of vacuum, ÿ – relative permeability of the medium, then we have
n i[ÿ(t – rk / c)]
ÿÿ=ÿÿke (8.218)
k=1
In the case of two charges (emitting electrodes), pulsating with the same amplitude and
frequency, emitting current of the same magnitude into the medium, but in antiphase (dipole),
we have:
i[ÿ(t – r1/ c)] i[ÿ(t – r2/ c)] ÿÿ =

ÿ1 e – ÿ2 e . (8.219)
Along the axis of symmetry of the dipole we have
| ÿ1 | = | ÿ2 |; r1 = r2 . (8.220)
In this case, the total current density vector turns out to be perpendicular to the
direction of propagation along the symmetry axis of the dipole. Along the dipole axis we
have at a distance between charges (electrodes) d = ÿ/2, where ÿ is the wavelength in the
medium, defined as
__
ÿ = ÿr/f. ÿr = ÿ/ ÿÿ (8.221)
Here ÿr is the speed of current propagation in the medium, ÿ is the relative

dielectric constant of the medium.
The current density at the emitting electrode having a radiation area S is
ÿo = io /S, (8.222)
and in an infinite medium at a distance r from the electrode will be defined as
S
ÿr = ÿo ———. (8.223)
4ÿr²
Along the dipole axis, the current density will be
I 1
ÿr = ———— [1 + ————]. (8.224)
4ÿ r1² 1 + ÿ/ 2r1
Here r1 is the distance along the dipole axis from the nearest electrode.
The current flowing from each electrode of the dipole with lumped parameters spreads
radially in all directions. And if the magnitude of this current is known, then the density of
this current at each point in the medium is determined by the simple relation
390 Chapter 8.
i
ÿÿ = ——. (8.225)
4ÿr²
It should be noted that the current density, at least in the near zone from the source,
turns out to be independent of neither the properties of the medium nor the time parameters
of the current itself. A common objection here is the presence of losses in the medium.
However, it should be recalled that the current passed through an ordinary resistor at its
output has exactly the same value as at its input, despite the energy losses in this resistor,
which are expressed by one or another voltage drop across the resistor.
The speed of current propagation will be the same as the speed of propagation of
electrical induction, i.e.
__
ÿÿ=ÿ/ ÿÿ (8.226)
where ÿ is the speed of light in vacuum, and ÿ is the relative dielectric

permeability of the environment.
For a dipole with lumped parameters, consisting of two electrodes, the current density
in the near zone is determined by geometrically summing the two currents, respectively,
taking into account their signs and delay. From the summation of currents it is clear that
propagation proceeds from the dipole in all directions, while along the axis of symmetry of
the dipole the electric intensity wave propagates in the transverse direction, and along the
axis of the dipole in the longitudinal direction. The last circumstance is related to
This is due to the fact that each point along the dipole axis is located on different
distances from the electrodes and therefore the field strength from the near electrode in it
will be greater than from the far electrode. This voltage difference for a symmetrical dipole
with a distance between the electrodes d will be for direct current
i i i (2rd + d²)
ÿÿ = ÿÿ1 + ÿÿ2 = —— – ———— =
—————, (8.227)
4ÿr² 4ÿ (r+ d)² 4ÿ r² (r + d)²
where r is the distance from the point to the nearest electrode.
If d << r, then
id
ÿÿ = ————. (8.228)
2 ÿr³
Of special interest is the case of radiation by an alternating current

dipole, in which d = ÿ/2, where ÿ is the wavelength of the electric field in the
medium. In this case, by the time the wave from the far electrode reaches the
near electrode, the voltage on the near electrode will change polarity to the
opposite and then it will not be the difference in electrical intensities that will
propagate, but their sum:
i i i (2 r²+ 2rd + d²)

ÿÿ = ÿÿ1 + ÿÿ2 = —— + ———— =
————————, (8.229) 4ÿ r² (r+
4ÿr² 4ÿ (r+ d)² d)²
which for d << r will lead to the relation
i
ÿÿ = ——, (8.230)
4 ÿr²
those. not to cubic, but only to quadratic attenuation of tension over distance.
The experiments carried out confirmed, when the above conditions are met, the
presence of an electromagnetic wave, the direction of propagation of which and the direction
of the vector of current density and electrical intensity coincide. Maxwell's equations do not
provide for such an option.
It should be noted that by selecting the distance between the electrodes, it is possible
to ensure that the main power is distributed not in the transverse, but in the longitudinal
direction, and that the current density in the medium does not depend on the parameters of
the medium, nor on the area of the electrodes, nor on the frequency of the current, but only
on the magnitude of the emitted current. For example in Fig.
Figure 8.28 shows an electric dipole with lumped parameters, for which the necessary
construction of power density flow vectors has been carried out. From the constructions it
follows a non-trivial conclusion that a dipole with lumped parameters
is capable of emitting energy along its axis, which, of course, contradicts the conclusions
arising from Maxwell’s equations. The figure shows that along the dipole axis the vectors of
power, propagation speed and
392 Chapter 8.
electrical intensity coincide in direction with the direction

we take the dipole axis, and across the dipole axis the power vector and the direction vector
The propagation lines lie in the plane of symmetry of the dipole, and
the electrical intensity vector is parallel to the dipole axis and perpendicular to the direction
of power propagation.
Rice. 8.28. Emission of energy by a dipole with lumped parameters
As shown in Fig. 8.2, with the development of an elementary tube of electric field in
the longitudinal direction at its end, the flow of ether moves in the direction perpendicular
to its axis. Consequently, the development of the electric field in space in all directions
will occur at the same speed and equal to the speed of propagation of light in a given
medium, regardless of the value of the density flux vector
power density.
Magnetic induction in a medium propagates differently than electrical induction,
namely perpendicular to the direction of the vector. Consequently, for vector B the
following relations are valid:
divB = 0; (8.231)
dgradB
div gradB + ———— c dt = 0. (8.232)
The law of total current for low magnetic field strengths should be transformed to
the form:
i(t) = ÿH(t – r/c)dl = dq(t)/dt. (8.233)

When formulating the law of total current, one should take into account
the fact of the compressibility of the ether, therefore, the compressibility of
the magnetic field itself and the change in the law of hyperbolic decrease
in the magnetic field strength near the conductor.
Taking into account the stated equation of the electromagnetic field,
recreate the view:
d
1) rot Hÿ ÿ ÿÿ = (ÿ + ÿ - )(Eÿ + EN v1 + EN v2) dt (8.234)
d
2) rot ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ = – ÿ — (Hÿ + HE v1 + HE v2) dt (8.235)
3) div D + dD/ cÿt = ÿ; (8.236)
4) div ÿÿ + dÿe/dtc = 0. (8.237)
5) div B = 0; (8.238)
6) divgradB + d(gradB)/ dtc = 0; (8.239)
Integral expressions will take the form:
1) e = ÿ E(t – r/c)dl = - dÿÿ(t)/dt; (8.240)
2) em = ÿ ÿH(t – r/c)dl = i(t) = dq(t)/dt; (8.241)
3) ÿe = ÿ ÿD(t – r/c)dS = q(t); (8.242)
4) ÿÿ = ÿ BdS = 0. (8.243)
Here e and em are the electric and magnetic potential difference; Fe and
FM – electric and magnetic fluxes; i – electric current in the conductor; q –
charge moving in the direction of electric current
394 Chapter 8.
(directional movement gives it the shape of a vector).

The first expression, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, and the
second, the law of total current, differ from the usual ones by the presence of a charge in them
delays.
The above equations of the electromagnetic field have a partial solution to Maxwell’s
equations, which are valid for the electromagnetic wave front, but in a number of cases they
allow solving
some problems that cannot be solved based on Maxwellian
equations, for example the problem of dipole radiation with lumped
parameters in a semiconducting medium. If a number of conditions are met in such a dipole,
the main share of energy will propagate not in the transverse direction relative to vectors E
and H , but in the direction of vector E and perpendicular to vector H. This longitudinal
propagation of the electromagnetic field has not yet been practically studied, although
confirmed experimentally.
It should be noted that the above does not end the refinement of the electromagnetic
field equations. This process must continue as long as there is a need for more and more
complete solution of applied problems.

Thus, etherodynamic concepts make it possible to clarify the formulation of
electromagnetism in some cases in a significant way. The clarifications made are by no
means complete. The description of the electromagnetic field, like any physical phenomenon,
can be refined indefinitely as the number of sides and properties of the fields covered by the
models increases, since the total number
The sides and properties of any phenomenon are infinitely large.
8.4.3. Types of electromagnetic radiation
Here is a quote from the article “Electromagnetic Waves”, placed

Great Soviet Encyclopedia ( 3rd ed., vol. 30, p. 67). A link to this source is needed in order
to demonstrate the official
modern science's view of the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
“Electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic oscillations propagating in space with a
finite speed. The existence of E. v. was predicted by M. Faraday in 1832. J. Maxwell in 1865
theoretically showed that electromagnetic oscillations do not remain localized in space, but
propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light c in all directions from the source. From the fact
that the speed of spread of E. v. in a vacuum is equal to the speed of light, Maxwell concluded
that light is an electron. In 1888 Maxwell's
theory of E.v. received confirmation in the experiments of G. Hertz, which played a decisive
role for its approval.
Maxwell's theory allowed a unified approach to the description of radio waves, light, x-
rays and gamma radiation. It turned out that these were not radiations of various natures, but
E.v. with different wavelengths
us.
... Features of E. v. and the laws of their excitation and propagation are described by
Maxwell’s equations.”
Thus, the main sign that all of the listed types of radiation have a “single nature” was
the fact that they all propagate at the same speed - the speed of light, and this provided the
basis for their uniform description on the basis of Maxwell’s equations. It should be noted
that such justification is completely insufficient
in order to classify the listed types of radiation as being of general nature. The overall speed
of propagation may be a consequence of some common property of different types of
radiation. Such a property could be, for example, the property of the medium - the viscosity
of the ether, which ensures the transfer of the transverse movement of the ether flow to
neighboring layers. If this type of motion is present in the structure of different types of
radiation, then, although these types are different, the speed of their propagation will be the
same.
The main feature by which one can generalize certain types of radiation should be their
internal structure. Only the same structure can be the basis for classifying radiation as one
class of phenomena.
The type of error one can fall into is directly evidenced by the classification of
electromagnetic and optical radiation into a general class of phenomena.
Currently, there are many scientific works in which Maxwell's equations of the
electromagnetic field are used to describe optical phenomena. However, practice has not
confirmed the legality of this approach. It turned out that the penetrating ability of light in a
semiconducting medium - sea water, which has a fairly high conductivity, does not
correspond by at least five (!) orders of magnitude to the calculations made on the basis of
Maxwell's equations: light in sea and ocean water penetrates 100–150 m deep, while, based
on the environmental parameters and Maxwell’s equations, it should penetrate sea water no
further than a fraction of a millimeter.
To combine theory and practical results, various artificial techniques were invented,
for example, it was assumed
396 Chapter 8.
The idea is that at high frequencies the conductivity of water decreases, and this explains
the results obtained. But even here the calculations are in no way confirmed by the physical
mechanism of the phenomenon.
Thus, questions about the propagation of electromagnetic radiation are still not
sufficiently clear. However, the ether-dynamic approach allows us to understand, at least to
a first approximation, the structure of various types of radiation, and from this draw various
conclusions. It turned out, in particular, that it is necessary to distinguish between at least
five types of energy emitted by matter into external space:
- quasi-static field of leakage currents;

- longitudinal electromagnetic wave;
- transverse electromagnetic wave;
- photon radiation:
- auric radiation.
The first three are interconnected and can indeed be considered as different extreme
cases of the same type of radiation -
electromagnetic The quasi-static field of leakage currents, longitudinal and transverse
electromagnetic waves can be considered as special cases of electromagnetic radiation of
a dipole with lumped parameters in a semiconducting medium. Photon and auric radiation
have different structures and do not fall under
the type of electromagnetic radiation.
The structures of the first three radiations are discussed below, auric radiation was
discussed above, in Chapter 6, photon radiation is considered in Chapter. 9.
8.4.4. Quasi-static field of spreading currents
A quasi-static field of spreading currents is considered to be the case when the length
of the electromagnetic wave is commensurate with the distance from the receiver to the
source or exceeds it. From the point of view of etherodynamics, this is a zone in which the
electromagnetic wave continues to be fed from the source. Therefore, the attenuation of the
amplitude with increasing distance here depends only on the geometry and depends little on
the properties of the medium and
current frequency.
It is obvious that the main radiation power is spent in the near zone. In a semiconducting
medium, this zone can be artificially eliminated by installing a plate of insulating material
between the electrodes and thereby redistributing the current (Fig. 8.29), significantly
increasing the propagation range of stray currents.
Rice. 8.29. Quasi-static radiation of current by a dipole with lumped parameters: a – without an
insulating partition; b – with an insulating partition between the dipole electrodes; in this case the
power is redistributed
to the far zone
It should also be taken into account that energy losses in the near zone directly depend
on the area of the electrodes, since the resistance of the medium layer near the electrode and,
accordingly, the thermal power released in its vicinity are proportional to the area, as follows
from Ohm’s usual law (Fig. 8.30). Therefore, to reduce losses in the near zone, it is advisable
to increase the area of the electrodes as much as possible.
Rice. 8.30. Dependence of the voltage drop near the electrode on the surface area of the
electrode when emitting current into a semiconducting medium.
398 Chapter 8.
The graph corresponds to electrical voltage losses near a spherical electrode
In addition, it is advisable to recall that for sea water,

being a typically semiconducting medium, the conductivity is
within 1–10 Ohm–1 ÿm–1. This means that at all frequencies below 800 MHz,
the predominant component will be not the reactive, but the active component, i.e. at all
lower frequencies the medium is an ordinary resistor conductor, practically without any
reactive (capacitive) component. In the case under consideration, the propagation of the
electrical
component occurs without the participation of a magnetic field, even for alternating
current, since the magnetic field is completely compensated at each point of the medium. To
obtain it, it is necessary to replace part of the medium with a medium with a different
conductivity, for example, an insulator. Then a magnetic field will arise in this space (Fig.
8.31).
Rice. 8.31. The appearance of a magnetic field at the boundary of the medium and inside
environment when placing an insulating volume in it
8.4.5. Structure of a transverse electromagnetic wave
A transverse electromagnetic wave propagates in a direction perpendicular to the

dipole axis; in such a wave, the vectors of electric and magnetic intensity are located in
space perpendicular to each other, lie in the plane of the wave front and are perpendicular
to the direction of movement - the direction of propagation of the wave -
vector of energy propagation or, as it is called, the Umov-Poynting vector. The electrical
intensity in the wave is expressed by the same vortex flows, the same as in the usual
electrostatic field.
le, magnetic intensity – by the gradient of the speed of the vortex motion. From here an idea
of the structure of the transverse wave can be obtained (Fig. 8.32).
Rice. 8.32. Structure of a transverse electromagnetic wave
A transverse electromagnetic wave consists of a set of vortices of electrical induction,

the axes of which are located along the wave front. These vortices are tense and tend to
expand, which leads to the fact that the entire system of vortices tends to occupy a large
area. But this can only be done by moving the entire wave forward, further from the source.
Thus, the reason for the movement of a transverse electromagnetic wave in space is the
internal energy of the vortices of electrical induction. This means that when this energy is
exhausted, the vortices will disintegrate and the electromagnetic wave will cease to exist.
tion.
The speed of movement of a transverse wave in space is determined by the speed of

transmission of transverse motion from one layer of the ether to another. This is the speed of
second sound, which is significantly less
speed of first sound – speed of transmission of low pressure within
modulus of elasticity. The speed of second sound is determined by the relation
400 Chapter 8.
____
v2/v1 = c/ vsv = ÿda/2ÿ, (8.244)
where c is the speed of light, vsv is the speed of first sound (the speed of gravity
propagation); da is the diameter of the amer – the ether molecule; ÿ is the average
free path of the ampere.
The speed of the first sound is determined by the known relation
____
vsv = ÿ ÿP/ÿ, (8.245)
where ÿ is the adiabatic index of the ether (1 ÿ ÿ ÿ 1.4), P is the pressure of the ether, ÿ –
its density at a given point in space.
The speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a medium with
increased dielectric constant will be determined by
relate to the ratio
__ ___
ÿÿÿ = ÿ/ÿ ÿÿ = ÿ/ÿ ÿ, (8.246)
where ÿÿ is the density of the ether involved in the movement of the vortex of electrical
induction in the medium (and not the entire density of the ether in the medium!), ÿ is the
relative dielectric constant of the medium.
From these expressions it is immediately clear that the speed of propagation
gravity and the speed of propagation of light are not the same in different regions of space
and are directly related to the parameters of the ether in these regions. It also follows from
the above that
when the energy of the vortices of electrical induction is exhausted, the transverse
wave will cease to exist. The same applies to any type of electromagnetic radiation and may
well be the reason why light photons from distant star systems do not reach the Earth, and
this does not indicate the finiteness of the space of the Universe, as is often written about,
but only the exhaustion of instrumental possibilities of optical astronomy and radio astronomy.
8.4.6. Structure of the longitudinal electromagnetic

waves
A longitudinal electromagnetic wave has a different structure than a transverse

wave. In a longitudinal wave, vortex tubes of electric
inductions are located along the direction of movement (Fig. 8.33).
Rice. 8.33. Structure of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave: I – zone of ma-

low tension; II – zone of high tension
The reason for the movement of a longitudinal wave is the same as

for any gas vortex toroid: the movement of the ether along the outer
surface of the tube is opposite to the direction of movement of the
tube. In this case, you should pay attention to the fact that at the front
end of each tube the movement of the ether lies in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of movement of the entire tube. This means that all
restrictions on the speed of propagation of a longitudinal wave will be the same as f
There is currently no data regarding the laws of reflection and
refraction of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave, although most likely
they are the same as for ordinary waves.
Since the longitudinal wave strength can vary within the same
structure (for example, with sinusoidal modulation),
402 Chapter 8.
this means that within the general structure of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave, the
number of vortices of electrical induction in different sections can be different. This, in turn,
requires recognition of the possibilities of restructuring the vortex system, when vortices
can divide or combine with each other. In principle, this should not cause any special
objections, since the ether is not an ideal liquid, but a very rarefied structure.
The energy of each vortex of electrical induction in the longitudinal

the wave lies only in himself. This means that energy losses will most likely obey the same
attenuation laws as for a conventional transverse wave, and the electrical intensity along the
axis
The dipole will decrease with distance in accordance with the derivation from Maxwell’s
equations:
ÿÿÿÿÿ 1/2
(———) r
2
E = Eÿ e . (8.247)
Here Eÿ is the tension on the surface of the electrode closest to the point under
consideration, ÿ is the relative magnetic permeability of the medium; ÿ – conductivity of the
medium; ÿ – circular frequency of the emitted wave. However, this assumption must be
subjected to experimental verification.
ke.
The directional pattern of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave is different from that of a

transverse one, and significantly depends on the ratio of the sizes of the electrodes and the
distance between them. The smaller the size of the electrodes in relation to the distance
between them, the narrower the directional pattern will be, the greater the proportion of
energy will be emitted in the longitudinal direction of the dipole relative to the radiation of
the same dipole in the transverse direction.
To check the fact of the propagation of the electric field and, accordingly, the electric
current along the direction of their vectors, two experiments were carried out. The first
experiment used a rubber hose filled with salted water and suspended on strings in the
middle of the room. Two dipoles with lumped parameters were placed in the hose - a
radiating one, connected via a coaxial cable to a sinusoidal oscillation generator G, and a
receiving one, connected via a coaxial cable to a receiver P - a diode bridge with a
microammeter (Fig. 8.34). The water hose has a parasitic Spar tank with the walls of the
room.
Connecting the electrodes through coaxial cables eliminated the possibility of the
appearance of any parasitic circuits.
Rice. 8.34. Scheme of the experiment to test the longitudinal propagation

radiation of a dipole with lumped parameters: 1 – rubber hose filled with
salted water; 2 – electrodes of the radiating dipole; 3 – electrodes of the receiving dipole
When the distance d between the dipoles changes due to the unbranched current, the
signal in the receiver should not change, at least until the channel resistance is commensurate
with the resistance of the parasitic capacitances. This occurs at a certain distance d, since
the resistance of the water in the channel and the conductivity of the parasitic capacitance
Spar are proportional to the ratio d/ÿ. In Fig. Figure 8.35 shows the obtained dependencies.
The result completely confirmed
expectations.
Rice. 8.35. Dependence of the receiver signal on the distance between the dipoles
fields during longitudinal energy radiation
It turned out that an increase in water salinity, i.e. an increase in its conductivity,
increases the useful signal and increases the zone of constant amplitude of the output signal.
In the future, it is necessary to check the fact of the increase in the attenuation of the
longitudinal wave at different values of the active conductivity of the medium. It should be
borne in mind that the attenuation of a longitudinal wave in a semiconducting medium can
also be a consequence
404 Chapter 8.
the fact that the energy of each half-wave is actually independent, therefore the reason for
the attenuation of a longitudinal wave in a semiconducting medium may be the same as that
of transverse waves.
In the second experiment, a dipole with flat electrodes was used, with the voltage and
electrical energy fixed by the second dipole. The experiment was carried out in a thin flat
layer of a semiconducting medium. In Fig. Figure 8.36 shows a diagram of the propagation
of an electric field. As can be seen from the diagram, the main electric field strength is
obtained along the axis of the dipole, and not across it, as follows from Maxwell’s equations.
The most elongated diagram will be if the distance between the electrodes of the emitter is
half a wave in a semiconducting medium.
Rice. 8.36. Propagation of an electric field by a dipole with concentrated

parameters in a thin layer of a semiconducting medium. The longitudinal
component is greater than the transverse field component
Thus, the fact of the existence of longitudinal propagation of the electric field in the far
zone, exceeding the induction zone, can be considered an established fact, however, for a
semiconducting medium, this range will be limited by the exhaustion of the wave energy
spent on heating the medium.
conclusions
1. Paradoxes and difficulties in solving some problems of electrodynamics are

associated with the imperfection of the electromagnetic field equations based on the model
of an idealized (inviscous and incompressible) ether. Improving the equations of the
electromagnetic field and the laws of electromagnetism is possible only on the basis of
refining the initial models.
lei, in particular, associated with taking into account the real characteristics of the ether, its
viscosity and compressibility.
2. Due to the fact that the initial physical invariants are the components of motion -
matter, space and time, which in mechanics corresponds to the ISS system of units (meter,
kilogram, second), the ISS system of units (meter, kilogram, second, Ampere ), adopted in
electrodynamics, turns out to be redundant and complicates the understanding of the physical
essence of electromagnetism processes. Based on the developed models of electromagnetism,
the MCSA system was transformed into the ISS system.
3. All known electromagnetic phenomena can be interpreted from the standpoint of the
gas dynamics of the ether, while the electric charge is interpreted as the circulation of the
annular velocity of the ether density over the entire surface of a helical toroidal vortex - a
proton or an electron; polarity – as a sign of the helical motion of the ether around a charge;
the electric field can be interpreted as a set of open vortex tubes of the ether, in which the
ether rotates around the axis of the tube and
moves forward along the axis of the tube away from the charge, and along the periphery -
towards the charge; the electrical permeability of vacuum can be interpreted as the density of
the ether in a space free of matter; electrical permeability of substances - as the property of
substances to increase the density of the ether in electric field tubes by reducing its speed
of movement, the value of relative electrical permeability
equal to the ratio of the density of the ether moving within the tube in the substance to the
density of the ether in a vacuum; the magnetic field can be interpreted as the translational
movement of the ether in vortex tubes, magnetic permeability - as the property of substances
to increase the speed of ether flows due to the rotation of domains in the material. 4. Based
on refined models of electromagnetic phenomena, some laws of
electromagnetism have been refined, equations of the electromagnetic field have been
developed, some regularities have been predicted and experimentally verified that do not
follow from Maxwell’s classical equations of the electromagnetic field, Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, the law total current, etc. The existence of a longitudinally
propagating electric field outside the induction zone was predicted and experimentally
confirmed, the influence of an external magnetic field relative to the measuring contour was
shown, compaction of the magnetic field in space was predicted and experimentally confirmed,
dependencies for the mutual induction of conductors were determined, which were confirmed
experimentally and which differ significantly from Maxwellian dependencies.
406 Chapter 8.
5. The developed models of electromagnetic phenomena involving ideas about the

ether make it possible to naturally get rid of the paradoxes of electrodynamics. The
experiments carried out confirmed the feasibility of clarifying the functional dependencies
of electromagnetism and the existence of the predicted phenomena, including the
dependence of the induced EMF in the frame not only on the internal, but also on the
magnetic field external to it, the presence of mutual induction of conductors, the existence
longitudinal electromagnetic radiation and some others.
407
Chapter 9. Light
... Newton preferred the corpuscular theory of light,

considering it a stream of particles. ...Huygens believed that
light excitation is impulses of elastic vibrations of the ether.
A.M.Bonch-Bruevich [1]
9.1. A Brief History of Optics
Optics is one of the oldest sciences, closely related to the needs of

practice at all stages of its development. The straightness of the propagation
of light was known no less than 5 thousand years BC. e. and was used in
Ancient Egypt for construction work. Aristotle, Plato, Euclid, and Ptolemy
pondered the essence of optical phenomena. A significant contribution to
the development of optics was made by the 11th century Arab scientist Ibn
al-Haytham [2, 3]. The exact laws of refraction were established in 1620 by
Spellius and Descartes [3, 4]; diffraction and interference of light were
discovered by Grimaldi (publication 1665), double refraction was discovered
by Bartlin (1669). The further development of optics is associated with the
names of Newton, Hooke and Huygens [5–7].
We should dwell on the views of I. Newton in more detail, since it was
Newton who paid very great attention to the problem of the structure of the
ether and its role in optical phenomena [8]. I. Newton established the
following independent “original” properties of light rays: straightness,
subordination to the laws of reflection and refraction, speed,
the color constancy of simple light, its periodicity (“alternating bouts of light
reflection and light refraction”), polarization and diffraction. Such an
abundance of “principles” turned optics into a cumbersome, difficult to
digest and incomprehensible science. There was no general principle from
which all the found initial properties of light would flow.
Newton allowed the possibility of a wave interpretation of light phenomena,
but gave preference to the corpuscular concept, considering light to be a
stream of particles acting on the ether and causing vibrations in it. The
difficulties that arose in the wave theory when trying to explain the rectilinear
propagation of light and the phenomenon of polarization seemed so serious
to Newton that they prompted him to develop the corpuscular theory (or
theory of outflow), according to which light propagates from the emitting
body in the form of tiny particles.
The concept of polarization of light was first introduced into optics by
Newton in 1704–1706, although the phenomena caused by it were studied
earlier (the discovery of double refraction in crystals by E. Bartholin in 1669
and its theoretical consideration by H. Huygens in 1678 –1690).
408 Chapter 9.
Newton's polarization is the “original” property of light, explained by the specific orientation of
light particles in relation to the beam they form. The ether hypothesis first appears in Newton's
work in 1672 in
response to Hooke's polemical remarks on Newton's Theory of Light and Colors.
Comparing the emission and wave hypotheses of light, Newton writes: “The vibrations of the
ether are equally useful and necessary in both, for if we accept that light rays consist of small
particles thrown out in all directions by a luminous body, then these particles falling on
refractive or reflecting surfaces, they must excite vibrations in the ether as inevitably as a
stone thrown into water.” However, this required an explanation of the properties of ether.
Newton writes (Memoirs 1675):
“It is assumed that there is a certain ethereal medium, which in many respects has the
same structure as air, but is much more rarefied, thin and elastic. ...It cannot, however, be
assumed that this medium is monotonous matter: it is composed partly of the main, inert body
of ether, partly of other ethereal spirits, in much the same way as air is composed of an inert
body of air mixed with various vapors or exhalations. Such heterogeneity is apparently
supported by elastic and magnetic outflows and the onset of gravity.
"gotenia".
“I assume,” writes Newton, “that, hitting a rigid resistive ethereal surface (at the boundary
of media - V.A.), the rays... cause vibrations on the surface. These vibrations propagate in all
directions in both rarefied and dense environments. Like air vibrations that produce sound,
they are born from an impact and continue most strongly where they began, alternately
compressing and expanding the ether
in the said physical surface, for from the heat produced by light in bodies, it is clear that light
can set the particles of a body in motion, and even more so can heat and set in motion the more
delicate ether. It is more probable that light imparts motion to the gross particles of the body
not directly, but through the ether.” “If a ray strikes a medium during a great compression,”
Newton argues, “then, I suppose, the surface is then
too dense and rigid to transmit the ray, it reflects it. But rays striking the surface at other
times, when it is expanded in the interval between two vibrations, or is not too compressed
and condensed, pass through and are refracted.”
Newton explains the colors of thin plates and interference rings by the fact that etheric
vibrations travel faster than light,
Light 409
the one who called them. “Under this assumption,” he writes, “when light falls on a thin film
or plate of some transparent body, the waves excited by the passage of light through the first
surface overtake the rays one after another. When the ray reaches the second surface, the
waves will cause it to be reflected or refracted there, respectively.
to what part of the wave overtakes the beam there, condensed or rarefied." However, later
Newton actually abandoned attempts
explanations of the description of optical phenomena using the ether. If in the first
edition of “Optics” (1704) the ether is simply hushed up, then in the edition of 1706 it is
sharply denied.
Huygens, following the ideas of Leonardo da Vinci and developing the work of
Grinaldi and Hooke, proceeded from the analogy between many acoustic and optical
phenomena. He believed that light excitation is pulses of elastic vibrations of the ether.
The term "polarization of light" was proposed in 1808 by Emalus. His name and the
names of J. Biot, O. Fresnel, D. Arago, D. Brewster and others are associated with the
beginning of a broad study of effects based on the polarization of light. Essential for
understanding the polarization of light was its manifestation in the effect of light
interference. It is the fact that two light beams, linearly polarized, at right angles to each
other do not interfere, that was decisive evidence of the transverse nature of light waves.
The work of Young, Fresnel and Arago (1816–1819) in this direction determined the
victory of the wave theory. . Meanwhile, in the works of P.S. Laplace and J.B. Biot, the
corpuscular theory was further developed. Its supporters proposed that the explanation
of the diffraction phenomenon be considered worthy of the prize established in 1818
by the Paris Academy of Sciences. But this prize was awarded to A.J. Fresnel, whose
research was based on wave theory.
In the same year, Fresnel took up the very important problem of the influence of the
movement of the Earth on the propagation of light. Arago experimentally discovered
that, apart from aberration, there is no difference between light from stars and light from
earthly sources. Based on these observations, Fresnel created a theory about the partial
entrainment of the light ether by moving bodies, which was confirmed in 1851 by direct
measurements by A.I.L. Fizeau. Together with Arago, Fresnel studied the interference of
polarized light rays and discovered that rays polarized in mutually perpendicular planes
never interfere.
This fact could not be reconciled with the then generally accepted assumption
about the longitudinality of light waves. Jung, who learned about this discovery from
Arago, found a solution to the contradiction that arose, suggesting
that light vibrations are transverse.
410 Chapter 9.
The polarization of light was explained in the works of J. Maxwell. J. Maxwell showed
that light is not elastic vibrations, but electromagnetic waves. Drude, Helmholtz and Lorentz,
when constructing the electronic theory of matter, combined ideas about oscillators and the
electromagnetic theory of light [9–11]. At the same time, a number of researchers made
various and very numerous attempts to explain optical effects by constructing on the basis
of assumptions about the existence in nature of the world medium - ether, but these attempts
were, on average, not crowned with success: while explaining some phenomena, all theories,
models and hypotheses of the ether encountered insurmountable contradictions in other
phenomena.
Research into optical phenomena continued in the future. A.G. Stoletov in 1888–1890
discovered the photoelectric effect [12], which was subsequently explained by Einstein on
the basis of photon concepts. P.N. Lebedev discovered the pressure of light in 1899 [13]. The
development of optics in the twentieth century is closely related to quantum mechanics and
quantum electrodynamics [14–17]. And although the physical essence of optical phenomena
never received a satisfactory explanation, it was decided that the explanation of optical
phenomena no longer requires the hypothesis of the existence of an ether, that mathematical
laws describing these phenomena are sufficient.
nia.
Currently, optics is usually divided into geometric,

physical and physiological.
Geometric optics leaves aside the question of the nature of light, proceeds from the
empirical laws of its propagation and uses ideas about light rays that are refracted and
reflected at the boundaries of media with different optical properties and rectilinear in optically
homogeneous media. Its task is to mathematically study the path of light rays in a medium
with a known dependence of the refractive index of the medium on coordinates or, on the
contrary, to find the optical properties and shape of transparent and reflective media in which
the rays travel along a given path.
Physical optics examines problems related to the nature of light and light phenomena.
She claims that light is transverse electromagnetic waves, although she does not consider
the nature of these waves. Its section is wave optics, the mathematical basis of which is the
general equations of classical electrodynamics - Maxwell's equations. The properties of the
medium are characterized by macroscopic material constants - dielectric and magnetic
permeability, which determine the refractive index of the medium
n = ÿÿÿ. In fact, this is the same geometric optics.

Light 411
Physiological optics, which merges with biophysics and psychology, studies the visual
analyzer from the eye to the cerebral cortex and the mechanisms of vision.
All branches of optics have received wide practical application. Numerous

lighting sources have been created, based on various achievements of physics;
the science of lighting engineering takes into account the laws of optics and
physiology. Optical spectral studies have made it possible to understand in many
ways the structure of matter. Numerous optical instruments have been created
for a variety of purposes, ranging from studies of microscopic organisms and
the structure of matter to the study of the Universe. Thus, the achievements of
optics as a science are enormous. And with all this, the essence of optical
phenomena and the most elementary
the carrier of light - the photon - still remains unknown...
Despite the fact that optics has a long history, and attempts to use the mathematical
apparatus of electrodynamics began immediately after Maxwell published his famous
equations, some discrepancy between photon propagation and Maxwell’s laws was quickly
discovered. The fact is that the attenuation of light in a semi-conducting medium (sea water)
turned out to be completely inconsistent with the law of attenuation of a plane electromagnetic
wave in such a medium.
As is known, a plane electromagnetic wave attenuates in a semiconducting

medium in accordance with Maxwell’s law as:
ÿÿÿÿÿ
1/2
(———) r
2
N = But e . (9.1)
Here Ho is the magnetic field strength at the interface between the media, for
example on the surface of sea water; ÿ - relative magnetic permeability of the
medium; ÿ – conductivity of the medium; ÿ = 2ÿf, f is the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave; r – distance from the interface between the media.
Practice reveals complete confirmation of the indicated formula for the
attenuation of a plane radio wave in the marine environment and its complete
discrepancy with the attenuation of light in transparent sea water.
-1 at 1 MHz
With seawater conductivity 1 Ohm–1 m
almost complete attenuation of the electromagnetic wave occurs at
depth in m. Considering that
____
r1/r2 = ÿ(f2/f1) (9.2)
412 Chapter 9.
and that for green light the wavelength is 5.6 10–7 m, which corresponds to a
frequency of 5 1014 Hz, we obtain for Maxwell’s calculated
the depth of light penetration into sea water as:
______________
r2 = r1 ÿ (106 /1014) = 10–4 ,
and thus, light should penetrate to a depth of no more than 3 × 10–4 m = 0.3 mm.
Instead, light penetrates to a depth of about 150 m. Thus, the discrepancy between
theory and practice here is 500 thousand times!
The theory explains this by the fact that sea water at such frequencies loses
its conductivity, the reasons for which are not explained. In fact, this is simply explained
by the fact that the structure of the photon in no way corresponds to the structure of a
plane radio wave and in these calculations two important points are completely
excluded - the proportionality of the photon energy to the total number of vortices
forming the photon, and the internal energy of each photon vortex.
9.2. Photon structure

In the process of research carried out by various authors, the basic properties of
light and its elementary component were clarified -
photon. These properties are:
1. The smallest element of light, the photon, carries energy that
according to Planck's law, it is proportional to frequency:
E = hÿ, (9.3)
where h = 6.62·10–34 J·s – Planck’s constant; ÿ – frequency.

2. Light emitted by an atom is polarized. Light is not polarized in an ordinary beam
(circular polarization), since different atoms emit light at different times and individual
portions of light emit
are considered independently of each other.
3. A photon as a particle has no electrical charge.
4. A photon can have one of two spin values: either + 1 or – 1.
5. Light has pressure, therefore photons have mass.
6. Photons are localized in space, propagate in a vacuum in a straight line and

have a constant speed, which makes them similar to a stream of particles.
7. Light has the properties of interference and diffraction, which allows

It was easy to consider photons as waves.
Light 413
8. Parallelly oriented photons interfere, and mutually

Perpendicularly polarized photons do not interfere.
All the photon models previously developed by various authors do not satisfy the
listed properties in their totality; the theories created are limited to a non-contradictory
description of the properties of the photon and light as a whole, but do not reveal the
structure of the photon and do not explain why light has exactly these properties. ).
J. Thomson made an attempt to construct a vortex model of photon [18]. However, his
model did not meet even the elementary requirements for explaining the phenomenon of
polarization, since the simple vortex ring that Thomson proposed as a model of the photon
did not have such properties. All the above properties of light are easily explained on an
etherodynamic vortex
basis. The formation of a photon can be represented as a result of vibrations in the
ether of the excited electron shell of
an atom. The electron shell of an atom is an attached ether vortex, which is quite elastic.
If it is hit, then humps and depressions appear on it, which
oscillate around the center of the atom. Vibrating, the excited helical vortex shell in the
layers of ether adjacent to its surface excites helical jets, and the direction of the ether current
in the jet coincides with the direction of the ether current in the surface layers of the shell.
This is easily explained, since the ether pressure on the incident side of the shell is greater
than in the undisturbed medium. The helical jet of ether creates a displacement in the
surrounding ether in the longitudinal direction relative to the jet. Such a jet corresponds to
an elementary screw doublet in hydromechanics. As in every gas, the doublet creates a
vortex flow of the medium. However, since the ether jet has a helical character, the created
elementary vortex will also have a helical structure.
When the hump of the shell moves back, its opposite side will become oncoming,
as a result of which a second stream of gas will be created on the second side, which will
form a second vortex, which also has a screw structure. Both vortices are created
alternately, and the movement of the shell hump repels both vortices in turn in the
direction of their future movement, giving the initial impulse to the resulting photon
(Fig. 9).
The movement of the photon is directed towards the movement of the ether on the
adjacent surfaces of its vortices, i.e. just as it happens with ordinary ring vortices. Since
the size of an atom is approximately 10–10
m, then the size of the doublet should be of the same order. The closure of the same
414 Chapter 9.
the called vortex can occur in a significantly larger region, which is limited only by the
appearance of the subsequent vortex. Thus, the size of the vortices in a photon is limited
by the oscillation frequency of the oscillator that created them - the excited electron shell.
Rice. 9.1. Formation of a photon by the excited electron shell of an atom:

1 – excited atom; 2 – induced stream of ether; 3 – flow of ether between the
vortices.
A photon in the form of a vortex helical structure composed of linear diverging

vortices of the ether, located relative to each other in a checkerboard pattern, is shown in
Fig. 9.2. This formation has an analogue in fluid mechanics, the so-called Karman vortex
street (Fig. 9.3) [19–21]. In this structure, vortices of one row rotate in one direction, and
vortices of the second row rotate in the opposite direction. The photon wavelength is the
distance between the centers of the vortices of the same row. Since each photon vortex
has mass, it is easy to see that the photon is both a particle and a wave at the same time.
The vortices that make up the photon have a helical structure, therefore, along the axes of
these vortices there is an ether current, which in the
vortices
of the first row is directed in one direction, in the vortices of the second row - in the opposite direction.
opposite In relation to this flow, the vortices also act as doublets, so that the flows flowing
along the axes of the vortices will pass from the vortices of one row to the vortices of the
second row, and from opposite ends, on the contrary, from the vortices of the second to
the vortices of the first row.
The closure of helical vortex flows at the ends of the vortices will lead to the fact that
the vortex motion will not spread beyond the narrow zone of space adjacent to the
photon. No roundabout
The photon does not create movement in the surrounding ether and, therefore, will be
perceived as an electrically neutral particle. Just like an ordinary vortex ring, a system of
linear vortices will move rectilinearly, because in it.
n n/2 n/2
Light 415
ÿ ÿi = ÿ ÿ1i + ÿ ÿ2i = 0, (9.4)

i=1 i=1 i=1
i.e., the sum of circulations of the annular velocities of all linear vortices is equal to zero,
or, otherwise, the sums of circulations of both rows of linear vortices are equal and
opposite to each other.
Rice. 9.2. Photon structure: longitudinal section (a), cross section

at back –1 (b), cross-section at back +1 (c)
Since in principle there can be two directions of the axial flow in each vortex (left-
handed and right-handed motion of the ether), then, accordingly, the spin can take two
values. The third spin value, equal to zero, means that there is no axial flow and the linear
vortices that form the photon are not held together by anything. For linear vortices, this
state is not stable, so the entire structure will break up into separate rapidly diffusing rings.
416 Chapter 9.
A) b)
V)
G)
d)
Rice. 9.3. Karman vortex street: a) – structure of flows; b) – Karman

vortices in water. The camera moves with the vortices; c) – Karman track
behind a circular cylinder at Re = 105; on the left side you can see the initial
stage of track formation; d) modeling of a track in the air; e) – structure of
vortex street flows at the final stage of existence
Light 417
When a photon is produced by an excited shell of an atom, the process lasts a relatively
long time, and a significant number of photon vortices are formed. From the classical theory
of light it is known [22] that the time of light emission by a single atom is.
3mec³
ÿ = ————, (9.5)
2 ÿo²e²
where me and e are the mass and charge of the electron, respectively. If instead of ÿo we take
-1
the average frequency in the visible region (ÿ = 5 10–7 m, i.e. ÿo = 4 1015 s ), That
substituting
me = 9·10–31 kg and e/ mec = 1.76·107 ,
we get ÿ ÿ 10–8 s.
Since the oscillator oscillation frequency is approximately 1014 Hz, it is easy to see that
during the radiation time, i.e. during the time during which the energy decreases by e times,
the oscillator will make a number of oscillations of the order of 106
.
Consequently, the photon obtained as a result of the emission of an atom should be a
vortex formation of approximately square cross-section with a side of the square equal to
approximately 2ÿ and a length of the order of 106 ÿ, i.e. long thin thread. At wavelength 0.5 µm
(green color) an elementary photon will have dimensions of 1 µm x 1 µm x 0.5 m. However,

the length of the photon at the same wavelength can be very different. Using Kerr cells, a
photon can be cut into pieces of any length. The photon has a finite length, since the
formation of each vortex is
possible only at a certain value of vibration of the excited
shell, and starting from a certain minimum value of the oscillator oscillation amplitude, a
vortex no longer forms in the medium. The same process can also be considered as the
separation of part of the mass of the shell of an excited atom at each half-cycle of its
oscillation. It is known that the distance between the atoms of a solid
body is 10–10
m, while the width and thickness of the photon are about 106 m.
Consequently, the cross-sectional area of one photon fits 108
atoms. This means that not one, but many atoms take part in the creation of each photon,
giving it their energy. The radiation resistance for each atom will decrease, they will enter
into synchronism, and the radiation time will increase in proportion to the number of atoms
participating.
418 Chapter 9.
involved in the creation of a photon. Thus, the photon length is not a constant quantity.
Jointly forming a common helical jet of ether in the areas adjacent to them, the atoms
expend the least energy if they oscillate synchronously and in phase, because in all other
cases, additional viscous friction arises between the excited oscillating shell and the jet and
a slowdown of those atoms occurs, phase which are ahead of the jet phase, and, conversely,
the jet, which is ahead of the oscillator in phase, begins to give energy to this oscillator, as
a result of which the lagging atoms are pulled towards the jet phase. Thus, mutual
synchronization and synphasing of vibrations of the excited shells of different atoms occur.
In this case, unidirectional vortices of photons created in neighboring areas of the emitter
will be pulled towards each other, creating common flows (Fig. 9.4).
Rice. 9.4. The combination of photons formed by different atoms into

general vortex system
An increase in the number of atoms taking part in the creation of a photon leads not
only to an increase in the length of the photon, but also to an increase in its transverse
dimensions while maintaining the wavelength and to an increase in the density of the ether
in the photon body, since the pressure in the jet formed by several doublets will be increased
compared to the pressure
Light 419
in a jet formed by one doublet, and in addition, at a fixed frequency, an increase in the
intensity of the jets will lead to a restructuring of the structure of each vortex, as happens in
gas vortices - the walls will begin to become denser, the total mass and density of the gas will
begin to increase. Real sources of coherent light are never point-like; their area occupies at
least several square millimeters. Meanwhile, light from such a source, being split into
two beams and then collected on a common screen, is capable of creating an interference
pattern. This means that the photons in both beams not only have the same frequency, but
also the same phase, because otherwise no interference pattern would result. In Fig. Figure
9.4 shows that photons of the same frequency are capable of creating a single system in
which they will all be in phase. This also means that at every moment of time, all atoms of an
area source of coherent light are also synchronized with each other.
The production of photons during the collision of an electron and a positron should
differ significantly from that discussed above, since a single interaction of helical toroids
occurs. When colliding, the electron and positron must collapse and form other structures.
One of the options for such a restructuring is shown in Fig. 9.5.
Rice. 9.5. Production of photons during the annihilation of an electron and a positron
Both the electron and the positron are each divided into four parts, a rotation of these
parts occurs, as a result of which two photons are formed,
420 Chapter 9.
the spin of each of which is apparently equal to zero, despite the presence of axial flows.
The resulting photons do not form a wave train like photons produced by atomic radiation.
Scattering photons
will be mutually perpendicularly polarized.
Thus, photons formed as a result of the annihilation of an electron and a positron must
differ significantly from photons formed as a result of the radiation of atoms. Of course,
everything that has been said
should be subject to experimental verification.
The energy of the system of vortices in a photon is determined by the expression
[23, p. 273]:
ÿ n cos ÿ
E= —— ÿ ÿ1iÿ2i ÿÿ ——— dl1i dl2 i , (9.6)

4 ÿ i=1 ri
where ÿ1i, ÿ2i are the intensities of a pair of vortices, ri is the distance between their axes; dl1i,
dl2i are the elements of the vortex length, ÿ is the angle between the elements, and the double
integral is taken along the axes of the vortex filaments, and the summation includes all
available pairs of filaments once. It can be seen that the smaller
the distance between the vortices, the greater the energy of the vortex system. Since
the distance between the vortices is in strict proportion to the distance between the vortices
located in the same row, i.e. with the photon wavelength ÿ, then.
1 E ~ — ~ ÿ, ÿ (9.7)
where ÿ is the frequency of photon oscillations, which is in full accordance with

Planck's law, which actually corresponds to the expression for the energy of a system of interacting
vortices. When comparing Planck's law with the above expression,
we can conclude that all photon vortices created by atoms have the same internal energy. This is
not obvious, but the internal energy of photons does not manifest itself in external effects, but Planck’s
law is quite strict regarding external manifestations of photon energy. When creating artificial
electromagnetic radiation, this circumstance becomes important, since the problem of energy accumulation
in each vortex arises with an increase in the source power spent on its creation.
Light 421
In Planck's law and in Maxwell's equations, it is not completely taken into account
internal energy of a photon, consisting of three components: I
- energy of each vortex; - energetics
of the entire set of vortices forming a photon; - energetics of connections.
The internal energy of
rotation of ethereal jets in the composition of each ethereal vortex in the photonic
structure determines its intensity and its shape. The more energy an ethereal vortex carries,
the greater the linear speed of the ether jets that form it, the greater their angular velocity
and, for the same mass of the vortex, the smaller its diameter. The last circumstance follows
directly from the provisions
gas dynamics. Since

the sizes of the ends of the vortices are determined by the distance between their axes
and, therefore, depend only on the frequency of creation of the vortices, the accumulation of
energy should occur in the central part of each vortex by reducing the diameter of this central
part: the more energy is pumped into each at the same frequency vortex, the smaller the
diameter of its central part (core) should be. Therefore, each ethereal vortex of a photon in
the middle has a thinned and condensed part (Fig. 9.2), in which its bulk and energy are
accumulated.
The energy of the entire set of photon vortices is distributed throughout the photon’s
body due to the end flows of ether flowing from
vortices of one row into vortices of another row. Therefore, the loss of energy by the head
vortex of the photon when overcoming the resistance of the ether is compensated by the
energy of all the vortices that form the photon.
Here we should distinguish between the energy of a short photon, consisting of a small
number of vortices (the minimum number is three), and the energy of long photons, consisting
of millions of vortices. Despite their similarity
external properties - frequency and Planck energy - their penetrating ability will be
significantly different; short photons will decay in a semiconducting medium much faster
than long ones.
Thus, the internal energy of the photon Eph as a solid vortex
structure consists of three components:
- Planck energy, which takes into account only the frequency properties of the photon;
- internal energy of each vortex;

- the energy of the entire set of vortices, proportional to the number of vortices
in the photon structure. This
energy can be described as
Ef = h'nEvÿ, (9.8)
422 Chapter 9.
where h' is a proportionality coefficient, some analogue of a constant

Plank; n is the number of vortices (oscillations) forming the photon body; Ev
– the energy of each vortex; ÿ is the photon frequency, usually denoted in radio engineering
by the letter f.
From the above two circumstances - the energy of the entire body of the photon, i.e.
energy of the entire system of its vortices and energy accumulation in the central
parts of each vortex - a very important consequence follows: the photonic structure does
not obey Maxwell’s law of attenuation in a semiconducting medium.
For the photon, as well as for any material formation
E = Ee + Ei, (9.9)
where E is external energy (relative to other systems); Ei - internal energy. The external energy
for a photon moving translationally in space, as for any moving body, is equal to
Ee = mc²/2. (9.10)
The internal energy of a photon is the energy of helical rotation of the ether flows.
Based on Maxwell's principle of energy distribution, we can assume that the energy of screw
rotation is equal to the energy of displacement
nia, i.e.
Ee = Ei. (9.11)
Therefore, the total energy of the photon could be put as

as is customary, equal
Eph = mc² (9.12)
This expression in the form
dEph = c²dm (9.13)
obtained by Heaviside in 1912 [24] based on consideration of the equations

Maxwell and taking into account assumptions about the presence of ether in nature.
Equality of energies of magnetic and electric fields in a photon
ÿH ² ÿE ²
—— ——
WH = = WE = (9.14)
4ÿ 4ÿ
Light 423
forces one to consider that for each such field the rotational energy and
the energy of movement of the accompanying ether flows – toroidal and annular – are
also equal to each other and for both fields the same. However, the above expressions
do not take into
account the energy of the photon core, in which, in fact, the main share of its mass
and energy is concentrated.
gee.
Let us determine the average photon density using the example of a photon with a
wavelength ÿ = 5·10–7
m. If the mass of one photon vortex is determined from the known expression
nia
Ef = mfc², (9.15)
and also take into account that
Eph = hÿ = hc/ ÿ, (9.16)
then we get
h
mf = ——. (9.17)
withÿ
Here Eph is the photon energy; h – Planck’s constant; ÿ - photo frequency; ÿ is its
wavelength; c is the speed of light. The mass of one
vortex will be
6.6256 10–34
—————
mf = = 4.42·10–36 kg. 3 (9.18)
108 5 10–7
The volume of one photon vortex is approximately equal to the value
Vf = 4·ÿ³ (9.19)
and in this case is the value in this case come to
Vf = 4 (5·10–7 )³ = 5·10–19 m³. (9.20)
Therefore, the average photon density will be equal to

424 Chapter 9.
ÿffsr. = mf/Vf = 4.42 10–36 /5 10–19 ÿ 10–17 kg m-3, (9.21)
i.e., significantly less than the density of free ether. Of course, such a vortex
simply could not exist on its own: it owes its existence to the core - the central
part in which the density is significantly increased compared to the density of
free ether. Believing
core volume equal to approximately
Vk = 10 dk³, (9.22)
taking into account also that almost the entire mass of the vortex is in the core, and, consequently ,
Indeed, its density
ÿÿ = mÿ/Vÿ ÿ mÿ/10dÿ³ ÿ ÿp (9.23)
then if the core density were the same as the proton density
(ÿp = 4·1017 kg·m–3 ), then the diameter of the photon core would be so
mf
dr = ( ——) 1/3 ÿ 10–18 m. (9.24)
10 ÿp
However, if this were so, then the penetrating power of light would be many
times greater than what actually exists. Therefore, although the core diameter is
significantly smaller than the diameter of the photon vortex, it is not to the same
extent. Roughly, we can assume that the diameter of the core is only two to three
orders of magnitude smaller than the diameter of the photon vortex. .
From the calculation of the photon density, it also follows that in any medium a negligible
part of the ether is involved in the photon. Of course, the calculations given are of a very
approximate nature. However, from the above it is already clear why photons of light do not
interact with each other: the probability of core collisions is vanishingly small, and
even in the case of a direct collision, the photon cores will simply circle each other
each other, avoiding direct collision, and photon bodies freely penetrate
through each other.
Thus, the presence of a compacted core, on the one hand, forces us to
imagine the structure of the photon differently than it would be in
incompressible medium, and on the other hand, explain the fact of stability
photons and the absence of their interaction with each other.
Light 425
The presence of a core in each photon vortex and train of vortices explains the
increased permeability of light in the marine environment. Based on the concepts of
modern electrodynamics, then at light frequencies of 1014–1015 Hz, the attenuation of
light in sea water, which has a conductivity of the order of 1–10 Siemens/m, should occur
at a depth of several millimeters. The actual penetrating power of light is 100–150 m,
which is 5 orders of magnitude higher. The usual attempts to explain this fact by a
decrease in the conductivity of water at these frequencies have no justification. Thus,
there is another paradox.
However, if we take into account the above about the structure of the photon and
each of its vortexes, then the mechanism of photon penetration into water will become
more obvious: the energy of the photon is not contained in it at all, as in a plane
electromagnetic wave, it is contained in the cores and in the entire body of the photon,
consisting of a large number of vortices.
From the calculation of the photon density it also follows that
that in any medium a negligible part of the ether is involved in the photon.
9.3. Moving photons in space
Let us consider the features of the movement of photons in space.

The reason for the motion of a photon as a system of linear vortices is, as for a
conventional vortex ring, the creation of gas flows in the medium due to the vortex motion
of parts of the photon itself. In this sense, the laws of motion of a photon should not
differ fundamentally from the laws of motion of ordinary vortex rings. During the
formation of a photon, as well as during the
formation of a vortex ring, the vortex is compressed by environmental pressure,
which leads to an increase in the energy of the vortex and a decrease in its diameter. A
distinctive feature of the photon is that at the moment of formation, mainly the central
part of the linear vortex is compressed, as a result of which a core is formed. Later in the
process
motion, the energy of the photon is only spent, mainly on overcoming the viscous
friction of the ether during the rotation of the vortices.
In the translational motion of a photon, as well as in the motion of a vortex,
ring of gas, three stages should be distinguished.
The first stage of movement is the movement of the photon immediately after its
formation. As for any vortex ring, in a photon all the main transient processes associated
with the establishment of its structure and speed must end within (4–5)ÿ (for a ring - over
426 Chapter 9.
4–5 of its diameters), i.e. on a path of about 5·10–6 m and a time of about 2·10–14 s. The
initial speed of the
photon is not equal to the speed of light - its steady speed, since the mass of the ether
that formed the photon was at rest relative to the atom. This mass of ether has inertia,
therefore, the acceleration of the photon must occur according to the exponential law:
t- to
– ——
Tf.prod.
vÿ = ÿ – (ÿ – ÿ)ÿ (9.25)
Based on the above, we can assume that the time constant

The longitudinal motion of the photon lies in the range of 10–15–10–14 s. Of course, the time
constant will be different for different wavelengths.
Considering that a photon formed by a radiating atom is a train of vortices, we have to
assume that different processes occur in the same photon during its formation. In that part
which, after vortex formation, has moved away from the emitting atom by more than five
wavelengths, all the main processes have already completed, while
while in the part that is located near the atom, these processes are still ongoing.
The time constant for the longitudinal motion of a photon should be distinguished from
the time constant for the transverse displacement of a photon when it hits an ether jet that
is transverse to the direction of motion of the photon. This time constant is determined by
the force of the transverse pressure of the ether flow on the photon core and the mass of the
core, and it is many times greater than the time constant of the longitudinal motion of the
photon.
The second stage of photon motion is its stable motion along the entire main path,
contained in the interval of 1024–1025 m and a lifetime of the order of 1017–1018 s (tens of
billions of years).
The radius of photon vortices, like any gas vortices, and its wavelength grow with time
according to the law [25]
ÿR(t) = ÿ(ÿ)L(t), (9.26)
where ÿ is a small parameter. For air vortices this value is 0.01–0.001, and for ether it is
significantly less.
Light 427
Considering that the photon at the moment of formation had some initial wavelength
and size, it is more correct to write this expression in the form [26]:
R(t) = Ro + ÿRL(t), (9.27)
or
ÿ (t) = ÿo + ÿÿ L(t). (9.28)
Comparing this expression with Hubble’s law of “red shift”

research of spectra
ÿ - ÿo L(t)
= —— = H —— z ÿo , (9.29)
c
where H = 3·10–18 s-1 - Hubble constant, we get
ÿ = ÿo + ÿo— L(t), (9.30)

With
those.
N 3·10–18
ÿÿ = ÿo— = ÿo —— = 10–26 ÿo. 3·108 (9.31)

With
For ÿo = 5·10–7 m we have ÿÿ = 5·10–33. Traveled by the vortex system

the distance is given by
Ro ÿÿo
L(t) = — [(1 + 4 —— t) 1/4 – 1], (9.32)

ÿ Ro
which in relation to the photon will give, considering ÿÿo/ Ro = 2ÿ,
ÿt
1/4
L(t) = —— [(1 + 8Ht) - 1]. (9.33)
2Ht
428 Chapter 9.
Accordingly, the speed of the photon will be
With
sf = ———— 3/4 (9.34)

(1+ 8Ht)
Consequently, the speed of the photon cannot be considered constant. It decreases

with time, although, if we take into account that the photon is a system of linear rather than
ring vortices, this dependence should not be as strong as follows from expression (9.34),
which, when exactly fulfilled at Ht = 1 The speed of the photon will be only 0.37 s.
The difference between the properties of a photon and the properties of a circular vortex should be sought in
differences in the densities of the body of the photon and the medium, in the difference
between the forms of medium flows created by a photon, from the forms of medium flows
created by a circular vortex, in nonlinear phenomena at the boundaries of vortices, in particular in
boundary layer, and most importantly, the presence of photons in linear vortices
compacted cores, which together leads to higher
photon stability than ordinary vortices. Substituting
the expression of Planck's law into Hubble's law "red"
displacement" of the spectra of distant galaxies makes it possible to establish the law of
energy loss by a photon during the second stage of its movement.
As is known, the spectra of stars in distant galaxies are characterized by
the so-called “red shift” of the spectra towards increasing
wavelength changes. Astronomer Hubble derived the law of “red shift”, which received his
name:
ÿ – ÿo L
= —— = H —— z ÿo , (9.35)
c
where ÿo is the wavelength of the light source; ÿ is the wavelength of light received by the
observer; L – distance from the light source to the observer; ÿ – speed of light; H = 3·10–
18 s - Hubble constant (T = 1/H = 3.3·1017 s = 1010 years). Photon energy is determined by
Planck's
law
E = hÿ. (9.36)
Considering that
ÿ = ÿ/ÿ, (9.37)
Light 429
we get
. ÿo – ÿ ÿÿ ÿL
z = ——— = —— = – N ——, (9.38)
E E c
Or at the limit
dE dL
—— = – H ——.
(9.39)
E c
Integrating and taking into account that at L = 0 E = Eo, we obtain:
N
––t
With –10–26L – 10–10
E = Eoe = Eoe t = ÿÿÿ , (9.40)
where distance L is measured in meters, and time t is measured in years.

Thus, we obtain the natural exponential law
a decrease in the energy of the photon, which can be considered not the result
of the “scattering of the Universe,” as is now accepted, but the result of the
viscosity of the ether in which the photon passes. The time during which the photon waveleng
is doubled, determined from the relation
ÿ2 Eo ÿ/3.3·1017
—— = —— =e = 2, (9.41)
ÿo E2
where
ÿ = 3.3·1017ln2 = 2.31·1017 s = 7·109 years. (9.42)
The third stage of photon motion occurs at the last stage of its existence, about 10–20
billion years after its formation. During this time, the photon loses energy by 2.7–7.3 times.
The loss of energy by a photon should affect its stability. The structure of the photon is
destroyed, the cores have already exhausted their energy and do not exist, the photons are
crushed into fragments, collide with each other and form, if possible
430 Chapter 9.
so to speak, “photon gas” in which they collide with each other

home and lose their original direction.
By analogy with a ring vortex, at this stage there should be braking and further diffusion
and transition of the ether matter that forms the photon into a free state not associated with
vortex motion. It is likely that photons at the third stage of their existence are perceived as the
so-called cosmic microwave background radiation [27], and at least they are part of it.
The given relationships are in qualitative agreement with the

well-known ideas about the diffusion of vortices in media [28].
Taking into account the above, we have to believe that the nature of the “red shift” is
twofold: firstly, the loss of energy by photons due to the viscosity of the ether, and secondly,
a slowdown in the speed of movement of the photon in space.
9.4. Optical phenomena
9.4.1. Reflection of light
When a photon is reflected from the boundary of two media, part of the ether of each
elementary stream of photon is reflected, part is refracted and enters the second medium. If
the second medium is a metal, then its surface is covered with the so-called “Fermi surface” -
a shell of electrical
thrones oriented antiparallel in pairs and occupying the entire
surface area (Figure 6.14).
In the literature, the mechanism of light reflection is associated with the appearance of
secondary waves caused by oscillations of Fermi surface electrons under the influence of
incident light. However, there is no basis for such an assertion. In fact, the photon will be
reflected from such a surface according to all the rules of an ordinary elastic impact [29], and
not at all by re-emission, as is currently assumed (see, for example, [30, p. 45]). Indeed, as is
known [31–33], 1 cm³ of metal contains 1022–1023 free electrons. The depth of light penetration
into metal
ly is
1 c ÿo
d= —— ( ——) 1/2 , (9.43)
4ÿ ÿÿ
where ÿ is the conductivity of the metal. Where ÿ is conductivity of metal

Light 431
For visible light, the penetration depth is 10–7–10–5 m, in this

layer concentrated
n = (2 ÿ) 2 (1022 –1023) = 5(109 – 1010) electrons (9.44)
The mass of each electron is approximately equal to the mass of one linear vortex of a
photon. Considering that a photon collides with electrons, the total mass of which exceeds
its mass billions of times, we have to state that the electrons under the influence of the
photon will shift by an insignificant amount, which in no way can ensure re-emission of the
photon. It should be noted that jet dispersion caused by deflection
the form of the “Fermi surface” or “free” electrons from the plane, after reflection immediately
stops, since the reflected jets form a common vortex for these jets and a common flow in
this vortex, in which all the reflected jets are again ordered. Part of the ether flows that passed
into the metal and did not reach the surface will be scattered in the metal, and its energy will
be spent on increasing the temperature of the metal.
Thus, the reflection of an elementary jet of ether from the surface of a metal occurs
according to the laws of simple mechanical impact, and it automatically turns out that the
angle of incidence and the angle of reflection of the elementary jets will be equal to each
other. In the same way, we can consider the reflection of the entire photon from the metal
surface.
When hitting an obstacle (mirror), only one vortex reacts with an obstacle at each
moment of time, since the excitation of the photon moves at the speed of light in the photon’s
body, but the photon itself moves at the same speed.
same speed. If an
elementary vortex, which has normal and tangential velocity components relative to the
reflection surface, touches the reflection surface and continues its movement, then each of
its elementary jets, which have the shape of a circle in the vortex, being reflected according
to the law of elastic impact, will retain the shape of a circle, but the flow in it will be directed
after the impact in the direction opposite to the direction before the impact (Fig. 9.6). As a
result, circulation in the reflected vortex
vortex speed (magnetic intensity) will have the opposite sign compared to the sign of the
circulation speed in the falling vortex.
Since the vortices of the first and second rows exchange places relative to the direction
of movement, the sign of circulation relative to this direction will remain the same.
432 Chapter 9.
Rice. 9.6. Reflection and refraction of an elementary vortex
The situation is different with the circulation of the longitudinal movement of the
ether. When reflected from the surface, the direction of the longitudinal movement of
the ether will be preserved, but the very direction of movement of the reflected photon
will change, the rows of vortices will change places, which will lead to a change
the sign of the spin is opposite, if the incident light had spin +1, then the reflected light will
have spin –1 and vice versa, which does not follow from conventional theories (Fig. 9.7).
Rice. 9.7. Change in sign of photon spin upon reflection
9.4.2. Light refraction
When light hits the interface between media, it is partially reflected and partially
refracted. This phenomenon is based on the reflection and refraction of an elementary
stream of gas (Fig. 9.8), passing from a medium of one ether density to a medium of another
density. The difference in densities while maintaining equal pressures at the boundary of two
media can be caused, for example, by the difference in the temperatures of the ether in these
media, which, in turn, is a consequence of the difference in the vortex structures of these
media.
Light 433
Rice. 9.8. Refraction of a stream of gas
If we assume that in each medium, on average, the density of the ether is constant
and taking into account that the total energy of each stream of gas when crossing the
boundary of the media is conserved, then, based on the Bernoulli equation, the following
relations will be valid for each medium:
v2² + P/ ÿ1= v2² + P/ ÿ2 = C, (9.45)
where
ÿ1/ ÿ2 = v2²/ v1². (9.46)
Considering that the ratio of the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave

in a vacuum and in a medium is the refractive index and that
relative magnetic permeability for all transparent media is practically equal to 1, we get
ÿav/ ÿvac = vvac²/ vav² = n² = ÿÿ = ÿ, (9.47)
where n is the refractive index of the medium; ÿ – relative magnetic permeability; ÿ – relative
dielectric constant. Next
Consequently, the dielectric constant of the medium is the ratio of density
the density of the ether flow in the medium to the density of the ether in the same flow in vacuum
When one edge of the photon reaches the boundary of two media, due to the higher
density of the ether in an optically denser medium, the speed will decrease by n2/n1
times, while the other edge of the photon continues to move at speed v1 (Fig. 9.9).
434 Chapter 9.
Rice. 9.9. To the conclusion of the law of refraction of light
Consequently, when the second edge of the photon touches the surface of an optically
denser medium, time to will pass, during which the first edge in the second medium will travel
the distance v2to = OE. For the second edge
v1to = ÿ'ÿ1. Further
V'V1 v1to O.E. v2to

—— = sin i = = sin r = —— ; —— OB1 ——
, (9.48)
OB1 OB1 OB1
or
sin i v1 n1
—— = —— = ——.
(9.49)
sin r v2 n2
It follows that
n1
ÿ2 = ÿ1 —— (9.50)
n2
and the diameters of the vortices in a medium with a higher density are correspondingly
smaller than the diameters of the vortices in a medium with a higher density of the ether.
9.4.3. Interference
Interference is one of the main phenomena that is believed to confirm the wave nature of
light [15, p. 242–340]. However, it is not difficult
Light 435
show that the similarity between the interference of light and the interference of waves is
superficial and does not reveal the essence of the phenomenon.
First of all, it should be noted that the addition of oscillations is not at all the prerogative
of waves alone. Vortex structures also behave in the same way as transverse relative to the
direction of wave motion: their intensities can be summed up at the same size and direction
of motion and not interact with each other at different
directions of movement or different sizes.

Since the density of the ether in a photon is a small fraction of the density of the
medium, and the average path length is many orders of magnitude greater than the size of
the amers, the photons are able to penetrate each other without noticeable interaction. Cores
that have a high density but are small in size will simply bend around each other. At the
same time, on an obstacle, which is any screen, mixing of the jets and a corresponding
increase or decrease should occur.
their intensity.
Without cophasing of photons emanating from different points of the emitter

light, the phenomenon of interference would be impossible, since the photons in the
interfering beams would be in no way related to each other in phase, even if their frequencies
were the same. The phases of individual photonov would have a chaotic shift relative to
each other, and no interference would be possible. Interference of light is a real phenomenon,
which means that the emitting atoms must certainly synchronize and be in phase with each
other. However, the wave theory is not able to explain this.
The fundamental mechanism of mutual synchronization and inphasing of radiating

atoms was outlined above. Such a mechanism, impossible in the wave model, makes it
possible to ensure synchronous and in-phase radiation of all photons emitted at the same
moment.
As a result, over the entire area of the emitter, which is repeatedly
exceeds the cross-sectional area of an individual photon, a single phase of radiation is
established at each moment of time. After splitting, the beams in the interferometer maintain
a stable radiation phase relative to each other, which allows, after adding these beams, to
obtain an interference pattern.
Since the phase of radiation can change over time, if the lengths of the interfering
beams are significantly different, the clarity of the interference pattern is disrupted. Hence
the practical recommendation: when developing interferometers, it is advisable to strive for
equality of the lengths of both interfering beams.
436 Chapter 9.
In all other respects, the interference pattern of vortex photons is completely similar
to the wave one, since the intensities of the vortices can be summed up in exactly the same
way as the intensities of ordinary waves, and vortex photons are capable of creating an
interference pattern in the same way as
waves.
9.4.4. Diffraction
Diffraction, along with interference, is usually considered as confirmation of the wave
nature of light [15, p. 341–419]. However, like interference, diffraction can be considered from
the perspective of a vortex
photon structure. As
is known, diffraction of light - the deviation of the direction of propagation of light from
rectilinear near the edges of opaque objects - occurs as a result of the interaction of light
with these edges, which was noted by Young in 1800. In this case, light beyond the edge of
the object is deflected towards this object, illuminating the shadow area. Interpretation of
diffraction taking into account Huygens’ principle [15, p. 341–
345; 35], according to which the edge points of an object are taken as new
a source of waves, very artificially, since according to the same principle, any point can be
taken as a source of waves, and in this sense, the edge of an object is not anything special.
This explanation does not shed light on the physical essence of diffraction and, at best, is a
calculation technique.
The essence of diffraction is easy to understand if we consider the passage of a vortex

photon in the immediate vicinity of an opaque object. As can be seen from Fig. 9.10, the
surface of an opaque object, next to which a photon flies, is the surface of an average
motionless ether. This follows from the fact that interatomic distances are on the order of
10–10 m, and the order of photon wavelengths is 106 m. Therefore, with respect to the
photon, the vortex motions of the surface of atoms are averaged.
Rice. 9.10. Photon diffraction mechanism

Light 437
In the gap between the photon and the object there is a large velocity gradient, since
the edge of the photon vortex moves at high speed in the direction opposite to the
direction of motion of the photon, and the gap is relatively small. There is no foreign
object on the opposite side of the photon, therefore the velocity gradient is small. It
follows that the pressure of the ether from the side of the object is significantly less than
from the side of the free ether, and the photon is pressed against the object.
After a photon passes an object, it enters a zone in which the pressure begins to
equalize, since the object is no longer there. In this zone the pressure is already higher
than in the gap, but even lower than in free ether. Since the opaque object does not
interfere anymore
displacement of the photon, and the pressure difference still exists, the photon deviates
towards the shadow of the object.
From the above it follows that the angle of rotation of the photon should depend on the
shape of the edge of the object. As the radius of curvature of the edge of a non-transparent
object increases, the angle of rotation of the photon should increase somewhat, which can
be verified experimentally. It can be expected that the effect will begin to manifest itself
noticeably at radii of curvature of the order of tens of centimeters or several meters.
9.4.5. Aberration
Aberration of light in astronomy is a change in the apparent position of a star on
the celestial sphere, caused by the finite speed of light and the movement of the observer
due to the rotation of the Earth (daily aberration of light), the revolution of the Earth
around the Sun (annual aberration of light) and the movement of the Solar system in
space (secular aberration of light) [15, p. 420–450; 36].
Classical theory of light aberration based on the representation

about the propagation of light in the motionless ether (Fig. 9.11), leads to
the following type of relationship between the aberration displacement of the luminary a
along the great circle of the celestial sphere passing through the luminary and
apex – the point to which the observer moves, towards the apex, at an angle
between the directions to the body and to the apex ÿ and the speed of movement
observer:
v
ctg (ÿ – a) = ctg ÿ + – cosec ÿ. (9.51)
c
Here c is the speed of light.
438 Chapter 9.
Rice. 9.11. To the mechanism of light aberration
The so-called relativistic correction, resulting from the theory of relativity, is only
0.0005ÿ, so it is almost never

not used.
Equation (9.51) can be written as
v
sina = - sinÿ, (9.52)
c
where ÿ is the geographic latitude of the observation site. Since angle a is small, the equation
is usually presented as:
aÿ = 206265ÿ – sinÿ = k sinÿ. (9.53)

With
The value of k for annual aberration is currently considered to be 20.50ÿ, but this value
is approximate, since a more accurate value can be determined based on taking into account
the parallax of the Sun, the eccentricity of the Earth, sidereal (sidereal) time and equatorial
radius.
As a result of daily aberration of light, the stars are displaced along the great circle of
the celestial sphere towards the point of the east by the amount cosÿ'sin(0.319ÿÿ), where ÿ'
is the geocentric latitude of the observation site, and

ÿ is the angular distance of the luminary from the east point.
The secular aberrational displacement of stars is practically undetectable, since the
direction of movement of the Solar system in space changes extremely slowly.
Light 439
It seems that the above explanation of the causes of aberration is incomplete. It is

necessary to take into account the vector summation of the speeds of the Earth’s
movement relative to the Galaxy and relative to the Sun (orbital motion), as well as the
daily rotation of the Earth (Fig. 9.12).
A) b)
Rice. 9.12. Movement of a point located on the surface of the Earth: a –

galactic, orbital and daily velocities; b – vector summation of speeds:
Moving a point on the Earth's surface in world space

is the vector sum of the following movements : 1. The Earth around
itself (the speed of daily rotation at the equator veq = 463 m/s). This speed decreases as
you approach poles 1.
vÿ = veqcos ÿ, (9.54)
where vÿ is the speed of movement of the observation site located at geographic latitude
ÿ.
2. Earths around the Sun (30.27 km/s at perihelion, 29.27 km/s at aphelion).
3. The sun around the center of the Galaxy (180–200 km/s). 4.

Galaxies relative to other galaxies (speed unknown, presumably several hundred km/
s) The classical point of view, which assumes
the absolute immobility of the ether in space (Lorentz theory) would be completely
fair if in fact the ether did not shift in space and if the Earth did not capture the ether
during its movement, however, this is not so. The ethereal wind blows across the Earth
[37, 38], its relative speed decreases with decreasing altitude [39, p. 227–232; 40] and
therefore it is advisable to analyze the phenomenon of light aberration in the future,
taking this circumstance into account. From the above it follows that:
440 Chapter 9.
1) annual aberration of light in the belt 44.6–90ÿ S. w. will have

lower value than in northern latitudes;
2) the annual aberration at low altitudes, and even more so in deep mines, should be
somewhat less significant than at high altitudes at the same latitudes;
3) during space flights, it is necessary to adjust the location taking into account the
object’s own speed of movement relative to the ether flows, if this adjustment is carried out
by astronomical means located on the object itself.
The airflow of ethereal flows around the globe is not strictly uniform, since these flows
themselves are subject to various changes, associated, in particular, with solar activity. Except
In addition, air currents of the atmosphere participate in the phenomenon of

aberration. The details of blowing the Earth with ether are presented below.
Classical ideas about the nature of aberration correspond to those presented in this
work, but with some amendments. These corrections are related to the fact that the Earth not
only moves in space, but is also blown by ether flows, the direction and speed of which are
not only stationary, but partially variable. Both stationary flows - the ethereal wind, and non-
stationary ones have now been discovered experimentally and are being studied. Relative
the speed of the ether flow relative to the Earth's surface decreases with decreasing height
above the Earth's surface, which was discovered by D.K. Miller in 1925, but which was not
explained then.
The correspondence of the aberration values obtained experimentally with the calculated
values indicates that photons do not change
the direction of velocity when passing through the boundary layer of ether in the Earth’s
atmosphere is significant, i.e. the interaction of the lateral etheric flow with photons is small
and the time constant for the transverse establishment of the speed of light relative to the
transverse flow is quite large, as was already mentioned above. Some analogy can be seen in
the spread of smoke rings escaping from chimneys in the presence of horizontal wind (Fig.
9.13).
If the wind noticeably blows away the smoke, the smoke rings are slightly displaced.
Nevertheless, the difference in experimental aberration data for different observatories located
at different latitudes and altitudes should be additionally analyzed from the point of view of
the presence of a boundary layer of ether captured by the Earth during its movement.
Light 441
Rice. 9.13. Reduced drift of smoke rings by wind compared to regular smoke.
Thus, taking into account some amendments, the classical theory of aberration, which
takes into account the presence of ether in space, can be considered satisfactory to a first
approximation. Space.
9.4.6. Interaction of light rays
It is believed that light rays do not interact with each other. IN

in most cases this is true, and this is explained by the fact that the photon body is a rather
sparse structure with the exception of the core. But the core has extremely small dimensions,
and when photons meet, the cores will bend around each other, while the bodies of the
photons will pass through each other. Small changes that may arise in this case will be
restored immediately after the photons are released into free
no,
However, the situation may change in the case of interaction of coherent polarized
light rays. As can be seen from Fig. 9.14, if two photons with the same spin pass close to
each other, then a velocity gradient is formed between them due to the circular motion, in
which the ether pressure will decrease and the photons will be attracted to each other. If
photons have opposite spin signs, then, on the contrary, they will repel each other.
Accordingly, the directions of propagation of light fluxes will change. Probably, this
phenomenon should be observed most noticeably in weakly scattering media, for example,
in metal vapors.
442 Chapter 9.
Rice. 9.14. Interaction of coherent polarized photons: a) – c

case of identical spins; b) – in the case of opposite spins.
conclusions
1. Light is not an electromagnetic wave; identifying it with an electromagnetic wave

due to the equality of their propagation speeds cannot serve as proof of their identity. This
is confirmed by the complete divergence of the laws of attenuation of light and electromagnetic
waves in a semiconducting medium - in sea water, where light penetrates to a depth 5-6
orders of magnitude greater than the electromagnetic one
wave.
2. The structure of a photon can be represented as a two-row chain of linear helical
ether vortices, in which the vortices of one row rotate in one direction, the vortices of the
second row - in the opposite direction. Each vortex is compressed in its central part. This
structure naturally explains corpuscular-wave dualism, i.e., the corpuscular and wave
properties of light, explains polarization, spin, constancy of speed relative to the ether at a
given point in space and other properties of light.
3. All optical phenomena can be interpreted from the standpoint of ether-dynamics.

For the basic optical phenomena - reflection and refraction of light, interference, diffraction
and aberration - it turned out to be possible to construct the corresponding ether-dynamic
models, while the ideas about the essence of optical phenomena were significantly refined,
a change in the sign of the photon spin was predicted for each reflection from
Light 443
metal mirror, as well as the interaction of polarized rays

Sveta.
4. Hubble’s law of “red shift” of light spectra testifies not to the “scattering of the
Universe”, but to the loss of energy by photons due to the viscosity of the ether. The
loss of energy by photons occurs according to an exponential law with a time constant
of about 10 billion years. . 5. CMB is not a consequence of the “Big
Bang”; it is the last stage of the existence of photons emitted by distant stars. At
this stage, photons have lost their original structure and direction of propagation. The
same circumstance can explain the boundary of the visible Universe: the Universe has
no real boundary, but, starting from a certain distance, photons do not reach the observer.
la.
444 Chapter 10.
Chapter 10. Gravitational interactions
Gravity exists for all bodies in general and is proportional

to the mass of each of them.
I. Newton [1] The
gravity of a body at rest is nothing else,
like delayed motion.
M.V. Lomonosov [2]
10.1. A brief history of the development of ideas about gravity
Gravity (gravity) has always been and is still considered the most mysterious of all the
forces of nature. What distinguishes gravity from other forces is that it cannot be screened or
changed in any artificial way.
Democritus mentioned the properties of atoms to have heaviness in the 4th century. BC e.
He mentioned in this regard that atoms consist of amers - true indivisible particles, which,
although they are parts of atoms, do not possess gravity. For this Democritus was criticized
by all subsequent naturalists.
testers.
The first statements about gravity as a universal property of bodies date back to
antiquity. Thus, Plutarch wrote: “The moon would fall to the Earth like a stone, as soon as the
power of its flight was destroyed.”
In the 16th century Rene Descartes returned to the problem of the origin of gravity. The
characteristic features of Descartes' teaching - the expulsion of hidden properties from the
science of nature and an indication of the possibility of explaining physical phenomena by
movement - determined its vitality, and the scientific direction, guided by the principles of
Descartes, is called Cartesian or kinetic. Subsequently, the fight against this trend came from
Newtonian school.
In accordance with the teachings of Descartes, the characteristics of matter are extension
in length, width and depth, i.e. geometric shape. For Descartes, there is no empty space not
filled with matter. From the teachings of Descartes it follows that equal volumes contain the
same amount of matter. The material particles of cotton wool plus the matter that we cannot
perceive, filling the gaps, give in total, according to Descartes, the same amount of matter as
material particles of the same volume of lead. The idea of mass was not developed by
Descartes; there are compelling historical reasons for this. But the main thing that Descartes
has is his confidence that interaction between bodies is unthinkable without the presence of
Gravitational interactions 445
of the mediating environment. Action is not transmitted through emptiness, but only
through matter. In this regard, Descartes developed the idea of ether vortices moving the
planets. He condemns Galileo for the fact that, in his opinion, bodies fall in emptiness:
“everything that he (Galileo) says about the speed of bodies falling in emptiness has no
basis; he would have to first define what gravity is, and if his definition were correct,
then he would know that it does not exist in emptiness.” Descartes is right: in absolute
emptiness there is no medium and therefore there is no connection between a body
surrounded by emptiness and the Earth.
In the 16th and 17th centuries. In Europe, evidence of the mutual attraction of bodies
was revived. The founder of theoretical astronomy, I. Kepler, analyzing the long-term results
of observations of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, derived his famous three laws of
celestial mechanics. He believed that the movement of the planets is not at least ordered, but
spontaneous wandering: it occurs under the influence of some external agent, and this agent
is the Sun. Its effect weakens as the planet moves away from the Sun. Kepler said that “gravity
is the mutual striving of all bodies,” but he made no attempts to understand the reasons for
such a striving. Kepler tried to find a common reason to explain the behavior of the planets
and realized that such a reason was the Sun, in which the “moving soul” of the entire planetary
system was located. In the field of astronomical knowledge, Kepler, with his empirical laws,
provided an eternal and unshakable foundation for dynamic astronomy, but he completely
lacked a physical justification for planetary movements.
Newton set out to find a single law from which all Keplerian laws of celestial
mechanics would follow [1]. He found such a law and called it the Law of Universal
Gravitation. Newton put a lot of effort into finding the physical causes of gravity and
tried to attract for this purpose the ether, a medium that fills the entire world space. One
of the options was to represent the ether in the form of a gas, similar to air, but thinner
and more elastic.
In a letter to R. Boyle about the ether, written on February 28, 1679, Newton sets out
five proposals that clarify his idea of the ether [3, p. 41–43]. 1) It is assumed that there is
an ethereal
substance scattered throughout space, capable of compression and expansion
and extremely elastic, “in a word,” writes Newton, “in every respect similar to air, but
only much thinner.”
2) It is assumed that the ether penetrates into all bodies, but in the pores of bodies it
less often than in free space, and the less often, the thinner the pores.
446 Chapter 10.
3) It is assumed that the rarefied ether inside bodies and the denser one outside them
transform into each other gradually and are not limited to sharp mathematical surfaces.
4) It is assumed that when two bodies come closer, the ether between them becomes
thinner than before, and the region of gradual rarefaction extends from the surface of one
body to the surface of the other. “The reason for this is,” writes Newton, “that in the narrow
space between bodies the ether can no longer move and move to and fro so freely.”
But".
5) From the fourth sentence it follows that when bodies approach each other and when
the ether between them becomes rarefied, resistance to this and the desire of the bodies to
move away from each other should appear. Such resistance and the desire to disperse will
increase with further approach due to the increasing rarefaction of the intermediate ether, but
finally, when the bodies come so close that the excess pressure of the external ether
surrounding the bodies over the rarefied ether between the bodies becomes so great that
overcomes the resistance of the bodies to approach, then the excess pressure will force the
bodies to come together with force and adhere very closely to each other.”
As can be seen from the above, Newton’s ideas about the ether are purely qualitative
and largely contradictory in nature. This can be explained by the fact that, having correctly
assumed the structure of the ether to be gas-like, Newton did not have the opportunity to
develop this idea, since the properties of gases were not studied at that time. The result was
various contradictions, and in the end Newton abandoned the very idea of trying to find the
physical basis of gravity.
At the end of the Principia, Newton says: “The gravitation towards the Sun is composed
of the gravitation towards its individual particles and, with distance from the Sun, decreases
exactly in proportion to the squares of the distances even to the orbit of Saturn, which
follows from the rest of the aphelions of the planets, and even to the extreme aphelion of
comets, if these aphelions are at rest. Until now I have not been able to deduce the reason for
these properties of gravity from the phenomena, and I do not invent hypotheses. However,
everything that is not deduced from phenomena should be called a hypothesis. The
metaphysical, physical, mechanical hypotheses,
hidden properties have no place in experimental philosophy.”
However, this was said after Newton's attempts to find out the physical reason for the
existence of gravity ended in failure, and as a result, a statement was made that looked as if
there was no need to look for such reasons. Since the time of Newton, physics has been
divided into two opposing schools - Cartesians
and Newtonians. The Cartesians assumed the obligation
the necessary presence of the world environment as a carrier of interactions, the Newtonians
denied it. The Cartesians searched everywhere for the physical mechanism of phenomena;
they made many mistakes in specific constructions, but they knew for sure that any
phenomenon had such a mechanism. Newtonians assumed that material objects have certain
innate properties, which can be described as a certain phenomenology. The Cartesians
allowed the interaction of bodies only in direct contact, the Newtonians allowed “actio in
distance” - action at a distance without any intermediate agent.
This struggle continues today. Philosophically, supporters of the theory of relativity

are followers of Newtonians. The author of these lines is a consistent Cartesian.
For many years, physicists have been studying the problem of the equivalence of
inertial and gravitational masses. The meaning of the problem was that it was unclear whether
all bodies in a uniform gravitational field receive the same acceleration or not, which was
considered as a problem of the uniformity of gravity and acceleration of bodies. The difference
in gravitation and inertia could also be due to the fact that the weight of bodies was created
by weighty matter, while inertial forces were created by all matter limited by the volume of the
body (according to Descartes). In the experiment it was necessary to use bodies with different
specific gravity and in such a way that both gravitational and inertial forces would appear
simultaneously.
The formulation of the problem apparently belongs to Galileo, who proposed using a
pendulum for this purpose. Newton carried out precise experiments with swinging pendulums
made of different substances, which in principle made it possible to determine the difference
between inertial and gravitational masses. The fact is that the forces of inertia and gravity
simultaneously participated in the swing of the pendulum. Taking substances of different
densities (Newton -
gold and wood) and placing them in identical containers at the center of mass, Newton
established with high accuracy their equivalence. Later, in 1828, Bessel used this method to
study gold, silver, lead, iron and a number of other materials, including the substance of
meteorites, and could not notice any deviations from the proportionality of inert and heavy
mass. This accuracy was increased in Eotvos's experiments with torsion balances. It was
proven with the highest accuracy that inertial mass, manifested in accelerated movements,
and gravitational mass for substances of any chemical composition are completely equivalent.
From this, Einstein subsequently concluded that the forces of inertia arising during the
accelerated movement of bodies and the forces of gravity are of the same nature, which is
certainly not true, although it is generally accepted. With the same success we can talk about
the same physical nature of the gravitational force
448 Chapter 10.
tension and force of the spring holding the load on the basis that they
produce actions similar in results, although in the opposite direction.
The numerical value of the gravitational constant G was determined for the first time by
the English physicist G. Cavendish (1798), who measured in the laboratory the forces of
attraction between two lead balls - a small one and a large one. On this basis, he determined
the average density of the Earth to be about 5 or 5.5. In Paris, physicist Cornu measured
changes in the weight of a ball when another ball was brought under it and obtained an
average density of the Earth of 5.5. Vernon Boyce, around 1900, carefully measured the
attraction of a golden ball with another, lead one, and found the modern value of the
Newtonian coefficient of attraction, and also clarified the average density of the Earth to 5.52
[4, p. 22].
In Newton's theory of gravitation, a system located in a uniform gravitational field is

completely equivalent in mechanical terms to a uniformly accelerated frame of reference. This
circumstance, known for more than two centuries, subsequently served as the starting point
for Einstein in generalizing the partial theory of relativity to the case of accelerated motions.
A gravitational field can be “created” if accelerated motion is imparted to the reference
system and, conversely, “destroyed”, if it exists, by another transformation.
Newton's law of universal gravitation was not immediately accepted by the world
scientific community. After the publication of Newton's
The “beginning” of the creativity of English science along the lines of celestial mechanics
dries up for a long time, the further development of the theory of gravity moves to the
continent and becomes the most important of the tasks that French science sets itself.
French scientist Alexis Claude Clairaut discovered that Newton's law is insufficient to explain
the movement of the lunar perigee. He proposed supplementing Newton's law with other
small terms decreasing in the third and fourth powers of distance. This was sharply protested
by the French academician Georges Buffon, who stated that “every physical law is a law only
because its expression has uniqueness and simplicity.” However, Clairaut soon discovered a
mistake and agreed with Newton's law. The final triumph of the Law of Universal Gravitation
occurred when A. Clairot in 1768, based on calculations in accordance with this
law predicted the day Halley’s comet appeared in the sky - March 12 , 1759 [5, p. 257]. The
appearance of the comet exactly on the specified day was a brilliant confirmation of Newtonian
mechanics.
However, doubts about the absolute validity of the Law of Universal Gravitation were
also associated with the speed of propagation of gravitational interaction. From the static
formulas of the Law it follows that this speed is infinitely great. In 1797, in his “Exposition of
the World System,” the French
scientist Pierre Simon Laplace showed that, from calculations of the secular acceleration
of the Moon, it follows that the speed of propagation of gravity is no less than 50 million
times higher than the speed of light [6]. These calculations have not been refuted by anyone.
They have not been refuted even today.
By the middle of the 19th century, it became clear that the extension of Newton's law to
the entire infinite Universe leads to the so-called gravitational paradox, discovered by German
scientists K. Neumann and H. Seliger. The essence of the paradox is that at every point in
space the gravitational potential turns out to be infinitely large. It is currently believed that
this paradox has been overcome within the framework of relativistic cosmology.
In the General Theory of Relativity created by A. Einstein in 1916

or, as it is called, the “theory of gravity”, the whole problem of gravity is presented in a
different way. Having generalized the conclusions of the Special Theory of Relativity to
gravity and arbitrarily setting the speed of propagation of gravity equal to the speed of light,
Einstein explained the attraction of bodies by the fact that masses placed in space create a
gravitational potential in it, which curves space, and curved space causes the masses to
attract . Thus, the physical meaning was once again replaced by a quasi-geometric one [7].
The General Theory of Relativity implies the possibility of the existence of so-called
gravitational waves - transverse waves emitted by accelerated moving masses (double stars)
and propagating at the speed of light [8]. To detect them, in the USA J. Weber and in Russia
V. B. Braginsky created special detectors in the form of cylindrical aluminum blanks weighing
1.5 tons with sensors capable of detecting vibrations of the cylinders when gravitational
waves arrive, if, of course, these waves propagate in space at the speed of light, and not at a
higher speed. These waves were not detected...
450 Chapter 10.
10.2. Thermal diffusion processes in the ether as

the basis of gravitational interactions of bodies
As is known, gravitational interactions are inherent in any body with mass, and,
therefore, this type of interaction is of the most general nature, accompanying any other
phenomena and interactions, and therefore gravitational interactions must have as a physical
basis an equally general type of movement of the ether. ra. The most general type of ether
movement is the diffusion movement of ether molecules - amers.
It is the diffusion movement that accompanies any other movements and states of the
gaseous medium, which is the ether. At the same time, diffusion motion exists in the absence
of other types of motion - translational, rotational or oscillatory. Consequently, it can be
assumed that the most common movement of the ether – diffusion – is the basis for the most
common type of interactions – gravitational.
Since diffusion motion is an interaction through elastic collisions of a large number of

particles, it can only take place for a large number of these particles and does not make sense
for an individual particle, which in this case is characterized only by translational motion in
space. Consequently, gravity as a manifestation of diffusion motion is possible only in the
presence of a set of amers. This circumstance was not understood by some researchers of
the work of Democritus, in particular Alexander of Aphrodius and
all those who followed, right up to the modern ones, who criticized Democritus for asserting
that an atom (the totality of amers) has gravity, but an amer - a part of an atom - does not
have gravity.
Since gravitational interaction is associated with matter, it is advisable to begin
considering its nature with an analysis of the interaction between matter and ether based on
diffusion motion.
The gravitational interaction of bodies, occurring as a result of the thermal diffusion
process in the ether surrounding these bodies, should be considered, first of all, as a
consequence of the cooling of the ether by the surface layers of nucleons forming the nuclei
of atoms. Added to this is the cooling of the ether by all attached vortices - electron shells
and van der Waals shells, but their contribution to gravitation is small due to the small mass,
as well as due to the insignificance of their reduction in the temperature of the ether
compared to nucleons.
As a result of the cooling of the ether by the surfaces of nucleons, a temperature

gradient arises in the ether and, as a consequence, a pressure gradient. Those-
When a body enters the field of a pressure gradient, it begins to experience a difference in
ether pressure: on the side of the body that formed the temperature gradient, the ether
pressure will be less than on the opposite side. The same will happen with the second body.
The bodies will begin to be pushed towards each other by the ether (Fig. 10.1).
Rice. 10.1. The mechanism of gravitational interaction of bodies: changes

in temperature and pressure of the ether near the gravitational mass and
gravitational interaction of two masses
It was shown above that particles of matter are vortex formations of the ether. In vortex
gas formations, the gas temperature is always lower than the temperature of the medium
surrounding the vortex. Thanks to the thermal diffusion process, heat exchange occurs
between the vortex and its environment. As a result of heat exchange, the temperature of the
vortex should continuously increase due to the influx of heat from the environment
surrounding the vortex, and the temperature of the environment surrounding the vortex
should decrease. Thus, around each vortex of the ether there is a non-steady thermodynamic
process. The time of its completion depends on many components, in particular on the ratio
of ether densities in the vortex and in free space, on the quality of thermal contact between
the surface of the vortex and free ether, on the temperature difference between the vortex
and free ether, on the thermal conductivity coefficient of the medium and on some other
factors.
The main characters in the creation of gravitational forces are nucleons - protons and
neutrons, since they are the most condensed vortices of the ether with a minimum
temperature, therefore, they are the main negative source of heat, cooling the surrounding
ether, creating in it temperature gradient and thus pressure gradient. The nucleons
themselves, having the highest density and being solid bodies, are subject to the influence
of a pressure gradient, while others are vortex
452 Chapter 10.
formations - electron shells, van der Waals shells, ether jets, etc. – are penetrating structures,
which also have a low specific mass, the influence of which on gravitational
processes are not so significant.

Thus, to understand the essence of gravitational interaction at this stage, it is advisable
to focus on the gravitational interaction of only nucleons.
As shown in Chap. 5, around each proton the temperature decreases, and a temperature
gradient of the ether appears in the surrounding space. A consequence of the temperature
gradient is the ether pressure gradient around the protons.
As shown in Chapter 5, the temperature gradient in three-dimensional pro-

travel can be represented in the following form:
kqq
grad T = —— ÿ (r,t), r² (10.1)
where q is the power of the heat source,
1 d 1 ÿ -ÿ²
——— r² — (– — ÿ e dÿ); rÿ = 2 at ÿ (r,t) = (10.2)
2ÿ dr rr / ro
Wherein
lim ÿ (r,t) = 1. r ÿ0. (10.3)
But the temperature gradient is proportional to the total power of heat sources Q,
therefore
kqQ
grad T = —— ÿ (r,t), r² (10.4)
and the power of thermal sources - protons contained in the body, pro-
proportional to body weight, i.e.
Q~ M, (10.5)
so that in the environment of a body having mass M, the temperature gradient is

puts:
kmM
grad T = —— ÿ (r,t) r² (10.6)
The resulting force acting on a proton caught in the field of the temperature
gradient of the first proton will be proportional to the pressure gradient and volume
of the vortex:
F = S eqLeqgradP = VeqgradP. (10.7)
This force does not depend on the orientation of the body in space, since
it is determined by the volume of the body and the ether pressure gradient.
The ratio of temperature to pressure, as well as the ratio of their graph-
dients in the ether in circumsolar space is
Tae
gradTe 2ma 2 1.5 10–114
—— = ——— = —— = ————————— =
(10.8)
Pe gradPÿ 3k ÿe 3 1.38 10–23 8.85 10–12
= 8.2·10–81 K·Pa.
The gravitational constant can be expressed through the parameters of the ether and
the parameters of protons - the first p1, which creates a temperature gradient in space, and
the second p2, which perceives the pressure gradient created by this temperature gradient.
From the expression of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation it follows that
mp1mp2
Fp1p2 = G ———— r² = V2gradP1, (10.9)
where G is the gravitational constant, mp1 and mp2 are the masses of the first and second
proton, respectively, V2 is the volume of the second proton, and gradP1 is the pressure
gradient in the ether created by the first proton, r is the distance between protons, and taking
into account the relations
3k ÿÿ 3k na
gradP1 = ——— gradT1 = ——— gradT1; 2ma 2 (10.10)
454 Chapter 10.
ÿÿ1 = Rp1 gradÿ1, (10.11)
-1
where k =1.38·10–23 J·K – Boltzmann’s constant; ÿe = 8.85 10–12 kg m–3 –
–3 – co-
ether density; ma = 1.5·10–12 kg – amera mass; na = 5.8·10102 m
number of amers per unit volume of ether, we get
3k na Rp1 ÿÿ1
G= ——————
, (10.12)
mp1 ÿp2
here Rp1 is the radius of the first proton; ÿp2 is the density of the second proton.
Thus, the gravitational constant connects the parameters of the ether, the parameters
of protons - which create a temperature gradient in the ether and perceive the pressure
gradient created by this temperature gradient, and the temperature difference on the
surface of the first proton, thanks to which a temperature gradient is created in the ether.
Hence the gravitational force of interaction between protons can be expressed as
3k na Rp1 ÿÿ1Vp2
———————— .
Fp1p2 = (10.13)
2 r²
From the resulting expression, the physical nature of the gravitational forces is
visible: proportionality to the number of amers per unit volume of ether, the radius of the
first proton, which creates a temperature gradient in the ether, the volume of the second
proton, which perceives the pressure gradient created by this temperature gradient, and
inverse proportionality to the square of the ether. standing between them. Everything
acquired a simple physical meaning.
The force with which a proton located on the surface of a celestial body
la, is attracted to this body, is equal
mpMt
Fpt = f ———— = VpgradPÿ, (10.14)
Rt²
where mp = 1.6725·10–27 kg – proton mass; Mt and Rt – mass and radius of the body; Vp
3
= 5.88·10–45 m – proton volume.
From here we find the pressure gradient of the ether on the surface of the celestial
body:
mp Mt Mt ÿp
gradPet = G ———— = G ———, (10.15)
Rt²Vp Rt²
where ÿp = 2.8·1017 kg m–3 – proton density.

Accordingly, the temperature gradient will be equal to
2ma
gradTe = ——— gradPÿ = 8.2·10–81 gradPÿ. (10.16)
3kÿe
The decrease in pressure on the body surface will be:

ÿ
ÿ Mÿ ÿp Mt ÿp
ÿP = ÿ gradPÿ dr = ÿ G ——— dr =
– ———
, (10.17)
RT Rÿ r² r
and decrease in temperature
2ma
ÿT = ——— ÿP = 8.2·10–81 ÿP 3k (10.18)
ÿe
On the proton surface (mp = 1.6725 10–27 kg, Rp = 1.12 10–15 m) we obtain
ÿp mp
=
gradPÿp = f ——— (10.19)
Rp²
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 1.6725 10–27

= ——————————— = 2.32·1010 Pa m–1 ;
2
(1.12 10–15 )
gradTep = 8.2 10–81 gradPep = (10.20)
= 8.2 10–81 2.32 1010 = 1.9 10–70 K m–1 .
The reduction in ether pressure on the proton surface is:

456 Chapter 10.
ÿp mp
=
ÿPÿp = –f ——— (10.21)
Rp
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 1.6725 10–27

= – ——————————— = - 2.8·10–5 Pa ,
1.12 10–15
and the temperature decrease will be:
ÿTec = – 8.2·10–81 ÿP = (10.22)

=
– 8.2 10–81 2.8 10–5 = 2.3 10–85 K,
which amounts to a negligible amount of the pressure and temperature of the ether in free
space:
ÿPeC ÿTeC 2.8 10–6

—— = —— = ————
= 2.15·10–42 . (10.23)
Pe Tae 1.3 1036
On the surface of the Sun (ÿÿ = 1.99·1030 kg; Rc = 6.96·108 m) there is

eat:
ÿp MC
=
gradPÿC = f ——— (10.24)
Rÿ²
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 1.99 1030

= ——————————— = 7.65·1019 Pa m–1 ;
2
(6.96 108 )
gradTeC = 8.2 10–81 gradPeC = (10.25)
= 8.2 10–81 7.65 1019 = 6.3 10–61 K m–1 .
The reduction in ether pressure on the surface of the Sun is equal to
ÿp MC
ÿPÿC = – f ——— =
(10.26)
R.C.
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 1.99 1030

= – ———————————
= – 5.34·1028 Pa,
6.96 108
and the temperature decrease will be
– 8.2 10–81 ÿP = – 8.2 10–81 5.34 1028 = 4.4 10–52 K, (10.27) ÿTeC =
which is a small fraction of the pressure and temperature of the ether in free space:
ÿPeC ÿTeC =
—— = ——
4.1·10–8 . (10.28)
Pe Tae
On the surface of the Earth ( MZ = 5.97 1024 kg; Rÿ = 6.3 106 m) we have:
ÿp Mÿ
=
gradPÿÿ = f ——— (10.29)
Rÿ²
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 5.97 1024

= ——————————— -1
= 2.8 1018 Pa m ;
2
(6.3 106 )
gradTeZ = 8.2 10–8 gradPeZ = 8.2 10–81 2.8 1018 = 2.3 1062 K m–1 (10.30)
The reduction in ether pressure on the Earth's surface is equal to

ÿp Mÿ
ÿPÿÿ = – f ——— =
(10.31)
Rÿ
6.67 10–11 2.8 1017 5.97 1024

= – ———————————
= – 1.77·1025 Pa,
6.3 106
and decrease in temperature
ÿTe3 = – 8.2·10-81 ÿP = (10.32)
=
– 8.2·10–81·1.77·1025 = – 1.45·10–55 K,
458 Chapter 10.
which constitutes an even smaller share of the pressure and temperature of the ether in
free space than for the Sun:
ÿPeZ ÿTeZ
—— = —— = 1.1·10–11 . (10.33)
Pe Tae
The temperature gradient in the ether is related to the heat flow by the Fourier
equation:
dQ/dt = – KTSgradT, (10.34)
where dQ/ dt, J/s – heat flux Q per unit time, Kt – thermal conductivity coefficient of the
medium, equal to 1.2 1089 m s–3 K for ether; S –
surface area normal to the direction of heat flow through
which the flow flows, in the case under consideration - the surface area
2 .
proton, equal to ÿp = 1.69·10–29 m
Substituting the parameters, we get
dQ/dt = –1.2 1089 1.69 1029 1.9 10–70 = 3.85 10–10 J s–1 . (10.35)
The reserve of negative heat in a proton is equal to
mp (ue² – up²)
—————— =
ÿQ = (10.36)
2
1.6725·10–27 (5.42 ·1046 – 32 ·1018 ) =

= ——————————————
2.44·1020 J.
2
Therefore, the time constant for heating a proton due to heat is

the ether surrounding it will be:
ÿQ 2.44 1020
T= ——— = ————
= 6.3 1029 s = 2 1022 years, (10.37)
dQ/dt 3.85 10–10
those. over the lifetime of the proton, which is 10–20 billion years, it
heating due to the heat of the surrounding ether will be completely negligible.
Thus, the temperature gradient at short distances decreases in proportion

to the square of the distance, and at large distances
decreases much faster.
As you move away from the ether vortices - particles of matter - the
temperature of the ether increases to a certain value Tÿ, which characterizes
the temperature of the ether in a space free from vortices.
Thus, the gravitational field is interpreted as a field
pressure gradient in the ether caused by the temperature gradient that arose as a result of
the cooling of the ether by the boundary layers of nucleons, which is confirmed by numerical
calculations. In this case, the gravitational constant receives a natural physical content,
which reflects the parameters of the nucleon creating the gravitational field (mass), the
parameters of another nucleon perceiving the gravitational field (mass and volume or average
density), the parameters of the medium containing the gravitational field ( thermal conductivity
coefficient of free ether) and, finally, the energy content of the process (heat flow).
It also follows from the above that for a free nucleon the temperature drop
on it (and, accordingly, the pressure) of the ether decreases by 0.9 10–36 , on
the surface of the Sun by 2.8 10–4 , on the surface of the Earth -
by 2.5·10–7 fractions of the total values.
Since the total energy of a nucleon is
Wp = mpvp²/ 2 = = 1.673·10–27 (1021 )2 /2 = 8.4·1014 J, (10.38)
then the relative heating of the proton due to the heat of the surrounding ether
will be
wp = 6.67 10–10/ 8.4 1014 = 0.8 10–24 s -1 = 2.5·10–17 year–1 . (10.39)
From here it is immediately clear that during the lifetime of a nucleon there are about 10
billion years, the heating of the proton will occur by a negligibly small amount.
With further refinement of the law of gravitational attraction of masses, in the first
approximation, we can still consider the density of free ether ÿÿ = const, since the change in
density is a consequence of changes in pressure in the medium, and in gravitational
phenomena the interacting forces are significantly small compared to through other
interactions. Substituting the value gradT and taking into account that the power of the heat
source - all
protons is proportional to their number and, therefore, mass, we obtain the value of the
force acting on the mass from the temperature field of the ether created by another mass [11]:
460 Chapter 10.
M1M2
F = f ——— ÿ(r, t), r² (10.40)
where the value ÿ(r, t) is calculated according to formula (5.89).

Thus, for the first time it was possible to derive the static law of gravitational attraction
of masses without resorting to approximation of experimental data, as was done by Newton.
The above expression practically assumes the instantaneous propagation of gravity, which
in principle corresponds to the calculations of celestial mechanics.
The resulting expression differs from the well-known Newton's law by the presence
on the right side of the damping function ÿ(r, t), which includes the Gaussian integral,
which remains almost unchanged at relatively short distances and sharply decreases
starting from a certain distance. This is quite sufficient to resolve the famous Zeliger
paradox [9],
since over large distances the forces decrease much faster than the square of the distance.
This means that the gravitational forces of the Sun extend no further than the boundaries of
the Solar system and stars located at a considerable distance from each other do not attract
each other
to friend.
In fact, the expression for ÿ(r, t) includes the ratio r/ r0, where
___
r0 = 2ÿ at ,
21 –s
where a = 4·109 m – coefficient of thermal diffusivity of ether, t –
the period of time that has passed since the onset of gravity, i.e. With
moment of collection of the proton-hydrogen formed in the galactic core
gas into a star.
It has now been established that the age of old continental plate rocks is 5.5 billion
years. According to the calculations given below, it was found that the splitting of the
cooled surface of the Earth due to an increase in its volume due to its absorption of the
ether of the surrounding space occurred about 3.75 billion years ago; a good coincidence
of orders of magnitude can be noted here. Considering that gravity actually began to act
earlier, when the star (Sun) had just formed, the time value should be increased to 7 billion
years, i.e. up to t = 7 109 3.15 107 = 2.2 1017 s. Then the value of r0 will be:
___ ___________
r0 = 2ÿ ÿt = 2ÿ 4·109 · 2.2·1017 = 6·1013 m = 6·104 million km = 400 AU
The table shows the values of the function ÿ(r/r0) depending on the distance from
Suns expressed in AU (astronomical unit = 149.6 million km.)
Table 10.1.
r/ r0 0.0 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.5 2.0 3.00.2
10 20 40 80 200
1.0400 800 1200
R, a.u. 0.0 0.98 0.94 0.89 0.78 0.48 0.17 0.06 10–5
ÿ(r/r0) 1.0
It is advisable to recall that within the limits of up to 10 a.u. There are planets in the
solar system up to and including Saturn (the orbital radius of Saturn is 9.539 AU), and within
up to 20 AU. all the planets of the solar system are located. The last planet in the solar
system, Pluto, is located at a distance of 39.75 AU. from the Sun, and observations have
established that for it Newton’s law is no longer strictly observed. Considering that the nearest
star system, the Great Centauri, is located from the Sun at a distance of 1.31 pc = 4·104 billion
km, i.e. r/ r0 = 1000, and the remaining stars are even further away, · we can confidently
assume that the stars do not experience mutual gravitational attraction and are gravitationally
isolated from each other. It follows that no “gravitational paradox” established in the mid- 19th
century by German scientists Neumann and Seliger, associated with the summation of the
gravitational potentials of stars at any point in space, actually exists in nature.
Thus, we can assume that distances within ten

astronomical units are within the limits of Newton's law.
Deviations from Newton’s law, if they were significant, would have reflected in
errors in determining the masses of planets distant from the Sun and in errors in
determining the parameters of the planet Pluto, the most distant from the Sun,
since the eccentricity of Pluto’s orbit is the largest and is 0.25 (for Jupiter – 0.05;
for Saturn – 0.06; for Uranus – 0.05; for Neptune – 0.05 [10]). However, it is known
that it is Pluto’s orbit that does not fit into Kepler’s law, because the Sun is not at
the focus of the ellipse of its orbit. Is it a coincidence?
The expected consequence of the deviation of the law of attraction of bodies from
Newton’s law is the deviation of the shape of the trajectory of comets from the ellipsoidal
one: the branches of the trajectory of comets: in remote areas, the branches of the orbit
should be more spread out than would be the case in the case of exact correspondence of
the law of attraction to Newton’s law, and one and the same the comet should appear
somewhat later than provided for by Newton’s exact law. However, the main consequence
is that stars and
462 Chapter 10.
galaxies must be attracted to each other by forces significantly less than what follows from
Newton's law.
All assumptions made about the nature of gravity assume
Euclidean space. In this regard, it
is advisable to recall some experimental data that allegedly indicate that space is non-
Euclidean. These include, in particular, the anomalous movement of the perihelion
Mercury and the deflection of starlight near the Sun.

As shown in [11, p. 41–43] when analyzing measurement results
many facts must be taken into account that significantly influence their interpretation, which
has almost never been done. Taking into account these factors, the presence of which many
scientists have pointed out, does not allow us to consider the results obtained as
confirmation of the non-Euclidean nature of space.
Thus, when interpreting the displacement of the perihelion of Mercury, which, according
to various estimates, ranges from 34 to 43 arc seconds per century (!), a number of facts
were not taken into account, each of which individually is quite sufficient to explain this
phenomenon, namely:
1) non-sphericity of the Sun, 1/1900 (according to other estimates 5·10–5 ) flattening of
the surface level of the Sun (or a subsurface layer of higher density, not observable from
the Earth) is enough to fully explain the effect;
2) rotation of the Sun, leading to asymmetry of the gravitational field;
3) the non-centrality of the mass of the Sun and the unevenness of its density;
4) non-centrality of the rotation of the Sun, since both the Sun and its planets rotate
around a common center of mass;
5) the presence of mass emissions in the form of prominences, etc.
When interpreting the deviation of a ray of light from stars near the edge of the Sun,
according to Einstein it should be 1.75ÿ, according to Newton – 0.84ÿ, the difference on the
photographic plate was 0.01 mm) the following circumstances were not taken into account:
quality:
1) distortions in the position of stars in the optical part of the equipment;

2) illumination of the photographic plate by the corona of the Sun, which causes
lo distortion in gelatin;
3) abnormal refraction in the earth’s atmosphere due to the cold air inside the shadow
cone of the Moon;
4) refraction in the solar atmosphere.
5) the presence of vortex motion in the air in the shadow cone of the Moon and
etc.
In addition, from all possible methods of processing measurement results, only the
one that gave the readings closest to Einstein’s was selected.
Thus, no experimental data supposedly confirming the non-Euclidean nature of space

actually exists; real physical space is Euclidean, which directly follows from the conclusions
about general physical invariants.
10.3. Speed of propagation of

gravitational interaction
As shown above, the essence of the gravitational influence of some bodies on others is
the creation of a pressure gradient in the ether surrounding the bodies due to the cooling of
the ether by these bodies. Consequently, the speed of propagation of gravity is the speed of
propagation of low pressure, i.e. speed of sound propagation over the air.
As was shown above, when determining the parameters of the ether, the speed of
sound of the ether in near-Earth space is equal to 4.3ÿ1023 m/s, i.e. more than 1015 times the
speed of light. Taking into account the delay, the law of gravitational interaction of bodies
takes the form:
M1M2
F (t – r/ cg) = f ——— ÿ(r, t). [r(t)]² (10.41)
The given expression transforms into the well-known form of Newton’s law-
rotates at ÿ(r, t).= 1 and ÿÿ = ÿ.
The lower limit of the speed of propagation of gravity was established by P.S. Laplace
in 1787, i.e. when the speed of light was already well known. Having studied the reasons for
the secular acceleration of the Moon, Laplace concluded that the speed of propagation of
gravity is no less than 50 million times higher than the speed of light [6]. Considering that the
entire experience of calculating the positions of planets in celestial mechanics is based on
Newton’s static formula, which implies the infinity of the speed of propagation of gravity,
both Laplace’s estimate and our estimate should be considered more correct than the
estimate of Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, which postulates that speed of spread
the travel of gravity is equal to the speed of light...

It should be noted that the speed of gravity propagation throughout the entire world
cannot be constant, since it depends
464 Chapter 10.
on the temperature of the ether, and, therefore, near gravitational masses, where the
temperature of the ether is lower, the speed of sound will also be lower, i.e. speed of
propagation of gravity.
Despite its large value, the speed of propagation of gravity - the speed of propagation
of the first sound in the ether, as well as the speed of light - the speed of propagation of the
second sound in the ether, is not fundamentally limiting. Considering that the movement of
amers does not occur in emptiness, but in the environment of ether-2, it should be assumed
that the speed of movement of particles of ether-2 significantly exceeds the speed of
movement of amers - particles of ether-1 or simply ether. Accordingly, the speeds of
movement of ether particles at deeper levels of matter organization significantly exceed the
speeds of ether particles at previous levels of matter organization.
10.4. Absorption of ether by gravitational

by the masses
The presence of an ether pressure gradient in the space surrounding the gravitational
mass leads to the fact that the ether itself begins, under its influence, to shift towards the
gravitational mass and be absorbed by it. Since all bodies are gravitational masses, they all
absorb ether from the surrounding space, as a result of which their mass increases. This
increase in mass occurs relatively slowly, imperceptibly, especially against the background
of other processes, but for large bodies these changes are not only noticed, but even
measured. The assumption about the expansion of the Earth due to the absorption of ether
was expressed by Yarkovsky [12].
It should be noted that the increase in the mass of the Earth over time is a real fact, and
it cannot be explained, for example, by processes such as the assimilation of ray, corpuscular
and meteor showers.
As shown by Gusarov [13], due to these factors, within 5 billion years the Earth could
increase its mass by no more than 3ÿ10-7 parts of its modern mass.
The absorbed mass of cosmic ether can be assimilated by the Earth in three ways:
- as the formation of a new substance, the mechanism of which is currently

not clear;
- as an increase in the mass of each nucleon and electron shells of atoms, which is more
obvious;
- as an accumulation of masses of ether, which then move inside

terrestrial rocks.
The increase in the mass of the Earth should also affect the continuous
increase in the day. It has been established that the day actually increases by
0.0024 s per century. Currently, this increase in the day is attributed to the
inhibition of the Earth's rotation by tidal currents, however, such an
explanation seems to be incomplete.
As shown in [14–17], the fact of the uniform expansion of the Earth can
be considered firmly established; the result of this was the separation of
continents from each other. The expansion of the Earth's surface is currently
occurring away from the oceanic rift ridges -
North and South Atlantic, West Indian, as well as Australasian -Antarctic,
South and East Pacific rises (Fig. 10.2).
Rice. 10.2. System of oceanic rift ridges of the Earth: 1, 7 – East Pacific Rise;
2 North Atlantic Ridge; 3 – South Atlantic Ridge; 4 – West Indian Ridge; 5 –
Australian -Antarctic uplift; 6, 8 – South Pacific Rise
Studies conducted by a number of scientists have shown that approximately 2–

2.5 billion years ago, the Earth had a significantly smaller volume, there were
no oceans, and all modern continents were fused together and formed
466 Chapter 10.
called the general solid shell of the Earth - the earth's crust. The movement of continents from
each other has also been established.
If there were no subduction - the creeping of the oceanic crust under the continents,
then, in accordance with the calculations of V.F. Blinov, it would be possible to believe that
the change in the radius of the Earth is currently approximately ÿR/ÿt = 1.08 cm/year. However,
according to some studies [18, 19], at the bottom of the oceans there is no crust whose age
would exceed 200 million years. Comparison of this age with the age of the crust of the
continents forces us to recognize the fact of the presence of subduction. However, subduction
cannot completely compensate for spreading - the moving apart of continents.
Since the minimum age of the continental crust is estimated at 2 billion years, it can be
assumed that it was at this time that the separation of the continents occurred and, therefore,
2 billion years ago, the Earth’s surface was only 1/3 of the entire current surface of the Earth
(the surface of the oceans is now accounts for 2/3 of the entire surface of the Earth).
Assuming that the average density of the Earth remains constant (an arbitrary
assumption, but not significantly affecting the final
result), we calculate the time constant of change in the mass of the Earth and other planets of
the solar system.
Let us determine the speed of entry of the ether into a celestial body (Fig. 10.3).
Rice. 10.3. To determine the rate of absorption of ether by gravitational mass
The increment in the length of a column of ether falling on a celestial body from cosmic
space can only be achieved due to the difference
accelerations on the element of the length of the gas column, measured in the radial direction
relative to the celestial body, i.e.
t²
dl = - dg. 2 (10.42)
Hence,
ÿt²
ÿl = —— g; ÿt = const. 2 Since (10.43)
M
g = G —— r² , (10.44)
That
GM
= 2r² —— ÿt². ÿl (10.45)
The surface area of a ball with radius r is S = 4ÿr², and, consequently,

the volume of a gas layer of thickness ÿl is equal to:
GM
ÿV = S ÿl =4ÿr² —— ÿt² = 2ÿ G Mÿt² = const (10.46)
. 2r²
for any moment t. It follows that the ether falls on a celestial body
without changing its volume, without undergoing any adiabatic changes,
i.e. like a solid body from infinity. This means that the ether enters the
body with a second cosmic velocity equal to
2 GM 1/2
vII = ( ————) . (10.47)
R
For the Earth vII = 11.18 km/s.

Attention should be paid to the fact that for any celestial
body size
S²vII ²ÿÿ 2GM 3M

———— = 24ÿG =
= (4ÿr²)² —————
M² RM² 4ÿr³
468 Chapter 10.
= 75.4G = 5.029 10–9 kg–1 m3 s–2 = const, (10.48)
and the specific increase in mass in a celestial body is proportional to the value
ÿÿ ÿÿ SvII ÿÿ S 2 GM 1/2 24 ÿG 1/2 ___

—— = ——— =
—— ( ———) = ÿe(———) = 6.3·10–16/ÿ ÿÿ . (10.46)
Mÿt M M ÿt ÿÿ
This means that as the average density of a celestial body ÿt increases, the relative
increase in its mass due to the absorption of ether decreases.
hesitating.
From the above it follows that the time constants of celestial bodies are close to each
other and amount to approximately 3–4 billion years. This means that within the framework
of the initial premises - the constancy of the density of the Earth and the constancy of the
density of the ether in near-Earth space, as well as the constancy of the gravitational
constant (very conditionally) - we can assume that over 3.75 billion years the mass of the
Earth increases by e times .
So, the increase in the mass of the Earth is
ÿÿÿ ___
——
= 6.3·10–16 MZ /ÿ ÿÿ. = (10.49)
ÿt
________
= 6.3·10–16·5.975·1024/ ÿ5.518·103 = 5.07·107 kg/s = 1.6·1015 kg/year.
Assuming that the specific mass of the Earth (5518 kg/m³) remains constant, we obtain
ÿVÿ
—— 3
= 5.07 107 /5.518 103 = 9.2 103 m 3 /s = 2.9·1011 m /year (10.50)
ÿt
Since the total length of the rift ridges is 60 thousand km, the increment in mass and
volume per unit length of the rift ridge is
changes accordingly
ÿMZ 5.07 107 = 0.83

—— = ————
kg/m s = 2.7 108 kg/m year (10.51)
ÿtl 6·107
ÿV 9.2·103
—— = ———— 3
/year.
= 1.5·10–4 m 3 /s = 4.7 103 m (10.50)
ÿtl 6·107
Based on the fact that the average distance from the axes of rift ridges to the continental
shores is 3 thousand km, and the age of the seabed rocks is
shores 200 million years (along the axes of rift ridges, the age of rocks does not exceed 10
million years, the age of rocks monotonically increases from the axes of the ridges to the
shores), we find the rate of movement of rocks from the axes of the ridges to the shores
vÿ = 3·106 / 2·108 = 1.5·10–2 m/year = 4.75·10–10 m/s.
and area increment

2
ÿSÿ/ÿt = 2 6 107 1.5 10–2 = 1.8 106 m /year = 1.8 km2 /year (10.52)
However, Steiner [20] showed that the average global speed

The increase in the area of the oceans over the last 5 million years is 3.19
km²/year. Based on Steiner's data, we find that if the area of the oceans expanded only due
to the expansion of the Earth's volume, then the Earth would have to expand at a rate of 2 cm/
year. However, the increase in the Earth's radius Rÿ due to the absorption of ether is only
ÿRÿ RÿÿVÿ Rÿÿÿÿ

—— = ——— = ——— =
(10.53)
ÿt 3Vÿÿt 3MZÿt
6.36 106 5.07 107

= ————————
= 1.8·10–11 m/s = 0.56 mm/year.
3·5.975·1024
This discrepancy in data can be attributed not so much to incorrect measurements, but
to the unevenness of the process of expansion of the Earth over time, for example, the
accumulation of stress in rocks, and then their relatively rapid release.
Thus, if the fact of continental splitting can be explained

increase in the mass and volume of the Earth in connection with the absorption of the ether
of outer space, then both spreading and subduction should be attributed to a greater extent
due to the movement of igneous subcrustal rocks, which can also be a consequence of
mass accumulation, and hence an increase in stress due to the same absorption of the ether
of outer space (Fig. 10.4, a) [21].
470 Chapter 10.
The considered mechanism of the expansion of the Earth can, to some extent, shed
light on the causes of mountain building (Fig. 10.41, b). At the time of the split, the
continents had an internal radius that corresponded to the radius of the Earth about 2
billion years ago. Over time, the continents that retained this radius found themselves on
the surface of the Earth with an increased radius, which inevitably led to the appearance
of stress in the continental plates and further to mountain building. It can be assumed that
the Pamirs are composed of more ancient rocks than the plain, which is why the general
uplift was preserved there and more intense mountain building took place. The described
mechanism of mountain formation is not the only one. The Cordillera, which stretches
along the entire western coast of North and South America, happened differently. What
is happening here is not the creeping of the ocean floor under the continent, but its
creeping onto the shore. This is exactly what you can do
explain the presence of the former ocean floor at altitudes of several kilometers. This
means that the rocks of the western slope of the Cordillera should be younger than the
rocks of the eastern slope, and the closer to the ocean, the younger the rocks should be.
In principle, this is not so difficult to check.
Rice. 10.4. Expansion of the Earth: a – absorption of ether by the Earth; b – one of
the mechanisms of mountain building
The absorption of ether is carried out by all celestial bodies. In table 10.2. Calculated
data on the increase in the mass of celestial bodies due to their absorption of the ether of
outer space are presented.
Table 10.2 ÿÿ/

Heavenly Weight, kg Area V II , m/s ÿt, g/s ÿÿ/ ÿÿt, sÿ¹
body surface-
sti, m²
Sun 1.99 1030 6.08 1018 6.18 105 3.32 1013 1.67 10–17
Mercury 3.24 1023 7.15 1013 4.3 103 2.72 106 8.4 10–18
Venus 4.86 1024 4.8 1014 1.04 104 4.45 107 9.15 10–18
Earth 5.97 1024 5.1 1014 1.12 104 5.05 107 8.45 10–18
Mars 6.39 1023 1.42 1014 5.1 103 6.4 106 1·10–17
Jupiter 1.9 1027 6.16 1016 6.08 104 3.3 1010 1.75 10–17
Saturn 5.68 1026 4.19 1016 3.68 104 1.36 1010 2.4 10–17
Uranus 8.73 1025 7.3 1015 2.22 104 1.43 109 1.65 10–17
Neptune 1.03 1026 6.5 1014 2.48 104 1.43 109 1.38 10–17
Pluto 5·1024 ? 5.07·1014 ? 3·103 ? 1.35·107 ? 2.7·10–18 ?
There are two more consequences of the absorption of ether by the Earth: these are
etheric emissions, leading to the formation of comets, and the so-called geo-pathogenic
zones - the outflow of ethereal jets. The formation of
comets is carried out by all planets, as well as, most likely, the formation of
geopathogenic zones. But if the formation of small comets occurs relatively unnoticed, then
the formation of large ones is an event of a planetary scale, accompanied by the release of
large masses of matter into outer space. Fortunately, this happens very rarely, probably no
more than once in a few million
years.
As for geopathogenic zones, this phenomenon is widespread. Two–

three zones with a diameter of less than a meter are found in almost every house and
apartment. These zones are streams of twisted and vortex ether flowing from the Earth's body.
Such jets penetrate through multi-storey buildings and have a very negative impact
472 Chapter 10.
on people’s well-being, and sometimes lead to complete loss of health and even death. These
zones are easily detected by dowsing operators using wire frames. The usual recommendation in
such cases is to rearrange the furniture so that you do not stay in these areas for a long time -
remove all working and sleeping places from them, but
Unfortunately, this is not always possible.

Currently, a simple and effective way has been found to destructurize such flows using wire
mesh. The flows are destroyed, and although the source of these flows continues to exist in the
body of the Earth, it can no longer create an organized vortex flow.
10.5. Magnetism of celestial bodies as a consequence

of their absorption of ether
As you know, the Sun and some planets have their own magnetic field. A distinctive feature
of the main magnetic field of celestial bodies is the coincidence or close location of the magnetic
poles with the poles of rotation of the celestial bodies. This gave rise to hypotheses about the
existence of a fundamental law of nature, according to which every rotating body must have a
magnetic moment. However, the experiments carried out did not confirm this: the rotating heavy
metal ball did not change the surrounding
its magnetic field.

Attempts have been made to explain the main magnetic field of the Earth by the presence of
ferromagnetic materials in the Earth's crust, the movement of electric charges that participate in
the daily rotation of the Earth and thereby create an electric current, the presence in the Earth's
core of currents caused by thermomotive force at the boundary of the core and robes, and finally
by the action of the so-called hydromagnetic dynamo in the metallic core of the Earth. The last
hypothesis, which is currently considered the most satisfactory, assumes the self-excitation of an
earthly generator moving in a magnetic field that it creates for itself. In the latter case, the authors
apparently assume that excitation is possible in a field that itself moves with the body, but this is
a contradiction.
cheat logic.
It seems possible, on the basis of etherodynamic concepts, to return to the first hypothesis
that rotating bodies should have a magnetic moment, however, not all of them, but only dielectrics.
As shown above, all bodies continuously absorb ether from the surrounding space and the
ether falls onto the surface of the body from the second
mic speed. If the body is not metallic, then the flows of ether
penetrate into the body, if the body is metal, then its penetration and
there is very little movement in the body, and the effect, if any, is insignificant.
At each point of the rotating body, the absorbed ether flow will be additionally
influenced by the force caused by the Coriolis acceleration (Fig. 10.5). This acceleration
can be calculated using the formula
acor = 2ÿvsinÿ. (10.54)
Here ÿ is the angular velocity of rotation of the celestial body; v – ether flow
speed; ÿ is the angle between the flow direction and the angular velocity vector. The
speed v here is equal to the second escape velocity. At constant density
body mass
ÿ = ÿÿVÿ = 3 4 - ÿÿÿR³, (10.55)
where ÿÿ – average specific density of the body; Vt is the volume of the body, R is its
radius. Hence,
vII = r 3/8 ÿfÿÿ, (10.56)
those. the speed of the ether flow decreases as it penetrates into the depths of the
celestial body.
Rice. 10.5. The emergence of a vortex field of the ether in a rotating sky
nom body
From the above it follows that a vortex field of the ether will be excited in the
surface layer of the celestial body. If, moreover, in the center of the body
474 Chapter 10.
If there is an iron core, as is assumed, for example, in the Earth, then the vortex field of the
ether will be closed through it, since this core itself will not create an opposing vortex flow,
but, on the contrary, will contribute to the penetration of the vortex field of the ether. However,
if there is no such core, then taking into account the weakening of the field in the center of
the celestial body, this central field will also be unable to counteract the general flow, which
should still lead to the closure of the vortex field through the center of the celestial body. As
a result, the planet acquires a vortex field of the ether - a magnetic field (Fig. 10.6).
Rice. 10.6. Formation of the Earth's magnetic field. Iron core 1 does not
create MMF directly, but is a conductor and amplifier of the magnetic field
created in the surface layer 2
In table 10.2 shows the calculated parameters of the magnetic field of celestial bodies in
relative units under the assumption that the magnetic field strength is proportional to the
Coriolis acceleration on the surface of the bodies, while the magnetic field strength on the
surface of the Sun is taken as unity:
(ÿvII) t
Nt = NS——— . (10.57)
(ÿvII)ÿ
As can be seen from the table, for those celestial bodies for which the magnetic field
strength on the surface is known, the agreement between the calculated values and the
reference values is quite satisfactory. For those celestial bodies for which the magnetic field
strengths on the surface are unknown, only calculated values of the expected strength are
given.
ness.
Table 10.3 (ÿvII)t

Heavenly T ÿ, s–1 ÿvII,m/s² Nt/Ns
—————
body
(sp.)
(ÿvII)s
Sun 25.38 days 2.85 10–6 1.76 1
Mercury 58.65 days 1.25·10–6 5.4·10–3 3.1·10–3 0
Venus 243 days 3·10–7 3.1·10–3 1.75·10–3 0
Earth 23 h 56 min 4 s 7.27 10–5 0.812 0.462 0.42-0.7
24 h 37 min 23 s –
Mars 7.2·10–5 0.36 0.205
Jupiter 9 hours 55 minutes 40 seconds

1.74 10–4 0.9 5.6 4
6 –
Saturn 10 hours 40 minutes 1.62·10–4 3.3
2 –
Uranus 10.8 hours 1.68·10–4 3.52
–
Neptune 15.8 h 1.1·10–4 2.52 1.43
–
Pluto 6.39 h 2.74 10–4 1.37 0.78
It is advisable to pay attention to the fact that the absorption of the Earth’s ether can
be perceived as a vertical component of the magnetic
fields.
As for Mars, there is an assumption that, unlike

other planets that have an iron-nickel core in the center, enhance-
strong magnetic field of the planet, Mars does not have such a core.
conclusions
1. Gravitational interactions can be interpreted as the result of a thermal diffusion

process in the ether, based on the heat exchange of a mass of matter with the surrounding
ether at the energy level of the ether. Solving the heat equation in relation to this case made
it possible to derive a refined expression for the law of mutual attraction of masses and
determine the physical meaning of the gravitational constant. At the same time, a limitation
on the distance of gravitational interaction of bodies is shown, which made it possible to
naturally resolve the known
476 Chapter 10.
Neumann–Seliger paradox within the framework of the concept of Euclideanity

space.
2. The speed of propagation of gravitational disturbance - the speed of propagation of
sound (small pressure increment) in the ether is 4.3·1023 m/s. This corresponds to the
calculations of Laplace, who showed that the speed of propagation of gravity is no less than
50 million times the speed of light. The calculations are confirmed by the experience of
celestial mechanics, which operates exclusively on static formulas, the derivation of which
made the assumption of an infinitely high speed of propagation of gravity.
3. Under the influence of a pressure gradient in the ether caused by a temperature

gradient, the ether itself continuously shifts towards gravitational masses and is absorbed
by them, due to which a continuous increase in the masses of these bodies occurs. The speed
of entry of ether into bodies is equal to the second cosmic speed. The time constant for mass
growth due to the absorption of ether is currently 3–4 billion years.
4. From the calculation of the expansion of the Earth's surface due to the absorption of
ether, it follows that the spreading on Earth - the moving apart of continents and subduction
- the creeping of the ocean crust under the continental plates are caused not only by the
expansion of the Earth, but also by internal movements of magma, which, in turn, turn, can
be stimulated by the tensions arising in it when absorbing the ether of world space.
5. An increasing mass of matter reaches the surface of the Earth in the form of rift ridges,
the total length of which across the globe is 60 thousand km.
6. The developed model of the emergence of a magnetic field in rotating celestial bodies
showed the possibility of interpreting the causes of its occurrence as a consequence of their
absorption of ether and their own rotation. The obtained calculated data regarding tension
magnetic field of celestial bodies gave a satisfactory agreement with the reference data.
477
Chapter 11. Aether and cosmology

...Research into the structure of the world is one of the
greatest and noblest problems that exist in nature
Galileo Galilei [1]
11.1. Modern cosmology and cosmogony
Cosmology is the study of the Universe as a single whole and of the entire region
of the Universe covered by astronomical observations as a part of the whole [2–10]. The
conclusions of cosmology are based on the laws of physics and data from observational
astronomy, as well as on the philosophical principles of their era. Cosmological theories
of different eras differ significantly depending on what physical principles and laws are
accepted as universal. Conclusions from these theories must be confirmed or at least
not contradict observations, and also predict new phenomena. It is believed that this
requirement is best met by those developed on the basis of a general
Einstein's theories of relativity are homogeneous isotropic models of a non-stationary

hot Universe.
The emergence of modern cosmology is associated with the creation of the
relativistic theory of gravity by A. Einstein in 1913–1917. [eleven]. At the first stage of
the development of relativistic cosmology, the main attention was paid to the geometry
of the Universe - the curvature of space-time and the closedness of space. At the
second stage, the work of A. Friedman [12] showed that curved space cannot be
stationary, that it must expand or contract, which was recognized as true after the
discovery of “Red Shift” in 1929 by E. Hubble.
spectra of distant galaxies [13]. The third stage begins with models of the “hot”
Universe (2nd half of the 40s , G. Gamov) [2,3]. The main attention now shifts to the
physics of the Universe - the state of matter and physical processes occurring at
different stages of the expansion of the Universe, including the earliest stages, when
the state was unusual.
The theory of a homogeneous isotropic Universe is based on two postulates: 1)

the best known description of the gravitational field is the Einstein equations, from
which the curvature of space -time and the connection between curvature and mass
(energy) density follow; 2) in the Universe, all points and all directions are equal.
However, there is also a third postulate of the “hot” Universe, according to which when
very small values of the time interval from the “beginning” of the Universe
478 Chapter 11.
Not only molecules and atoms, but also atomic nuclei could exist; there was only a mixture
of different elementary particles. Moreover, at t
= 0 the density of the Universe was infinitely great, and all of it was concentrated in a
dimensionless “singular” point in space, and after 1011 g/cm3
0.01 seconds after the Big Bang, the density dropped to . Models of the
open Universe and the closed Universe are discussed. In the first model, the expansion of
the Universe can continue indefinitely, in the second, expansion can be replaced by
compression. Modern cosmology says nothing about the causes of the Big Bang, nor about
what happened before this explosion.
In modern cosmogony [14–19], various models of the origin and evolution of planets,
stars and galaxies are considered. Various hypotheses are put forward here, the main of
which are the concept of the concentration of initially diffuse gas and dust, the origin of
which is not said, as well as the concept of the decay of “super-dense” matter located in
some areas of space, which serves as material for the formation of galaxies and stars,
nothing is said about the origin of this substance either. For example, there are several
hypotheses about the reasons for the emission of gas from the nuclei of galaxies (see,
for example, [15]). Their essence boils down mainly to the fact that in the cores of galaxies
there are a large number of stars or a large mass, the decay of which leads to the outflow of
gas and radiation. There is also an assumption that there is a so-called black hole in the
center of the nucleus, but this assumption no longer fits in with the fact of gas outflow and
may
best case scenario to justify the presence of electromagnetic radiation. The hypotheses
presented appear to be very artificial, since they imply some irreversible processes. In
addition, the presence of superdense formations, clusters of stars or a black hole in the
nuclei of galaxies, in turn, requires an explanation of the reasons for their presence or
appearance in these nuclei.
In modern cosmology, several standard explanations are accepted

observed phenomena. These include:
- “Red shift” of the spectra of distant galaxies, which can only be explained as a result
of the Doppler effect of the recession of galaxies and the expansion of the Universe; other
possible explanations are ignored;
- explosions of galaxies or their nuclei as the cause of the appearance of wide bright
spectral bands;
- inhibition of electrons in a magnetic field as a cause of non-thermal
th radiation, as well as some others.
The main experimental confirmation of the alleged fact of expansion of the Universe is
the “Red shift” of the spectra of distant galaxies. However, this overlooks the circumstances
Aether and cosmology 479
The truth is that any given fact can be explained in countless ways, and Redshift, broad
spectra of radio emission, and non-thermal emission are no exception. This means that all
these phenomena do not confirm the theory, but simply do not contradict it.
Modern cosmology is the result of free postulation and unjustified mathematical

speculation; it pro-
contradicts the basic tenets of dialectical materialism and
as it cannot be recognized as scientific. In fact, modern cosmogony has also adopted the
postulate method, and although some of its provisions deserve attention, especially where
it concerns experimental data, in general its state cannot be considered satisfactory.
The main shortcomings of both cosmology and cosmogony are the neglect of the
provisions of dialectical materialism, the postulative method and the refusal to consider the
internal mechanisms of phenomena at the subsubstantial level.
11.2. Circulation of ether in the Universe

The ether-dynamic approach to cosmology and cosmogony is fundamentally
quite different from the above.
As follows from the analysis of the properties of universal physical invariants, our
space is Euclidean, time is linear, matter, space, time and their totality - movement exist
forever, have never been created by anyone, are infinitely crushable and infinitely large.
Specific material formations can be transformed from one form to another, just like
movement. Any material structure has boundaries, but in general the boundaries of one
structure mean a transition to other material structures without any break in space, and any
specific process has a beginning and an end, but the end of some processes means
immediate, without any interruption in time, the beginning of other processes. On average,
the entire Universe had, has and will have at all times the same appearance, and there have
never been and never will be any “beginnings”, “Big Bangs” or “expanions of the Universe”.
Since the Universe exists forever, then there cannot be any “Heat Death” in it, and if in
some specific processes entropy can increase, then, consequently, there must be other
processes in the Universe in which entropy decreases. Such a process has been found -
this is the process of converting free ether into toroidal
480 Chapter 11.
screw vortices of the densified ether - into protons, which occurs in the nuclei of galaxies
and in new centers of vortex formation caused by collisions of ethereal jets. As is known,
the main accumulations of masses
of matter in the Universe are concentrated in galaxies in the form of stars and the
interstellar medium. Many galaxies have nuclei located at their centers. Galactic nuclei, as
follows from experimental studies, are used
sources of matter in the form of protons, hydrogen atoms and all kinds of
radiation [19, 20]. From the point of view of ether dynamics, the nuclei of galaxies are
centers of vortex formation, and the formed vortices of the ether are the substance that is
emitted by the nuclei of galaxies.
In this case, the energy of gas (ether) pressure is converted, i.e. energy of thermal motion of
molecules (for ether - amers) into kinetic energy of ordered motion - rotation of a compacted
gas (ether) vortex as a whole material formation [21–27].
Any vortex gas formation cannot exist forever, since its internal energy is spent on
viscous friction, as a result of which the vortices lose energy and, ultimately, lose stability
and diffuse. An example of the diffusion of vortices is the behavior of smoke rings at the last
stage of their existence. Consequently, the substance, which is the vortices of the ether,
must eventually cease to exist as a substance, and its building material - the ether - must
return to a free state. The matter formed in the cores of galaxies, as part of stars, goes to its
periphery, where it disintegrates and dissolves in the ether, and the released ether returns
back to the core of the galaxy. Galaxies exchange between
themselves as ethereal masses, and the birth of new galaxies is inevitably accompanied by
the disintegration of others, and this circulation of the ether is eternal.
Thus, in ether dynamics, both the mechanism of ether circulation and the mechanism
for ensuring the constancy of entropy have been found.
It is around the cores that the majority of young stars are concentrated, so it is logical
to assume that stars are formed from the very gas that forms in the cores of galaxies.
In addition to the fact that at the moment of formation of vortices they are given a
certain speed due to the speed of colliding ether flows, protons acquire some additional
speed due to their own self-acceleration in the ether. It should be noted that, since the ratio
of the densities of the proton and free ether is quite large (several tens of orders of
magnitude), the time constant for the self-acceleration of protons also turns out to be quite
large, perhaps billions of years. Nevertheless, this is enough for, over time, some of the
protons and hydrogen atoms to accelerate to near-light speeds and revolutions.
developed the bulk of cosmic radiation. At the moment of formation, protons already have a
certain chaotic speed, calculated only in tens of kilometers per second. As a result of
collisions of protons with each other, the proton gas tends to expand,
due to which its outflow from the core of the Galaxy begins.
As was shown above, vortex formations have a lower temperature relative to the
environment, as a result of which heat exchange begins between them and the free ether.
The result of this are two consequences: the presence of a temperature gradient in the ether
surrounding the vortices leads to the appearance of a pressure gradient in it, which causes
the phenomena of gravity, and, in addition, the ether surrounding the vortices is shifted
towards them and is absorbed by the vortices. The latter circumstance should lead to the fact
that the vortices of the ether - protons and hydrogen atoms - should continuously increase
their mass due to the absorption of the surrounding ether.
This absorption continues all the time until the vortices lose stability, and the ether that forms
them diffuses back into free space.
The emergence of gravity should lead to the attraction of particles of matter to each
other, which ensures the collection of matter into stars. The formation of a star must be of an
avalanche nature, since as the mass of the star increases, the force of attraction of new atoms
increases.
Due to the viscosity of the ether, nucleons—densified vortices of the ether—
gradually lose their energy. The loss of energy by vortices leads to an increase in their
diameters. In addition, the size of the vortices increases due to the absorption of amers of the
surrounding space, a decrease in the rotation speed due to the conservation of angular
momentum, thereby blurring the boundary layer, because of this - an increase in viscosity and
an ever-increasing increase in energy losses. Consequently, the process of energy loss and
increase in nucleon sizes will intensify over time.
If in hot stars the processes of radiation and absorption of the surrounding ether can be
balanced for some time, then cold stars and planets, emitting a relatively small fraction of
their mass into space, must increase their mass over time due to the increase in mass by
protons. Since the angular momentum in protons remains constant, an increase in their mass
will lead to an increase in the size of the protons and to a slowdown in the speed of movement
of the jets of ether that form the protons, and further to a decrease in the stability of the
protons.
tones
The loss of energy by vortex formations, such as protons, cannot occur indefinitely.
Using the example of smoke rings, it can be seen that, starting from a certain moment, the
vortex loses stability.
482 Chapter 11.
vost, stops and diffuses. From this moment, the vortex formation ceases to exist, and the
matter that forms it returns to its original state - into a gas not connected by a general
ordered movement. The same thing happens with protons and neutrons in matter. Starting
from a certain moment, they will disintegrate, and the ether forming the substance will return
to its original state of free
gas.
As a result of the decay of ether vortices - protons and neutrons - the density of the
ether in the region of the decay of matter should increase, since the vortex itself was
significantly denser than the surrounding ether. Now this matter passes directly into the
medium, therefore, there will be a general increase in the density of the ether in the region of
the decay of matter.
The disintegration of matter also causes a local increase in temperature, since all the
energy of the ordered movement of the ether turns into the energy of chaotic movement. As
a consequence of these two circumstances,
caused by the decay of the substance, there is a local increase in pressure in the ether.
Thus, in two spatially separated regions of the Galaxy - the core and the peripheral
region - there is a pressure difference: in the core there is a lower pressure relative to the
free medium, since
the formation of vortices occurs with their compaction; along the periphery there is increased
pressure associated with the disintegration of the same vortices, i.e. with the decay of matter.
This pressure difference creates a flow of ether from the periphery to the center. This flow is
observed in the form of the magnetic field of the spiral arms of the Galaxy - the only open
magnetic field in nature.
Most likely, the size of galaxies is determined by the time of the stable state of matter
in the ether and the speed of displacement of stars from the center to the periphery. Attention
has already been drawn to the fact that during vortex formation, the process of converting
the potential energy of ether pressure into the kinetic energy of rotation of the vortices
occurs. At the periphery, the reverse process of converting the kinetic energy of rotation of
the decaying vortices into potential energy of ether pressure occurs. The entropy of the
macrogas - the nucleons and atoms that form stars, as well as all other matter, continuously
increases, but then the matter itself decays; The entropy of the ether flowing from the
periphery to the core also increases, but in the core, in the process of formation of matter,
the pressure energy of the surrounding ether is converted into the energy of translational
motion of the ether jets forming the matter. In general, in stable galaxies, in particular in
spiral ones, entropy remains at a constant level, and therefore spiral galaxies, in principle,
ne, can exist forever, and the number of such galaxies as stable systems makes up the
majority of the galactic population of the Universe.
If, for some reason, a new vortex formation center appears in the vicinity of a spiral
galaxy, it will begin to suck
the ether of the environment is applied to itself, the pressure in the ether will begin to fall and
the ether, which previously constituted the matter of a stable galaxy, after the decay of the
matter will no longer be directed to the core of its galaxy, but to a new center of vortex
formation, around which a new galaxy will begin to form, and the old galaxy, having used up
its ether, will die.
Nevertheless, star clusters and galaxies accessible to observation, as it now turns out,
are collected in groups that have a common toroidal shape, but the shapes of these toroids
are different - from almost spherical to donut-shaped. In them, most of the galaxies are
collected in the central part, which is easily explained: it is in the central part that the ether
velocities and gradients are maximum, therefore, the ether pressures are the lowest, and
the bulk of the galaxies will be sucked in here. Such toroids themselves are collected into
older toroids, and the entire visible Universe is also, as it were, a toroid, outside of which
there is no longer
nothing visible...
K.E. Tsiolkovsky wrote about the possibility of such a structure in the Universe in his
article “Ethereal Island” [28], and he was only mistaken in that he assumed the shape of this
“island” to be spherical; it turned out to be toroidal. Does this mean that the entire Universe
is contained in
this toroidal
"island"? In no case. The unobservability of what is happening outside this “island” simply
means a limitation of the means at our disposal, based on the study of optical and radio
emissions. Photons and radio waves simply do not reach the earthly observer, partly
decaying on the way to free ether, and partly
forming cosmic microwave background radiation, which will also decay over time. And
besides, it is possible that the pressure of free ether between the “etheric islands” is so
low that no vortex formation can pass through it - neither material, nor photon, nor anything
else. But the Universe is infinite in time and limitless in space.
It is of interest to estimate the value of the hidden mass of galaxies.

As is known, a number of researchers have discovered a discrepancy between the
visible mass of galaxies and their total mass, calculated on the basis of calculating the
motion of galaxies and analyzing the components of this motion. Despite the fact that the
methodology for such an assessment is based on a certain physical model, which itself
can be significantly adjusted, it is nevertheless of interest to estimate the hidden mass
from the standpoint of ether dynamics.
484 Chapter 11.
As is known, in the vicinity of the Solar system, the distance between

stars is on average about four light years, or 4 1016
m. Thus, a cube of space with a side of 4·1016 m contains one star like
our Sun. In the vicinity of the Sun, the specific mass of ether is
approximately the same and amounts to 8.85 10–12 kg m–3 , mass of
ether in this cube
M uh = ÿeVe = 8.85 10–12 43 1048 = 5.7 1038 kg. (11.1)
Considering that the Sun is a typical star and its mass is 1.99·1030 kg,
we obtain that the mass contained in the ether exceeds the mass of
matter contained in stars, in
Me /Msv = 3·108 = 300 million times! (11.2)
Near the core of the Galaxy, the resulting relationship can be

preserved, since in that region, with a higher density of stars, the density
of the ether is also higher. Thus, a hidden mass of hundreds of millions
times the mass of the substance. This ratio for the visible part of the Universe increases
by another 1–2 orders of magnitude due to the ether of intergalactic regions. Thus, the
circulation of ether
takes place in the Universe, and
The Universe has always had, has and will have the same appearance as it does at the
present time. The described mechanism of the ether circulation fully fits into ideas that
directly follow from universal physical invariants, and corresponds to the provisions of
dialectical materialism. In the Universe there is a circulation of the ether, and it is as eternal
as matter itself is eternal and its movement in space is eternal.
quality and in time.
11.3. Structure of a spiral galaxy
There is reason to believe that among all types of galaxies, the most
stable stellar formations are galaxies with a spiral structure, including
our Galaxy. All other types of galaxies are one or another transitional
forms that are dynamically unstable. Therefore, it is advisable to consider
the structure of a spiral galaxy using our Galaxy as an example.
Data from long-term observations and their statistical processing

made it possible to understand the formal structure of our Galaxy (Milky
paths) [29]. Currently, basic information about it comes down to the following.
All components of the Galaxy are connected into a single dynamic system, rotating, as
astronomers believe, around a minor axis of symmetry. To an earthly observer, it appears in
the form of the Milky Way and the entire multitude of individual stars visible in the sky. The
galaxy consists of many stars of various types, as well as star clusters and associations, gas
and dust nebulae, and individual atoms and particles scattered in interstellar space.
The Galaxy contains about 1011 stars, most of them occupy a lens-shaped volume with
a diameter of about 100 thousand and a thickness of about 12 thousand light years (1 light
year = 9.463·1012 km), i.e. 1021 m and 1020 m, respectively. A minority of
almost fills
a spherical volume with a radius of about 50 light years (5·1020 m). By-
The surface of the globular cluster is made up of old yellow stars.
A significant portion of young stars are concentrated around a small central region
called the galactic core; the density of stars here is the highest compared to other regions of
the galaxy.
Proton-hydrogen gas is emitted from the core , the mass of which is approximately 1–1.5
solar masses per year, i.e. (2–3)ÿ1030 kg. The speed of the gas emitted by the core of our
Galaxy in the radial direction is approximately 50 km/s; this speed drops in the vicinity of
the Sun to 7 km/s [19]. Two spirals emerge from the core, in which the stars are arranged as
in the walls of pipes; further from the core there are more old stars, closer to the core there
are more young ones, but there are inclusions in the spirals that also contain small clusters
of young stars.
The spirals have a weak magnetic field that starts from the core and ends at the
periphery of the Galaxy without closing. This magnetic field was discovered in 1949 by Hall
and Hiltner based on observations of the polarization of light [19]. The magnetic field strength
of the spiral arms of the Galaxy is 10–25 ÿG [6, 7, 30]. The work [7] points out the connection
between star formation and the magnetic field of the Galaxy. There are various hypotheses
about the origin of the magnetic field of spiral arms; in particular, it has been suggested that
the magnetic field is a consequence of turbulization of the interstellar
th gas.
The spirals are in a common plane, in the same plane there is a dark strip of gas and
dust located on the outside of the spirals.
486 Chapter 11.
Taking into account the above, the following mechanism of ether exchange within the
Galaxy appears, which ensured the creation of the existing structure (Fig. 11.1).
Rice. 11.1. Ethereal dynamic structure of a spiral galaxy: a –

plane view; b – side view.
Jets of ether moving along the spiral arms of the Galaxy from the periphery to the core,
bursting at high speeds of the order of tens of thousands of kilometers per second and
chaotically mixing, form numerous toroidal screw vortices, which, compressing,
simultaneously divide and, ultimately, form proton gas [23 –
27].
Each proton forms an attached ether vortex around itself - an electron shell, which is
facilitated by the collisions of protons with each other. As a result, proton-hydrogen gas is
formed, which, expanding, is removed from the core of the Galaxy.
Proton-hydrogen gas, concentrating due to the emerging gravitational forces, gathers

into clouds, which, compressing, form stars. Stars have a radial velocity component, since
the gas that formed them already had such a velocity, and they move away from the core at
the same speed as the gas, i.e. at a speed of about 50 km/s. Some of these stars fall into the
spiral arms, while others do not.
Those stars that fall into the spiral arm move towards the ethereal flow flowing into the
core from the periphery of the Galaxy. A star that has formed, but is not yet fully formed,
experiences resistance to its movement, to overcome which it spends part of its kinetic
energy, and, in addition, inside the flow, the velocities of the ether are not the same, and the
star begins to swirl with this flow. Due to the fact that the star continues to be compressed
by gravitational forces, the accumulated angular momentum causes it to spin itself, which
leads to accelerated rotation. As a result, its surface becomes unstable, and one or more
tidal waves arise on it and break away from it. The mass of the detached matter already has
internal rotation, and planets begin to form from it, the orbits of which lie in the plane of the
star’s equator. In this case, direct rotation will be ensured everywhere, i.e. orbital rotation
and the formed planets will occur in the equatorial plane of the star and have the same
direction of rotation as the star itself. All stars that are close to each other rotate in the same
direction,
stars located on opposite sides of the spiral must
rotate in opposite directions.
The ethereal flow, moving along the spiral arm of the Galaxy, forms a pipe-like
structure, rotating around the axis of the spiral. When approaching the core of the Galaxy,
the etheric flow narrows, increases speed and changes direction from tangential to axial. In
the outer region of the pipe, a boundary layer is formed, which does not allow the ether to
leave the body of the pipe, and the centrifugal force drives the ether to the walls of the pipe.
Therefore, in the walls of the spiral arms the density of ether is higher than outside the spiral
arms or inside them. It is in the walls that there is a gradient of ether velocity, so a star that
even touches the edge of the wall will then be sucked into
pipe wall. This explains the fact that the stars in spiral arms are located precisely in their
walls. To an external observer, the swirling flow of ether in the spiral arms should appear as
a magnetic field.
Calculations show that the axial displacement of the ether in the region of the Solar
System is only 10–5–10–6 m /s. This means that in one revolution around the axis of the
spiral arm the ether will be displaced towards the core by 106–105 km. In the region of the
core, the spiral arms are significantly reduced -
488 Chapter 11.
have a cross-sectional area, which causes a significant (several orders of magnitude)

increase in the flow of ether in the axial direction.
Thus, within the spiral arm, the flow of ether moves in a spiral with a variable pitch
(Fig. 11.2, a), which resembles the picture of water flow in a bathtub (Fig. 11.2, b).
Rice. 11.2. Movement along a spiral with a variable step: a – movement of

the ether in the spiral arm of the Galaxy; b – movement of water when flowing into the hole
As in every gas stream, a boundary layer is formed along the surface of the flow, in
which there is a velocity gradient (Fig. 11.3, a). A star formed in the central region will be
drawn into this boundary layer, since the ether pressure from the gradient flow will be less.
Any star in the boundary layer will be under the influence of an ethereal flow that has a
velocity gradient, which will force it to begin a rotational motion, the axis of which is
directed perpendicular to the directions of the velocity and gradient (Fig. 11.3, b).
Rice. 11.3. Body in a gradient flow of ether: a – movement of the body to

the region of the greatest velocity gradient of the gas jet; b – creation of
rotational motion of a body in a gradient gas stream
Photographs of spiral galaxies show that near the core the cross-sectional area of the
spirals is reduced by no less than an order of magnitude. The thickness of the ether flow will
be reduced by another order of magnitude. Taking into account the change in the direction
of the ethereal wind in the area of the core, it must be assumed that the speed of the ethereal
wind in the core itself will be no less than 1 thousand km/s, and the density of the ether will
increase by at least one order of magnitude and amount to 10–10
kg/
m3 . By the time the star, moving by inertia, finds itself at the edge of the Galaxy, the
nucleons that form the substance of the star and its planets will lose a significant part of
their energy and disintegrate, returning the ether that forms them to a free state.
The dissolution of a substance in the ether can occur calmly, or it can also be
explosive. The latter is due to the fact that the proton that has lost energy increases in size,
and its internal hole increases accordingly. The state of the atom becomes unstable; with a
slight disturbance, the etheric flow of the attached vortex can change the direction of the
closure and again, like this
was at the first stage of creating a proton, closing through its center. The process here
should also be of an avalanche nature. Then, quite quickly, the entire star will turn out to
consist of ionized gas, which is not held back by anything. The star explodes, which can
cause the explosion of so-called “supernovae” (or rather, super-old) stars. However, gradual
dissolution of matter apparently occurs more often than avalanche ionization of the entire
stellar matter. At this point, the existence of stars trapped in the spiral arms of galaxies
ceases.
Stars that do not fall into the spiral arms of the galaxy are more or less evenly
distributed in the solid angle and move radially from the core, forming a globular cluster
around the core. They do not experience the resistance of an oncoming flow on their path,
they do not rotate and, accordingly, cannot have planetary systems. Since at the early stage
they were not washed by the ethereal flow, their nucleons did not have any additional
velocity gradient, therefore their stability is lower than that of protons trapped in the spiral
arms. The lifetime of nucleons in globular cluster stars should be shorter than that of stars
located in the spiral arms of galaxies. These stars age simultaneously and then dissolve at
the periphery of the globular cluster. Therefore, on the surface of a globular cluster, all the
stars are old.
The dissolution of the matter of globular cluster stars in the ether creates excess ether
pressure on the surface of the globular cluster. At the same time, in the plane of the galaxy,
the spiral arms create a reduced ether pressure, so all the excess ether from the surface of
the globular cluster rushes to the side surfaces of the spiral arms
490 Chapter 11.
and then takes part in the general flow. Streams of ether going from a globular cluster to the
spiral arms of the galaxy capture gas and dust from outer space in their movement and
concentrate this mass in the plane of the galaxy, since this is where the areas with minimal
pressure and maximum gradients of ether velocities find themselves. This is probably the
origin of the dark stripe along the arms of spiral galaxies.
In the Galaxy there is a coordinated movement of all its components -

substances in the form of gas and the stars formed by it, on the one hand, and streams
of ether, on the other. This movement is stable and can last as long as desired, until a
collision of comets in it or in a neighboring galaxy leads to the creation of a new region
of vortex formation, which, with a sufficiently large size and high initial energy, does not
turn out to be stable, then this region will serve as the beginning of the birth of a new
galaxy and possibly lead to the death of an existing one.
Thus, in our Galaxy, which is a typical galaxy of a spiral structure, the ether
circulates: from the core of the Galaxy to the periphery - in the composition of stars and
interstellar gas, from the periphery to the core - in the form of a flow of free ether, that
very “ethereal wind” "("ether drift"), about which there were so many battles.
It should be noted that in a spiral galaxy there is a stable circulation of the ether,
which can last indefinitely - hundreds and thousands of billions of years, and could last
forever if other processes that we are talking about did not exist in the Universe will go
lower.
The solar system exists for approximately 5.5 billion years [31, 52, 54, 55], and the
distance at which the solar system is separated from the galactic core is approximately
2/3 of the galactic radius, it is easy to calculate that at a uniform speed movement, the
total stability time of matter is 8–10 billion years.
If we take into account that the Galaxy contains approximately 8·1010

stars with an average mass equal to the mass of the Sun [31], then the stability time of
matter can be determined as 50 billion years. This difference in the stability time of a
substance can be explained by the unevenness
the movement of stars from the core to the periphery, slowing down this movement,
which can already be seen in the example of gas emitted from the core of the Galaxy.
The question arises, does our Galaxy rotate, just like other spiral galaxies? As is
known, researchers have so far
judged the rotation of galaxies by the movement of stars around the center. However,
judging by the movement of ethereal jets inside the spiral arms, then the conclusion
should be different: the Galaxy rotates, but in the opposite direction relative to the
movement
direction of the stars. The correct conclusion would be: the arms of the Galaxy
ki in space basically retain their position unchanged,
the stars in them move from the core to the periphery, and the flows of ether in the spiral
arms move in the opposite direction. The same thing happens in all other spiral galaxies.
11.4. Ethereodynamic functional

classification of galaxies and extragalactic astronomy
To date, the main types of galaxies have been determined and

stellar formations in the observable Universe [29–51].
The morphological classification of galaxies, which was proposed in 1922 by the
American astronomer E. Hubble, is formal in nature, since galaxies are classified according
to their external shape (spiral, elliptical, irregular, i.e. not regular, etc.). The second Hubble
classification differs from the first in some additions, but not in essence [13]. Subsequent
authors Van den Bergh, Vaucouleurs, Shapley and others refined the Hubble classification
and paid attention to certain details, however, their classification was based more on formal
rather than essential principles (Fig. 11.4). In accordance with these classifications, all types
of galaxies are divided
to the following:
1) spiral galaxies, characterized by two relatively bright branches located around the
core in a spiral. The branches emerge either from the bright core (such galaxies are denoted
S) or from the ends of a bright bridge crossing the core (denoted SB);
2) elliptical galaxies (E), having the shape of ellipsoids;

3) irregular (irregular) galaxies (I), having an irregular shape.
According to the degree of raggedness of the branches, spiral galaxies are divided
into subtypes: a, b and c. In the first of these galaxies the branches are amorphous, in the
second they are somewhat ragged, in the third they are very ragged, and the core is always
dim and small. It has been established that the raggedness of the spiral arms and their
blueness increase with the increase in hot blue stars, their clusters and diffuse nebulae. The
central globular part of spiral galaxies is yellower than the arms and contains old stars
( type 2 population) while the flat spiral arms are composed of young stars ( type 1
population). The density of stars increases as one approaches the equatorial plane. It is
believed that spiral galaxies rotate
492 Chapter 11.
They revolve around the center of the galaxy; at the periphery, the angular and linear
velocities decrease. In spiral galaxies, the nuclei are either spherical or bar-shaped, from
which the spiral branches emanate.
ny galaxies.
Rice. 11.4. Morphological classification of galaxies according to Hubble: different types of

galaxies are arranged on the diagram in such a way that the relative content of gas and young stars
in them decreases from left to right.
Currently, ring and disk galaxies with all gradations of abundance of hot stars and dust
have been discovered. Elliptical dwarf galaxies with low surface brightness have been
discovered, as well as
many distant compact galaxies with huge redshifts. But the most compact of them have a
bluish color. Those that have powerful non-thermal radio emission are called N-galaxies. Star-
shaped sources with such radiation are called quasars (quasi-stellar radio sources), and
galaxies that have powerful radio emission and have noticeable angular sizes are called
radio galaxies. Those of them that have particularly powerful non-thermal radio emission
have a predominantly elliptical shape; spiral shapes are also found. Seyfert galaxies contain
powerful gas emissions and weak non-thermal radio emission.
Along with galaxies, there are point radio sources in outer space that are optically
invisible. From time to time, so-called supernovae explode, the radiation power of which is
very high. There are also pulsars, which are believed to be rapidly rotating stars with a
narrow beam of radiation.
nia. In outer space there are clouds of gas and dust that
also emit electromagnetic radiation. It is assumed that in space there are so-called “black
holes” - objects into which matter can irrevocably fall, as Einstein’s General Theory of
Relativity states, but they have not yet (?) been discovered.
The distances from an earthly observer to stellar and galactic objects are judged by the
“Redshift” of their spectra. The modern point of view attributes the fact of “Redshift” to the
expansion of the Universe, so that the speed of an object’s movement is directly proportional
to its distance. It is assumed that for every million parsecs, the speed of removal of objects
increases by 100 km/s (Hubble's law).
It should be noted that the reasons for such a structure in outer space, the origin and
interaction of objects have not actually been established; the assumptions made about the
origin, evolution of objects and their interaction are mainly speculative. Restoring the
concept of the ether creates a fundamental opportunity to take a different approach to the
classification
of galaxies based on their functioning. Without making any claims to the completeness
of such a classification, it is quite timely and advisable to attempt such an attempt.
The process of formation of matter - proton gas in the nuclei of galaxies is associated
with the collision of ether jets at high speeds. With sufficient energy of jet collisions, vortex
rings will be born, continuously dividing and condensing. The last stage of their formation is
achieving critical density and high stability, these are densified helical toroidal vortices of
the ether - protons. Intermediate stages are vortices of the most varied sizes, continuing
division and generating the most
various helical disturbances that diverge in all directions and which are perceived as
electromagnetic radiation broadly
whom wave range.
The creation of the core of a new galaxy may begin with a collision
comets born from planetary systems within existing galaxies. Comets, the number of which
is hundreds of billions in each galaxy, are generated by planets as a result of the ejection of
ether accumulated there from the bodies of the planets. The jet of ether that escapes into
outer space turns at the exit from the planet’s body into a toroidal vortex, in the inner regions
of which the speeds of the etheric jets can reach superluminal speeds. The comet's nucleus
- the toroid itself - can be meters in size, but it can also be thousands of kilometers in size,
which is rare.
494 Chapter 11.
Collisions of comets are not a very common occurrence, but the probability of such a
collision is by no means zero. A collision of comets of sufficiently large size can create a new
source of vortex formation inside galaxies. Despite the fact that the comets themselves have
a relatively low speed, the jets of ether that form the body of the comet move inside the
comet at speeds many times higher than the speed of light, and the collision of such jets
leads to the emergence of a new region of vortex formation of the ether.
In the region of vortex formation, spontaneous division and compaction of ether

vortices occurs until the density of ether in the walls of the vortices reaches a critical value,
at this stage - the stage of proton formation - further division and compaction stops. A simple
calculation shows that, given the existing conditions in the near-Earth
In the space of ether density, compaction occurs by 28 orders of magnitude, which leads to
a drop in ether pressure in the region of vortex formation. The drop in pressure attracts
flows of ether from adjacent areas, which sets in motion the entire surrounding ether, and
the process of vortex formation continues.
Since the vortex formation process was initially caused by comets moving in space,
after their collision their general direction of movement of the vortex formation center
changes, and the new vortex formation center - the core of the future galaxy - can move
away from its galaxy in any direction, including the possibility of going beyond galaxy in
which it was formed.
At that stage of development of a new center of vortex formation, when the process of
formation of matter is already quite intense, but few new stars have been formed, collisions
of ethereal jets and fission
vortexes will be generated by all sorts of helical, undensified etheric structures, spreading
in all directions and perceived both as light and radio emissions of a wide spectrum of
frequencies. These radiations are not screened by other stars due to the fact that there are
still few of them. It is quite fair to identify such a formation with point radio sources,
practically invisible in the optical range.
zone.
If, as a result of vortex formation, such an amount of matter has been formed that it is
capable of gathering into stars, then such a core becomes visible more brightly, and it can
be identified with quasars - powerful short-range radio sources.
A further increase in the number of stars will lead to the fact that part of the radiation
will begin to be screened by formed stars. Such galaxies are called Seyfert galaxies.
An increase in the number of formed stars and an increase in their number will lead to
an increase in the size of the new galaxy and a decrease in the intensity of radio emission.
These are radio galaxies. They are still quite compact and emit relatively powerful optical
and radio radiation, exceeding the average data.
A further increase in the number of stars and their removal from the core zone will lead
to an increase in the size of the galaxy. The stars are evenly distributed
wander in all directions, with sufficient numbers they become
Xia are visible as globular clusters (Fig. 11.5, a). The age of the stars in this globular cluster
can be different depending on the time that has passed since their formation, they can be
young, or they can be old, but this is not in the entire volume, but on the surface. Depending
on the number of stars, the intensity of their radiation also changes; in older galaxies it
should be less, and their color should be more yellow.
Starting from a certain point, the matter formed in the core and making up the body of
the star turns out to be unstable. The protons have lost energy due to the viscosity of the
surrounding ether, and they begin to dissolve in the surrounding ether. This happens on
the periphery of the galaxy. During decay, the compacted ether of protons goes into a free
state and the pressure of the ether in the space around the galaxy increases. The pressure
difference between the periphery, where the pressure is increased, and the core, where the
pressure is reduced, forces the ethereal masses to return to the core and be included in the
process of vortex formation and the formation of new proton masses, from which new stars
will form.
As the process becomes established, branches of galaxies are formed, gradually

acquiring a spiral shape by analogy with a whirlpool. Two streams are formed in these
branches: stars move from the core to the periphery, ethereal streams move from the
periphery to the core, and the branches themselves basically maintain their position in space
unchanged. These are spiral galaxies (Fig. 11.5, b–d).
There are options here. If the process of vortex formation in the cores of galaxies,
having exhausted the surrounding ether, retains its intensity until the moment when ether
from the stars previously formed in its core begins to flow to it, then the process of vortex
formation will be supported, and the spiral galaxy will be stable. Then it can exist indefinitely.
The presence of regions with young stars in the spiral arms indicates
that in these areas the process of vortex formation and creation has begun
new galactic nuclei with all the ensuing consequences.
Of course, it is not at all necessary that these nuclei actually become the ancestors of new
galaxies; they may not be supported by ethereal flows, but in principle such a possibility
exists.
496 Chapter 11.
Rice. 11.5. Different types of galaxies: a – globular cluster; b – typical

spiral galaxy, plane view; c – spiral galaxy, angled view; d – spiral galaxy, side view
However, if the intense vortex formation in the galactic core exhausts the
surrounding ether before new portions of ether begin to arrive from its periphery, then
the vortex formation will stop, the pressure in the center will gradually equalize and the
ether, later released into space during the dissolution of matter, will remain there, on the
periphery. At
In this case, if the spirals have already begun to form, but the intensity of the formation
Since the current of ether in them was not enough to support vortex formation, then
the dissolution of the stellar matter will also occur in the region of these spirals. Two
areas of increased ether pressure will form around the galaxy, in which sluggish
processes of jet collisions and the formation of relatively long-wave radio emission will
occur. In the galaxy itself, the spiral branches will begin to deform, disintegrate, and
the galaxy will begin to acquire an elliptical shape.
form.
All these processes occur in the new galaxy without taking into account the fact that
the same thing is done in the galaxy from which the comets escaped.
As already mentioned in connection with the division of toroidal vortices of the
ether and their compaction, in the new center of vortex formation the pressure of the
ether decreases, and this forces more and more new masses of ether to rush there,
which are included in the process of vortex formation. The region of low pressure
begins to expand and reaches first of all the galaxy that gave birth to this new region
of vortex formation. And if earlier, before the appearance of a new center of vortex
formation, the ether released as a result of the decay of matter was directed to the core
of its galaxy, in which this matter was formed, now the released ether will be directed
to a new center of vortex formation. Further, the new source of vortex formation,
reducing the pressure of the ether, will facilitate the pumping of
ether from neighboring regions of the old galaxy to itself. The drop in ether
pressure will cause accelerated decomposition of the matter of stars and the interstellar
medium in the regions of the old galaxy closest to this source. This process will
support vortex formation
a new center, which will gradually expand beyond the galaxy, capturing more and more
portions of ether and matter and increasing its power. With sufficient power, the ether
flows will begin to capture stars, which will be observed in the form of a thin stellar
bridge between the galaxy - the parent of the new source of vortex formation and this
source. However, the stars themselves practically do not participate in the process of
vortex formation. The ethereal streams that captured the stars will be assimilated by
the new center of vortex formation, creating new stars, but the stars arriving from the
galaxy will slip through this center, forming a “tail” - a stellar stream that penetrates
the new center and extends far beyond its limits. The length of this “tail” will be
determined by the stability time of the protons. After their decay at the end of the “tail,”
the released ether will go to the core of the new galaxy in order to take part in vortex
formation. The flow of this ether from the end of the “tail” to the core of the new galaxy
should be perceived by observers as a weak magnetic field.
498 Chapter 11.
The new center of vortex formation is the core of the new galaxy, and the resulting
system of two galaxies is called double galaxies in astronomy. Such double galaxies were
first discovered in the 60s by the Soviet astronomer B.A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov [45–47],
numbering several hundred; now their number numbers thousands
(Fig. 11.6).
Thus, in double galaxies, one is old, dying, giving away its matter - ether - to another
galaxy - new, assimilating this ether. However, further the fate of this new galaxy will depend
on whether
the new center of vortex formation will remain until the moment when the stars formed
by it and gone to the periphery begin to decay, transforming into free ether, and whether the
freed ether will have time to return to the new core.
If this process manages to begin before the surrounding ether is used to the level of a
certain minimum pressure, then the entire process will then become self-renewing and the
structure of the future spiral galaxy with all intermediate stages will begin to form. Here a
stage is possible when the stars of the old galaxy have almost completely dissolved into the
ether, except for the
remnants of the bridge between the galaxies. The resulting spirals of the new galaxy
will then close on these remnants. In principle, one can consider the bar as an extended core
or as the remains of a former bridge between galaxies, but such an assumption is very
artificial, and it must be clarified in the future. If the process of returning ether from the stars
in the new galaxy does not have time to improve, and the ether in the surrounding new center
of vortex formation is not enough to support the process of vortex formation, then it will begin
to fade, then the
decay of matter on the periphery of the galaxy will occur without suction of the ether
(Fig. .11.7). The pressure on the periphery will increase, which will delay the disintegration of
stellar matter, but this process of dissolution of stars will continue, although slower than in
spiral galaxies, in which excess ether is sucked away from the periphery and goes to the
core. Such galaxies with a stopped vortex formation process will slowly melt, like clouds in
the earth’s atmosphere. Probably, such galaxies are galaxies that no longer have their own
core - the Magellanic clouds, the Horsehead, as well as ring-shaped galaxies and some others,
now called irregular .
Rice. 11.6. Interacting galaxies: a – diagram of the interaction of galaxies;

b – photograph of a double galaxy.
All other gas and all kinds of radiation in space have the same
reasons for formation and, in the end, will disintegrate and go into free
ether, and in their place new masses of matter and radiation will be
formed by the nuclei of galaxies. Radiations will also be created by stars,
and their fate will be the same.
500 Chapter 11.
Fig. 11. 7. Irregular galaxy - the last stage of the existence of a star cluster
Thus, the etherodynamic approach allows us to systematize the main extragalactic

objects not according to formal, but according to functional criteria. The functional
classification of galaxies is based on an understanding of the internal process of
formation and decay of matter (Fig. 11.8).
Rice. 11.8. Ethereal dynamic functional classification of galaxies

teak
The sequence of galaxies in such a classification may look like

proceed as follows:
- point radio sources and their division into types depending on the intensity, spectrum
composition and distance; these are centers of vortex formation of the ether and future galactic
nuclei; - quasars – former point radio sources and nuclei of
future gases
lactic;
- Seyfert galaxies – former quasars and future radio galaxies;
- radio galaxies – former Seyfert galaxies and future ones

globular clusters of stars;
- globular clusters – former radio galaxies and future spiral galaxies; - spiral galaxies and
their fragmentation by
type, for example, by the number of new centers of vortex formation existing in them, a sign
of which is the presence of clusters of young stars in various regions of the galaxy; these are former
globular clusters;
- elliptical galaxies, which can be considered as former spiral galaxies, in the spirals of which
the flow of ether from the periphery to the center stopped, vortex formation stopped, the nuclei lost
activity, and the spirals disintegrated;
- double galaxies, dividing based on the ratio of the masses of associated galaxies, from
which a conclusion can be drawn about the moments of formation of a new galaxy and the death
of an old galaxy;
- galaxies in which there are no nuclei (“clouds”), which are divided according to the mass
contained in them and according to the specific density, which characterize their age; these are
dying galaxies.
This process, as has been shown, can begin with the collision of comets originating in one
of the existing galaxies. The end of this process consists in the dissolution of the mass of matter
of the dying galaxy and the transition of its matter into free ether. The pressure in the ether will be
increased, and this will create additional conditions for the use of this mass of ether by nearby
developing galaxies.
kami.
It is likely that other functional characteristics can be found that can form the basis of a
functional classification
galaxies.
502 Chapter 11.
11.5. Stars and their evolution

Stars are self-luminous celestial bodies consisting of hot gases, similar in nature to the
Sun. The main parameters of stars are their mass, radius and luminosity (the total amount of
emitted energy), usually expressed in fractions of the mass, radius and luminosity of the
Sun, as well as effective temperature, spectral class,
the magnitude that a star would have at a standard distance of 10 parsecs, and the color
index (the difference in magnitudes determined in two different spectral regions).
The stellar world is extremely diverse [49–51]. Some stars are millions of times larger
and brighter in volume than the Sun (giant stars), their
the average density is hundreds of thousands of times less than the density of water; at the same
Nowadays, there are many stars that, in terms of size and the amount of energy they emit,
are significantly inferior to the Sun (dwarf stars), their average density is hundreds of
thousands of times greater than the density of water.
Some types of stars change brightness periodically; these are variable stars. Enormous
changes, accompanied by sudden increases in brightness, occur in new stars. Even greater
changes occur during supernova explosions. Stars are made of the same chemical elements
as all bodies on Earth. They are dominated by hydrogen (70%) and
helium (25%), as well as oxygen, nitrogen, iron, carbon, and neon. There are few other
elements.
Currently, several theories have been developed to explain the origin and behavior of
stars. Many processes of stellar evolution are explained quite satisfactorily by them,
nevertheless, some
some questions related to the origin of stars, their distribution in
galaxies, as well as their evolution, remain open. However, the ether-dynamic approach can
somewhat complement the existing
staging.
In accordance with ether-dynamic concepts, proton-hydrogen gas is formed as a result

of the collision of ether jets at high speeds (thousands of kilometers per second). These
collisions can be caused, for example, by the collision of comets, in whose bodies ethereal
jets move at superluminal speeds, or by the collision of ether streams flowing along the
spiral arms of galaxies from the periphery to the core. Protons are produced as a result of
vortex formation
ether flows, their spontaneous compaction and multiple division. An electron shell is formed
around the protons as an attached vortex of the ether. As a result of a decrease in
temperature in protons
relative to the temperature of the surrounding ether, gravitational (thermal diffusion)
occurs.
sion) interaction of protons with each other, and the proton-hydrogen gas begins to gather
in compactions, and gravitational instability arises: the more gas gathers together, the
stronger the protons attract gas from the surrounding space. Stars are formed whose
bodies continue to contract.
The protons that formed the stars have maximum density and minimum sizes, the
speeds of ether flows in the bodies of protons are high, and the stability of protons is
maximum. Aether flows in attached vortices – electron shells – also have relatively high
speeds, and the sizes of these shells are also relatively small. Therefore, the frequencies
emitted by such young atoms are shifted to shorter wavelengths, and young stars formed
by the newly created proton-hydrogen gas have a blue color and a blue-shifted spectrum.
As stars age, the size of protons increases both due to the loss of energy due to
viscous friction with the surrounding ether, and due to their absorption of the ether of the
surrounding space. While maintaining the angular momentum, the speed of the ether flows
in the proton's body decreases, and the stability of the proton decreases. The size of the
attached vortex, the electron shell of the atom, also increases, and its elasticity decreases.
Now the same atom will emit energy at lower frequencies, the radiation spectrum will shift
to the red side. The stars will turn yellow, and then turn red, this will be on the eve of their
death. Protons will begin to fall apart and dissolve in the ether. Apparently, in spiral galaxies
this happens at their periphery: in the spiral arms at the edges of the disk, and in the sphere
surrounding the central region, in the surface layers.
Stars caught in the gradient flows of ether will begin to rotate,

which will contribute to the formation of planetary systems around them. It is of interest
to evaluate the energetic capabilities of stars. After protons are formed in the
galactic core, gravitational interaction arises between them, and they begin to gather
into stars. The interaction of protons in stars leads to their sticking together, the formation
of neutrons from protons and then alpha particles. When each alpha particle is formed, an
energy of 28.3 MeV is released, which is realized in the form of the collapse of nucleons
and the emission of an ethereal flow from
internucleon space.
The collapse of nucleons leads to the appearance of waves on their surface and, as a
consequence, to high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. The ejection of ethereal jets
leads to the acceleration of protons trapped under them, hence the high temperature of
young stars, as well as to the formation
504 Chapter 11.
turbulence and a wide variety of electromagnetic radiation.
Further energy processes apparently take place both under the influence of the
combination of nucleons into alpha particles, and in connection with the energy of the
protons themselves - the movement of ethereal flows in the body of the nucleon.
new
In principle, the energy of the fusion of protons into alpha particles is sufficient to
explain the energy of radiation from stars. Let us trace this using the example of the Sun
[52].
As is known, the binding energy of an alpha particle is 28.3 MeV, or 4·10–12 J, which
is 10–12 J for each nucleon . With a mass of the Sun of 1.99·1030 kg, it contains 1.2· There
are 1057 nucleons, and the energy of their bonds is 1.2·1045 J. The power of the total
radiation of the Sun is 3.83·1026 W. And therefore, all the energy of the Sun is spent on
radiation in 100 billion years. If we take into account the exponential decrease in radiation
intensity with time, then 100 billion years will not be the radiation period, but a time
constant, while the total period will be several times longer. During this time, the Sun will lose
6·10–12 shares of its mass through radiation . Thus, in principle, the process of fusion of
nucleons into an alpha particle explains the nature of the energetics of stellar radiation.
However, it should be noted that in reality the potential energy capabilities of stars
are much greater. In the process discussed above, the intrinsic energy of protons is not
taken into account, which is many orders of magnitude greater than the energy of fusion
of alpha particles. On the other hand, the stability of protons significantly depends on the
loss of their own energy, which is lost due to the viscosity of the ether surrounding the
protons. And if the lifetime of protons is 10–
20 billion years, this means that part of the energy emitted into space, hidden from
observers, significantly exceeds the energy of electromagnetic radiation recorded by
observers.
The energy of stars, in principle, is provided by the thermonuclear reaction of fusion
of hydrogen into helium. However, one should also take into account the fact that all
celestial bodies continuously absorb the ether of the surrounding space, and since its
thermal energy is higher than the thermal energy of the ether in protons, the protons are
continuously fed with this external energy. This means that the total radiation energy of a
star over the entire time of its existence can be significantly greater than the value of
thermonuclear fusion energy calculated based on the current state of the star. This means
that the lifetime of a star may turn out to be longer than calculated from the energy costs
for radiation.
In accordance with these ideas, both the mechanism of supernova decay and the mechanism
of pulsars can be considered. Some assumptions can also be made here.
As protons lose energy, their size increases, and accordingly, their central hole in protons
increases. The position of the ethereal flows forming attached vortices - electron shells, turns
out to be unstable, and if the previously ethereal
the flows were closed in space external to the proton, then

now they tend to close through the central hole of the proton. This process can grow like an
avalanche over the entire main mass of the star, and in a short time the entire mass of the star
turns into compressed proton gas, which explodes, since all the protons experience mutual
electrical repulsion. It is possible that this process also involves nuclear reactions of the
synthesis of protons into deuterium, tritium,
helium-3 and alpha particles with the release of additional nuclear energy
gee.
As for pulsars, the idea of them as rapidly rotating stars is very artificial. More obvious is
the model of a truly pulsating star, in which longitudinal waves of compression of the star’s body
and transverse waves passing along its surface propagate. Then the relationship between the
periods of radiation generated by compression waves with the release of electromagnetic energy
and modulation of radiation becomes clear - they are transverse waves. The body of the star
itself does not necessarily have to rotate with a pulsation frequency, and the radiation does not
have to be narrowly directed, since there can be many wave crests on the surface.
In the considered picture of extragalactic astronomy, pulsars - pulsating stars and

supernovae - did not find a place, however, on the physical basis of these stars, some
assumptions based on the etherodynamic approach can also be made. This is all the more
legitimate since modern cosmogony does not offer any physical basis in relation to these
formations, limiting itself only to phenomenology. Here, too, we must not forget that any fact can
have countless interpretations; hypotheses existing today in science about the processes
occurring in pulsars and supernomas
vy stars, should not be considered the only possible ones, just as

and the etherodynamic models of processes proposed below,
living in these stars.
As is known, pulsars are weak sources of pulsating radio emission, bursts of which follow
each other with a very slowly varying period. By the type of radio emission, pulsars differ from
all known other sources of radio emission;
506 Chapter 11.
characterized by either constant intensity (galaxies and radio galaxies) or regular bursts of
radio emission.
Studies have shown that the maximum emission from pulsars occurs at meter waves,
however, in one pulse there is a spread of frequencies: first shorter and then longer waves
are emitted. In principle, this can be explained by the peculiarities of the passage of waves
in interstellar space. The periods of radiation pulses range from 0.033s to 3.75s. The periods
increase slowly, the time during which the period doubles is millions and tens of millions of
years. Modern cosmogony explains pulsars with the “rotating beacon” theory, according to
which pulsars are a rapidly rotating neutron star with a narrow beam of radiation.
However, the etherodynamic approach allows us to propose another model. Without

objecting to the high density of matter in pulsars, let us imagine a pulsar as a large densified
ethereal toroid, on the surface of which waves propagate, and the toroid itself holds the
ether due to the toroidal movement of the ether and the presence of a boundary layer on its
surface and has not only a toroidal, but and proton-type ring rotation. The passage of waves
along the surface creates a change in mechanical stress in the surface layers, due to which
radiation occurs. The ratio of the frequencies of
the pulse period to the frequency of radio emission is in good agreement with the ideas
about the speed of propagation of transverse waves passing along the surface of a body
with longitudinal waves passing in the body itself. The presented model may turn out to be
more plausible than the “rotating lighthouse” model, the origin and functioning of which
has not yet been explained.
As for the so-called supernovae, the situation with their explanation is similar.
Supernovae are stars that have experienced a catastrophic explosion followed by a huge
increase in their brightness. At maximum brightness, the luminosity of supernovae exceeds
the luminosity of stars such as the Sun by billions of times, sometimes exceeding the
luminosity of the entire galaxy in which they are located. The maximum brightness occurs
approximately 2–3 weeks after the explosion, after which its brightness decreases and within
100 days decreases by 25–50 times. On average, a galaxy like ours experiences one or two
supernovae per century. Astronomers discover one and a half to two dozen supernovae
every year. Based on the nature of the change in brightness over time and spectrum,
supernovae are divided into two types. Type I superstars are typically 3–5 times brighter
than type II supernovae and are characterized by slower
,
a decrease in brightness after the maximum. The spectra of type II superstars are most
characterized by intense emission lines, while type I superstars are characterized by very
broad absorption lines. Another difference is the presence in the spectrum of type II
supernovae of strong hydrogen lines, which are almost completely absent in the spectra of
type I superstars.
The products of supernova explosions are gas shells and pulsars expanding at high
speed (up to 20 thousand km/s). Supernova remnants are sources of radio emission or
thermal x-ray radiation.

The ether-dynamic model of the mechanism of a supernova explosion is based on the
idea of the loss of energy by protons over time. As the protons lose their energy, their sizes
increase,
and the central hole increases accordingly. From a certain moment, any push is
enough for the ethereal currents, which were closed into external space and until that time
formed the first attached vortex - the electron shell, to change their direction and begin to
close through this hole. The atom becomes ionized.
The ionization process takes place like an avalanche, since many atoms are in an
unstable state, primarily in the surface layers of the star, since the temperatures in these
layers are lower than in
internal, therefore, the speed of movement of atoms is less and the gradients of ether speeds
on their surfaces are less, which means that the viscosity of the ether is higher. The
ionization process spreads across the surface and into depth at the speed of sound and,
within a few hours, is capable of covering all regions of the star in which protons are in an
unstable state. Very quickly, large areas of compacted gas become ionized, all the protons
repel each other, and an explosion occurs.
It is of interest to estimate the acceleration that a proton receives on the surface of a

star as a result of such ionization.
If we imagine the parameters of the star similar to those of the sun, i.e. Msv = 2·1030
kg and Rsv = 7·108 m, then the number of protons in the star will be
Mzv 2·1030
—— = —————
Np = = 1.2·1057 pcs. (11.3)
mp 1.67 10–27
If we assume that the entire body of the star is ionized, then its charge
will be
508 Chapter 11.
Qsv = Np· e = 1.2·1057·1.6·10–19 = 2·1038 Cl. (11.4)
The Coulomb repulsive force acting on a proton on the surface

The star's density will be:
Qstar 2 1038 1.6 10–19

F= ———— = ———————— = 6 1011 N 4ÿ (11.5)
4ÿÿoR 2 8.85 10–12 72 1016
and, therefore, the acceleration that a proton moving away from the star will receive
will be equal to
F 6 1011
a= —— = —————
= 3.6 1038 m s–2 . (11.6)
mp 1.67 10–27
This acceleration will be 1.3· 1036 times greater than the acceleration of gravity on the
surface of the Sun !
The actual acceleration of protons will still be many times less
the fact that, firstly, not the entire body of the star is ionized at the same time,
this process spreads over time, during which the upper layers of plasma
will move away from the star, and secondly, not the entire body of the star is included in the
process; some remnant of the star remains. Nevertheless, it is clear that the collapse
ionization process is capable of providing the energy of a supernova explosion. As you
move away from the center of the explosion, the acceleration of the proton will decrease
by no less than the fifth power of the distance, since the entire mass is dispersed in space.
This means that when moving away by ten times the radius, the acceleration will decrease
by 105 times, and when moving away by one hundred radii – by 1010 times. And after
removing the acceleration radii by 10 million million, there will be no more acceleration at
all;
gas flow will continue by inertia. In fact, this limit will come earlier, which is consistent with
observations.
This same event can be approached from a different angle.
The average density of the Sun is 1.41 103 kg m–3 , this means that in
One cubic meter contains 1030 protons, i.e. the distance between neighboring protons is
10–10 m. When hydrogen atoms turn into protons, the repulsion force between the protons
will be equal to
2 2
q (1.6·10)
F= ——— = ————————
= 2.3 10–8 H. 4ÿ (11.7)
4ÿÿÿr 2 8.85 10–12 10–20
and the protons will receive an acceleration equal to

F 2.3 10–8
a= —— = ——————
= 6.85·1018 m·s-2 . (11.8)
2mp 2 1.675 10–27
The total speed of a proton can be
v = ÿ adt = ÿ adr(ÿt/ ÿr) (11.9)
or
ÿ ÿ
v² = ÿ adt = ÿ adr (11.10)

ro ro
Substituting the corresponding numbers, we find that the speed achieved by two
protons as a result of their interaction alone is 26 km/s. However, since the entire body of
the star explodes, the speed of the outer layers will increase many times over.
As for dwarf stars, neutron stars, etc., we should point out another
possibility for their explanation based on etherodynamic concepts.
Fundamentally, the formation of large ether-dynamic toroids is possible in
space, and participation in them
structure and ordinary neutrons is not excluded. Their external parameters will
differ little from those of neutron stars. waves,
passing along their surfaces and in depth will stimulate radiation into the external
environment. Here, the high speed of rotation of the star immediately receives an
explanation, since its rotation occurs as a result of the same transformation of toroidal
speed into annular speed, as occurs in the body of a proton. In fact, pulsars may turn out to
be one of the varieties of such toroids.
Thus, the etherodynamic approach can somewhat complement the understanding of

the emergence, evolution and death of stars and their energy.
11.6. Solar system as an element of the Galaxy
Numerous researchers, for example Descartes (1596–1650), Kant (1724–

1804), Buffon (1707–
1788), Laplace (1749–1827), Darwin (1845–1912), Hoyle (1944, 1958), Kuiper

(1951), McCrea and some others. The most recognized in the present
510 Chapter 11.
Currently, the concept of O.Yu. Schmidt (1891–1956) is used. A detailed review

of the main hypotheses is presented in [54, 55].
The main questions that the authors of the hypothesis needed to answer were
the hypotheses were the following:
1. How did the solar system come about?
2. Why is the vast majority of the mass of the Solar System (99.87%)
contained in the Sun?
3. Why are the orbital planes of all planets and all major satellites
coincide with the plane of the solar equator?
4. Why do all the planets and the Sun itself revolve in the same direction?
(direct) direction?
5. Why do the planets themselves also rotate around their axis in the
same forward direction?
6. Why do most satellites also revolve around their planets in a forward
direction?
7. Why, despite its low mass, does the planetary system carry the main
(98%) orbital momentum?
Reviews of hypotheses point out their limitations. While answering some of the
questions, each hypothesis did not find an answer to the others. Almost no hypothesis, with
the possible exception of Descartes' hypothesis, has provided an explanation for the origin
of the material from which the Solar System was formed. But the main drawback of the
hypotheses, apparently, is the separation of the question of the origin and formation of the
Solar system from galactic processes. Ethereal dynamics for the first time allows us to
consider the structural features of the Solar system in connection with these processes,
which makes it possible to relatively simply answer all the questions listed above.
It was shown above that within the spiral Galaxy there is a circulation of
ether - ether flows rush to the core in spiral arms, ether leaves the core in the
form of formed toroidal vortices - protons with attached vortices - electron
shells. The formed gas - hydrogen - gathers into stars, which, by inertia (the
gas, expanding, rushes from the core) continue to move towards the periphery
of the Galaxy.
As Miller believed, the speed of the ethereal wind currently in the solar
system region is about 400 km/s, although, if we rely on the boundary layer
theory, then the same Miller’s data gives an overestimated value. According
to Miller, the ethereal wind in the region of the Solar System is directed from
the star ÿ (Zeta) of the constellation Draco (64ÿ, 17.3 hours), i.e. in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of the spiral arm, which in the region of the Solar
System is directed towards the constellation Leo (15ÿ, 11 o'clock). However,
based on the same Miller’s data on
that at an altitude of 1860 m the speed of the ethereal wind does not exceed 10 km/
s, and taking into account that the atmosphere decreases its density and ability to
capture ethereal flows with increasing altitude, we should assume the speed of
the ethereal wind in the region of the Solar System is about 50 km/s.
It has now been discovered that in the direction of the constellation Leo there is some
anisotropy of space - a shift in the spectra of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
According to experiments carried out on board the U-2 aircraft (NASA) by

Korn, Wilkins, Smith et al. [55], the following results were obtained: the speed of
the Earth relative to the background radiation is 320–390 km/s and the speed
vector is directed to a point with the coordinate -natami ÿ = 12h ± 1h; ÿ = 32ÿ ±
21ÿ. In the galactic coordinate system, this direction has coordinates L = 194ÿ; ÿ
= + 65ÿ. The last measurements of large-scale anisotropy of the background
radiation of the Universe in relation to the Solar System were made in 1977 by a
group of authors from Berkeley. The following results were obtained:
v = 390 ± 60 km/s; ÿ = 11h ± 0.5h; ÿ = 6ÿ ± 10ÿ.
However, it should be noted that the interpretation of the results obtained as

evidence of the movement of the Solar system in this direction is hasty, because
in the direction of the constellation Leo there are a number of gradient parameters
of the ethereal flow, which has a perpendicular direction. These gradients of
density, pressure, temperature, etc. enough to explain the phenomenon not by a
shift of the solar system towards the constellation Leo, but by a change in the
parameters of photons passing through the gradient flows of the ethereal wind.
In the rarefied gas that forms a star at the initial stage of its development,
the ethereal wind exerts pressure on each proton. With an ethereal wind speed of
103 m/s and an ether density of 10–10 kg/m3, the number of Rei-
Nolds will be
Re = vD/ÿ = 103 1.12 10–15 / 4 109 = 3 10–22 , (11.11)
this value will correspond to the drag coefficient

2
resistance cw = 1000. Since the midsection of the proton is 10–30 m , That
effective drag force
F = cwÿÿSv2 = 103 10–10 10–30 106 = 10–31 N. (11.12)
With a mass of 1.6 10–27 kg, the proton could be accelerated

512 Chapter 11.
a = F/mp = 10-31 / 1.6·10–27 = 6·10–5 m·s–2 . (11.13)
In one day the proton will acquire a speed of about 5 m/s, and in a year about 2 km/
s.
In fact, this speed will be significantly less, since, firstly, acceleration occurs on
one side of the star, and on the opposite side the proton is decelerated, and the
acceleration occurs due to the difference in the speed of the ethereal wind, i.e. due to
its velocity gradient, and secondly, the formation of a star is accompanied by its
compression, which leads to mutual screening of protons. This means that, in fact,
directly below the surface layer, the etheric wind sharply reduces its speed. Thus, the
acceleration obtained by the surface
gas atoms, is redistributed over the entire mass of the star. As shown
above, the solar mass accumulation time constant is currently approximately 2 billion
years. With the age of the Sun being about 5.5 billion years, this means that its initial mass
was 15 times less than it is now. However, in the region of the core, the density of the ether
is no less than two orders of magnitude greater. Therefore, at that time the constant
the time of mass accumulation was significantly less.

This means that in fact the initial mass of the Sun was no more than 0.01 of the
mass of the Sun at present.
Ether velocity gradient in the region of the Galaxy's core at the border
layer of the spiral arm must be of the order of magnitude
ÿv 106 m s–1 106 m s–1

—— = ———— = ————— = 10-10 (11.14)
gradv = ———,
ÿ 0.3ps 0.3 3.1 1016 m
where ÿ is the thickness of the boundary layer in the arm of a spiral galaxy, conventionally
assumed to be 0.3 parsecs based on an analysis of photographs of spiral galaxies.
With a diameter of the Sun of the order of 109 m (the mass is less than at present,
but the compaction is still insufficient), the difference in the speed of the ether flow at
the edges of the Sun was
ÿve = Dc gradvÿ = 109 ·10–10 = 10–1 m·s–1 . (11.15)
Hence the difference in forces acting on protons, which are on opposite sides of
the Sun, is
ÿF = cw(v1² – v2²) = 2cwÿÿvÿÿveSp =
= 2 103 10–10 10–3 10–1 10–30 = 2 10–41 H. (11.16)

Here the ether density is taken equal to ÿe = 10–10 kg m–3 , those. by one
the order is higher than in the region of real near-Earth space, and the speed of
the ethereal wind is taken to be ve = 103 m s–1 .
It would take time to reach a gas flow speed on the surface of the Sun equal
to 2000 m/s
2 103 2 1 6.7 10–27

———————
ÿ = vÿ·2mp/ ÿF = = 1010 years = 10 billion years. (11.17)
2·10–41
Thus, the presence of an ethereal wind gradient in the boundary layer of

the ethereal flow rushing towards the Galactic core is more than
enough to ensure the rotation of the Sun, especially if we take into account its
subsequent compression, as a result of which further self-promotion will lead
to an even greater acceleration of its rotation.
In reality, the process was, of course, more complicated. As the Sun contracted, its
density increased, and the forces acting on the protons decreased due to their shielding
from each other. Due to the fact that the Sun moved to the region of expanding arms, where
both the speed of the ethereal wind and the gradient of its speed decrease, the Sun
accumulated mass and the angular momentum was redistributed over the entire mass, and
the linear speed of movement of its surface layers decreased.
Thus, at the early stage of formation, the Sun had a mass significantly less
than at present, by at least two orders of magnitude, and during compression
its rotation speed could be much higher than now. Subsequently, as the ether
was absorbed, the mass of the Sun grew, the diameter also increased, and the
rotation speed decreased accordingly, until it reached the existing value of 2
km/s.
On the surface of the Sun along the equator, the relationship between forces
attraction and centrifugal repulsion are currently equal
2
Fts mpvÿ Rÿ 2 2 vÿ RC (2 103 ) 2 7 108
——
kct = = 2·10-5
= ———— = ——— = ———————— , (11.18)
Ft GmpMCRCC GMC 6.67 10–11 1.99 1030
Therefore, there can be no question that part of the substance could be

torn away from the Sun under the influence of centrifugal force. However, at the
early stage of the formation of the Sun, the situation could have been completely different.
514 Chapter 11.
As already mentioned, the mass of the Sun was initially at least two orders of magnitude
smaller. After compression, its radius decreased significantly, and the rotation speed
increased significantly. If the density of the Sun were the same as it is now, then its radius
would be approximately 5 times smaller. If by that time the Sun had accumulated all its
rotational momentum, then, with a smaller mass, the speed of movement of its equatorial
layers compared to what exists today would be at least 1000 km/s due to its smaller diameter
than now and 100 times due to the smaller mass.
Taking into account the above, the above ratio would become completely
to others. The ratio of centrifugal force to gravity would become
2
Fe 1.4 108 (10)
—— = ————————
ktst = = 102 times! (11.19)
Ft 6.67 10–11 2 1028
This means that Darwin’s hypothesis, expressed by him in relation to the formation
of the Moon as a detached part of the Earth, can be applied in relation to the formation of
the entire planetary system: during the compression of the Sun at the first stage of its
evolution, a tidal wave should have appeared on its surface at the equator , which, due to
the predominance of centrifugal force over gravity, came off and further
fell into pieces, since it contains internal rotations. These parts formed into planets, with
which the same thing happened -
they formed satellites. Moreover, such a process could happen once, but it could also happen
multiple times, creating successive tidal waves, ejecting their matter in the equatorial plane
and thereby forming planets one by one. It is still difficult to establish which option actually
existed. The separated planets were still under the influence of the ethereal wind. However,
now it should be taken into account that the forces
that spin the planets in their orbits act much more efficiently than the same forces that
continue to spin the Sun. This is due to the fact that the Sun is a large mass, and the
shielding effect of the substance for the etheric wind is much greater here than in small
masses.
And most importantly, the diameter of the Sun is smaller than the diameter of the orbits
of the planets. Consequently, the difference in speeds in the gradient flow for the orbits
of the planets is greater than for the surface layers of the Sun, which means that the
orbital momentum of the planets will increase much more efficiently than that of the Sun
(Fig. 11.9).
Rice. 11.9. The emergence of a planetary system and the increase in orbital
moment of the planets under the influence of the gradient of the etheric wind
Finally, the absorption of ether by the planets will reduce the speed of rotation only in
proportion to the accumulated mass. The Sun's rotation speed slows down both due to its
mass and due to an increase in its radius.
Thus, the excess of the value of the orbital angular momentum of the
planets over the value of the angular momentum of the Sun is quite natural.
numbered
The rotation of planets and
their satellites in the forward direction. The main difficulty in explaining
this fact is the assumption that gaseous bodies
must rotate according to the law of constant speed circulation
ÿ vdl = const, or v = ÿ/2ÿr, (11.20)

l
and, therefore, the deep layers of the Sun should rotate faster
superficial, which leads to reverse rotation of the detached masses.
However, such a statement is incorrect.
This law is not true in all cases. This law actually takes place while
maintaining a constant density and a common reason for promotion
for the entire mass. There is none of this in this case. In the initial stage
of the formation of the Sun, its compression was accompanied by
compaction. The spin-up of the mass of the Sun occurred through the
spin-up of its surface, while the surface layers should move faster
than the internal ones. Because of this, the separated masses will
necessarily have direct rotation. Thus, this fact finds a simple and
natural explanation. The same applies to the satellites of planets.
516 Chapter 11.
The difficulty is presented by the opposite fact - the group of small satellites of Jupiter
(VIII, IX and XII), the satellites Phoebus of Saturn and Triton of Neptune have not direct, but
reverse rotation. In principle, if we assume that in the surface layer of Jupiter and Neptune at
the time of the formation of their satellites there was still a conservation of velocity
circulation, then this case can also be explained. But this requires special research.
After the formation of the planets, the Solar System continues its path along the
boundary layer of the spiral arm. The direction of the etheric wind changes, as does the
direction of its gradient. The sun is under the influence of forces whose moment is inclined
to its axis. As in any gyroscope, precession begins, which leads to an inclination of the Sun's
rotation axis by 7ÿ relative to its original position. Due to the fact that the Sun is not a solid
solid body, its surface layers retain the same orientation, as does the plane of the planets’
orbits. At present, precession is complete, since the gradient of ether velocities in this area
is small.
Thus, consideration of the processes of formation and formation of the Solar system as
a result of processes occurring in the Galaxy makes it possible, on the basis of ether
dynamics, to naturally explain the main features of the structure of the Solar system. Of
course, the assumptions you have made can only claim to be a hypothesis.
From the above, among other things, the conclusion follows that only stars that fall
into the boundary layer of the spiral arms of the Galaxy have their own rotation. These stars
may also have their own planetary systems. Stars that do not get there do not have their
own rotation and cannot have their own planetary systems.
As is known, at present the orbits of the planets are located in such a way that in 1766
the German physicist I.D. Titius was able to derive an empirical relationship, which, thanks
to the work of the German astronomer I.E. Bode
became widely known. This dependence, called the Titius–Bode rule, establishes that the
distances from the planets to the Sun, expressed in astronomical units, obey the dependence
0.4 (Mercury); 0.7 (Venus); 1.0 (Earth); 1.6 (Mars); 2.8 (asteroids); 5.2 (Jupiter); 10.0 (Saturn);
19.6 (Uranus); 38.8 (Pluto) with an error of no more than 3%. Neptune falls out of this
dependence. This dependence is obtained as follows. To the numbers of the sequence 0; 3;
6; 12; 24; 48; 96; 192; 384, starting from 3, the number 4 is added, and then all numbers are
divided by 10. In fact, this is a geometric progression with a certain initial shift. This empirical
dependence has not yet received a satisfactory theoretical explanation. However, based on
etherodynamic ideas about the essence
processes, we can put forward a certain hypothesis about the physical

essence of this dependence (Fig. 11.10, 11.11).
The sun, rotating, is a centrifugal pump relative to the masses of the
ether surrounding it, which throws the ether into outer space along the
equator, and draws it inside along its poles. As a result, there is a drain of
ether in the region of the poles, and throughout the equator there is
source. As a result, two toroidal flows are formed around the Sun: one in the northern and
the second in the southern part of the Sun. In this case, a flat gradient flow is formed in the
equatorial plane, in which the maximum speed and, accordingly, the maximum speed
gradient will lie in the equatorial plane. It is here that there will be a minimum of ether
pressure, which will force the planets to stabilize around the plane. Further, the flows will
diverge and head towards the poles. The first pair of toroidal flows will be joined by the
second pair, followed by the third, etc. with ever increasing sizes, exactly corresponding to
the above dependencies. The position of the planet is stabilized thanks to the flows of ether,
pushing it into the space between the vortices. As for the flows moving in a direction
transverse to the plane of the equator of the Sun, each planet crosses this plane twice
during its revolution around the Sun and experiences pressure in one direction during one
half-period, and in the other direction during the other half-period, as a result keeping the
position of its orbit unchanged. Thus, for the first time, a hypothesis has been expressed
about the physical basis of the Titius-Bode relationship.
Rice. 11.10. Secondary vortices indicated by an oscillating cylinder Flows around the cylinder are similar
to flows around the Sun as a centrifugal
pump
518 Chapter 11.
Rice. 11.11. Toroidal ether vortices created by the Sun, zones of low ether
pressure, corresponding to the Titius–Bode relationship.
The origin of Sunspots can be considered from a similar position.
Consideration of velocity gradients in connection with the role of the Sun as a

centrifugal ethereal pump leads to the conclusion that there is no noticeable velocity gradient
in the regions of the equator and poles. Spots appear in the region of the northern and
southern hemispheres in the latitude belt from
5ÿ to 30ÿ (the so-called “royal zones”). It can be assumed that the presence of a large
gradient of ether flow velocities in these areas stimulates the appearance of relatively stable
vortex toroidal formations, which are sunspots. Then their nature becomes clear: vortex
toroids near the surface of the Sun can have two positions: first, in which the plane of the
toroid is perpendicular to the plane of the surface, half of the toroid is located in the body
of the Sun; the second, in which the plane of the toroid coincides with the plane of the
surface of the Sun. In the first case, we have on the surface a section of the toroid across its
plane (bipolar spots), in the second - along the plane (unipolar spots), in which only the
central part of the toroid (core) is visible.
Multipolar spots are apparently a chaotic set of bipolar and unipolar spots. Only compact
sections of toroids on the surface of the Sun are observed in the form of “spots”, because
the part that is outside the Sun has a significantly lower density and
large in size, its observation is difficult (Fig. 11.12) .

Rice. 11.12. Formation of sunspots: a – the Sun as a centrifugal pump

pumping the ether; b – ether flows in the area of the unipolar spot; c – ether
flows in the bipolar spot region. 1 – direction of ether leak; 2 –
blowing ether along the equator of the Sun; 3 – area of maximum gradients of air
flows and area of sunspot occurrence; 4 – surface of the Sun; 5 – areas of
observed sunspots.
11.7. Etheric wind and the structure of the Earth
Streams of ether flowing in the spiral arm of our Galaxy wash the
Solar System and, accordingly, the Earth. Many researchers have paid
attention to the fact that space in the solar system region is not entirely
isotropic. Thus, A.A. Shpitalnaya [57] points to a sharp asymmetry in the
activity of the Sun: on its northern side, flares occur approximately 1.5
times more often than on the southern side. There are known statements
that in the direction of the constellation Leo there is anisotropy of the
relict radiation [13]
The anisotropy of space can also be traced at the Earth level. On
Earth, volcanic activity in the Northern Hemisphere is much more
intense than in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere the concentration
520 Chapter 11.
The main part of the continents has been sharpened. On Earth there is a global climatic
difference between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: the presence of stormy forties
latitudes, an ocean in the North Pole region and an ice continent in the South Pole region,
the lower temperature of the South Pole regions compared to the northern regions indicates
a spatial asymmetry of the Earth's global processes.
Many of the listed phenomena receive a simple explanation if we take into account the
blowing of the Earth by the etheric wind, i.e. that stream of ether in which our Solar system
is located and which flows in the spiral arm of the Galaxy, having a general direction from its
periphery to the core.
The fact of the presence of an ethereal wind was experimentally confirmed by the work
of Miller and his group in 1905–1907 and then in 1921–1925, and later in 1929 by Michelson,
Peace and Pearson, about which there are corresponding reports from these groups. The
work [56] presents articles that present the results of experiments carried out by these
groups, and also shows the fundamental gross methodological and instrumental errors
made by other groups (Kennedy, Illingworth, Piccard, Staeli, Townes, Cedarholm ), who did
not receive any results, and instead of analyzing their errors, declared the non-existence of
the ethereal wind and the ether itself as such. Currently, research into the ethereal wind is
being carried out by Yu.M. Galaev (Kharkov) [71].
As a result of the work of Miller (see [100–106] to Chapter 1), who carried out a series
of experiments with the interferometer he inherited from Michelson and Morley, it turned out
that there is a clear dependence of the speed of the ethereal wind on height, and at surface
of the Earth, as was shown in 1881 and 1887. authors [39, 40], the relative speed of the
ethereal wind is low and at an altitude of 250 m above sea level is approximately 3 km/s,
and at an altitude of 1860 m – from 8 to 10 km/s. Thus, the relative speed of the ethereal
wind increases with height. We can assume that the speed of the ethereal wind in space is
50–
60 km/s.
After processing the data, Miller found that the direction of the ethereal wind is as if the
Earth, in its motion in the motionless ether, was moving towards the star of the Draco
constellation (declination
+65ÿ, right ascension 262ÿ). The probable error in Miller's experiments did not exceed 2ÿ.
These coordinates almost coincide with the coordinates
dinata of the poles of the ecliptic.
The results obtained by Miller are in full accordance with the theory of gas flow around
a ball [58, p. 227–232]. The solution to the system of equations for the flow around a ball is
graphically depicted in Fig. 11.13.
A) b)
Rice. 11.13. Gas flow around a ball: a – direction of flow; b – diagram of changes in relative flow
velocity with increasing distance from the surface of the ball
When a gas flows around a ball, it forms a boundary layer, with the layers closest to
the surface of the body moving together with the ball, and layers further away
They have some intermediate speed, and, starting from
of a certain value, the gas speed corresponds to its speed in free space. In other words, the
boundary layer has a certain thickness, depending on the parameters of both the gas and
the ball.
At points with coordinates relative to the central axis of the gas
flow ÿtr = 109.6ÿ the boundary layer comes off. Starting from this coordinate, the gas must
be motionless relative to the ball at different distances from it until it breaks away and passes
at a certain distance.
rum distance from the boundary layer ball.
If a ball is blown by a gas flow, then on the surface of the ball on the side of this flow
the pressure will be different [56. With. 277–285]. In the frontal part, which is under the direct
influence of the flow impact, the gas pressure will be increased. On Earth, this corresponds
to the region of the Arctic Ocean; continents cannot penetrate here, since the increased
ether pressure in this area will push them away. Then the ethereal flow flows around the
ball, a velocity gradient is formed in the boundary layer, and, consequently, a reduced
pressure. On Earth, this will lead to the fact that from areas of higher pressure in the
Southern Hemisphere, the continents will gradually shift to an area of low pressure in the
Northern Hemisphere, which will be somewhat elongated compared to the Southern
Hemisphere. As a result, the Earth must accept
522 Chapter 11.
the shape of some resemblance to a pear, which is actually the case:

The Northern Hemisphere is elongated by 400 m compared to the Southern
Hemisphere, this shape of the Earth is called a
geoid (Fig. 11.14) The flow of ether around the globe leads to the
emergence of an attached toroidal vortex. The axis of this toroid will have
a constant galactic direction, and the vortex ether flows themselves will
involve the Antarctic air masses of the atmosphere in their movement.
Rice. 11.14. Flow of the ethereal wind around the Earth: 1- zone of
increased ether pressure; 2 – zone of low ether pressure; 3 – zone of moisture
capture from the ocean; 4 – attached toroidal vortex of the ether, capturing
atmospheric air in winter.
The formation of a toroidal attached vortex is confirmed

modeling (Fig. 11.15).
Air masses that fall into the zone of the ethereal attached vortex will
circulate, pass over the ocean, where they will pick up moisture, and then,
rising into the stratosphere and cooling, they will pump air there,
increasing pressure, and emit moisture in the form
snow is already on the ice continent itself. However, this only happens in winter.
An explanation for this may be the fact that in winter the air in the lower layers of
the atmosphere is colder, and therefore denser.
A)
b)
V)
Rice. 11.15 Gas flow around a body of revolution: a - flow around a

circular cylinder at Re = 26; b – flow around a ball at Re= 118; c – flow around
ball at Re= 500
The lower the temperature, the higher the air density at the same pressure:
ÿÿ = ÿÿ ÿ/ÿ (11.21)
524 Chapter 11.
and at atmospheric pressure and in summer at a temperature of 0°C it is 1.2928 kg/m³, in

winter at –60°C it is 1.656 kg/m³, i.e. 1.28 times more. Since the number of air molecules per
unit volume increases, the total force acting on it from the ether flows penetrating into this
volume increases proportionally. The air begins to be captured by the attached ethereal
vortex, a toroidal air vortex develops, and this process grows like an avalanche. This is true,
since in Antarctica there is always a stable anticyclone, and in winter it snows almost all the
time, building up ice masses that gradually slide towards the ocean and break off, forming
icebergs.
In those places where the attached ether vortex most closely touches the surface of
the ocean, turbulence occurs, which leads to agitation of the water masses located in this
area. Steady westerly winds blow here, which is explained by the manifestation of Coriolis
forces caused by the relative movement of the ether and the rotation of the Earth. These are
the “roaring forties”, which actively manifest themselves in the winter. In summer, everything
calms down, which suggests that with an increase in air temperature and, accordingly, a
decrease in its density, air masses are no longer captured by ethereal currents with such
force as to form a stable vortex.
A similar phenomenon is absent on planets with low atmospheric pressure, for

example on Mars, but can occur on planets with high atmospheric density at low temperatures.
It should be noted that the ethereal wind has not one, but two systematic components
- galactic and solar (Fig. 11.16). The solar component of the etheric wind owes its origin to
the Sun, which works like a centrifugal pump. As a result, there is a change in the direction
of the etheric wind on the surface of the earth throughout the year, since on one side of the
orbit both components are summed up, and on the opposite side they are subtracted. In
combination with the absorption of ether by the Earth, leading to its expansion, increase in
mass, slowdown of rotation, spreading (pulling apart) of continents from each other, the
formation of a system of rift ridges, spreading of the ocean floor and its subduction (creeping)
under continental plates, The overall picture of the reasons for the structure of the Earth
becomes more clear.
The emission, as a result of internal disturbances by the Sun, of toroidal and photon-
like structures, recorded by the author on recordings of laser beam oscillations, upon
reaching the Earth's surface, leads to fluctuations in the magnitudes and directions of ether
flows on the Earth's surface. This is also the cause of the so-called magnetic storms and
disturbances (Fig. 11.17).
Rice. 11.16. Direction of the ethereal wind relative to the Earth's orbit:
a – at the beginning of the formation of the Solar system and at the
present time; b – annual movements of the Earth relative to the ether flows created by the Su
526 Chapter 11.
Rice. 11.17. Variations in the ethereal wind discovered during measurements

using a laser installation
From the above, consequences follow that have applied implications.

character
1. It has now been discovered that optical and radar high-precision measurements
of the positions of planets and artificial satellites of the Earth give incompatible results.
The discrepancy in the measurement results gives values that are significantly larger
than what follows from the summation of the maximum errors of both methods. It seems
that the reason is the failure to take into account the influence of the ethereal wind, which
distorts the values of ranges obtained by radar methods.
house.
2. All influences exerted by the Sun on earthly processes occur through an intermediate medium -
the ether. Considering that all processes have inertia, it can be argued that any processes on Earth will
have delays relative to changes in the parameters of the ether in near-Earth space, caused by processes
on the Sun or other influences of other cosmic bodies. According to preliminary data, the time reserve in
such cases can be several months, and possibly more. This means that research and regular observations
of the ethereal wind and ether parameters in near-Earth space can be used as forecast elements to prevent
or at least minimize negative
processes that can cause cosmic influences on Earth. It is safe to say that if there was a
flood forecast
in Europe in August 2002, then the leaders of the countries would have time to accept
necessary measures to prevent the damage they suffered as a result of the complete
surprise of what happened. Thus, the need to study the state of ethereal flows and ethereal
wind, its speed and direction in near-Earth space
acquires strategic importance.

It can also be considered quite probable that strong and extended
disturbances in the near-Earth ether can seriously affect climatic features, for
example, those already observed in 2002, when storms, hurricanes and rainfall
hit Europe. ropu and at the same time in India, which was expecting the usual
monsoon showers, a drought occurred. It can also be assumed that the
magnetization reversal of rock layers, discovered by geologists in a number of
areas, is not a consequence of the magnetization reversal of the entire Earth,
but only local changes associated with disturbances of ethereal flows.
11.8. Resistance of the ether to the movement

of celestial bodies
One of the main and traditional objections to the existence of the ether is the
assumption that the ether should resist the movement of the planets, as a result of which
this movement will stop and the planets will fall into the Sun. In this regard, it seems useful
to make appropriate estimates.
As is known [58, p. 30], the resistance exerted by the moving medium

clinging spherical bodies, is determined by the expression
F = cwÿÿSv², (11.22)
where c = f (Re); Re = vD/ÿ – Reynolds number. For broadcast kinematic

viscosity ÿ = 4·109 m 2 s–
1 . According to the calculation, for the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, both for orbital and galactic movements,
the drag coefficient cw = 0.1, for Jupiter cw = 0.4 (Table .11.1).
The deceleration of the bodies will be
a = – F/ M, (11.23)
whence the change in speed over time ÿt will be:

528 Chapter 11.
ÿv = a ÿt. (11.24)
In table 11.1 and 11.2 show data calculated for the Sun and for the main planets of
the Solar System.
Table 11.1 Reÿ Reÿ

Heaven M, kg S, m² V d, With
new Gal m w
Body m/s
of the Sun 1.99 1.52 41 1.4 3·1 0
tse 1030 1018 05 109 09 ,1
-
Mer- 3.24 1.79 4.8 4.8 107 0

curius 1023 1013 ·104 ·106 2.3 106 ,1
Vene- 4.86 1.2 1 3.5 1.2 2.5 0
ra 1024 14 0 ·104 ·107 107 ,1
4.5
106
Earth 5.97 1.27 3·1 1.3 2.6 0
1024 1014 40 107 107 ,1
3.8
106
Mars 6.39 3.55 2.4 6.8 1.4 0

1023 1013 104 ·106 107 ,1
1.6
106
UPI- 1.9 1 1.54 1.3 1.4 2.8 0
ter 0 27 1016 ·104 108 108 ,4
1.8 107
Sa- 5.68 1.05 9.6 1.1 1.3 0
turn 1026 1016 103 108 108 ,1
1.1 107
Uranus 8.73 1.82 6.8 4.8 107 0
1025 1015 103 107 3.2 ,1
106
Neptu 1.03 1.62 5.4 4.5 107 0

n 1026 1015 103 107 2.5 ,1
106
Plu- 5·102 1.27 4.7 1.3 2.5 0

4
tone 1014 103 107 106 ,1
6·1
06
Table 11.2 ÿvÿ ÿvo

Heaven FHa For aGal, ² aorb, ²
new l., kg b, kg m s– m s– in a year in a year

Sun's
body - 5·10– - -
eleven 4.5
14
tse 0 17 10–12
1.3 1.6 3.8 1 5.8 1 3.2 3.8

–12 –14
Mercury 1012 1010 0 0 10–10 10–11
Vienna 7.8 6.5 1.6 1 1.4 1 1.3 1.2

–14
ra 1013 1010 0 –13 0 10–10 10–11
Earth 9.0 5.2 8.5 1 1.2 8.5

1013 ·1010 1.5 10–13 0 –15 10–10 ·10–12
Mars 2.4 3.8 3.8 1 5.8 1 31 7.8

–14
1012 ·1010 0 –13 0 0 –10 ·10–12
UPI- 3.8 4.8 1.9 1 2.6 1 1.6 2.5
–12
ter 1015 ·1012 0 0 –15 10–10 ·10–12
Sa- 6·1 41 1.7 1 8·10– 8.5 2.5

–12 16
turn 14 0 11 0 0 10–11 10–12
Uranus 7.8 3.8 1.5 1 4·10– 1.2 21

·1013 ·1010 0 -12 15
10–10 0 -12
Neptu 1.1 2.1 1.1 1 2·10– 81 1.2

–12 16 –11
n ·1014 ·1010 0 0 10–12
Plu- 9·1 1.2 1.8 1 2.5 1 1.5 1.6

–12
tone 12 0 109 0 0 –16 10–10 10–12
As can be seen from the tables, the change in the speed of the planets per year is insignificant for
this stage - the galactic change in speed is approximately 10–10 year–1 , the orbital speed is 10–11–10–11
year–1 from the current value, which, certainly cannot be detected by direct measurements. It should also
be noted that the speed deceleration should be exponential, i.e. the process may take much longer than
expected from direct extrapolation. In addition, one should not forget that the calculations take into
account only one resistance factor, but the full picture may turn out to be much more complex and can
help identify not only the factors slowing down the movement of celestial bodies, but also their
acceleration.
530 Chapter 11.
11.9. Comets
Comets (from the Greek kometes - a star with a tail, lit. long-haired) are bodies of the
Solar system that look like nebulous objects, usually with
a light clot - a core in the center and a tail. The number of comets in the Solar system is
extremely large and reaches hundreds of billions. However, only a small number of comets
entering the orbit of Jupiter are available for observation. Comets are observed when their
nucleus is
a small icy body - approaches the Sun at a distance less than 4-5 astronomical units, i.e.
over a distance of about 600–750 million km. Then it is heated by the rays of the Sun, and
gas and dust begin to be released from the core. Scientists think so [59–63].
Unlike planets, comets move along elongated trajectories, coming close to the Earth
and other planets, but the far part of the orbit is
aphelion - for many comets it extends far beyond the solar system. And some comets do
not return to it at all.
By 1971, about 1 thousand systems of elements of comets had been calculated, and
the results of the calculations were compiled into the appropriate catalogs. There are short-
period comets with a period of revolution around the Sun of less than 200 years and long-
period comets with a long period. Comets with hyperbolic orbits, moving away from the
Sun, leave the solar system forever, going into interstellar space.
Comets are often accompanied by meteor showers and even showers, when a whole
swarm of “falling stars” falls on the Earth. True, only a few reach the Earth; they are called
fireballs; most of the “stars,” but in fact small particles, burn up in the upper layers of the
atmosphere.
Modern scientists imagine comets in the form of a dense “head” and a rarefied gas
tail. Most comets have a star-shaped or diffuse bright nucleus in the middle of their heads,
which represents the glow of the central, densest zone of gases around the true nucleus of
the comet.
According to modern concepts, comet nuclei consist of water gas mixed with “ice” of
other gases (CO2, NH3 , etc.), as well as rocky substances. Dust grains are partially
released from the core during the evaporation of ice, and partially formed in its vicinity
during subsequent condensation of vapors. Gas and dust create a foggy shell around the
core -
the comet's atmosphere, sometimes called the coma, which, together with the nucleus,
makes up the comet's head. The comet's head and its tails do not have sharp outlines.
The comet's atmosphere is continuously dispersed in space and exists only when
gases and dust are released from the nucleus.
Under the influence of light pressure and solar wind - streams of particles emitted by the
Sun, gases and dust are carried away from the core, forming tails
comets
It is believed that a gas tail appears on a comet as it approaches the Sun. Astronomers
believe that the gas itself is the result of evaporation of the comet's body under the influence
of sunlight. Sunlight pushes away gas and particles emitted by the comet, and a “tail” is
formed. True, there are comets with two “tails”, one directed from the Sun, and the second
towards the Sun, more precisely, forward in the direction of the comet’s movement. And
there are also a larger number of “tails”, and they are scattered like a fan, and the Sun seems
to have nothing to do with it.
Observations have shown that comets quickly lose matter and the most persistent of
them live no more than they manage to complete several thousand revolutions around the
Sun, this time is extremely short from a cosmogonic point of view. But there are billions of
them in the solar system; astronomers report to the general public only about some of them,
those that can be observed with the naked eye.
In connection with all of the above, the following questions arise:

1. What is the origin of comets?
2. Why do comets have elongated orbits that differ sharply from the orbits of planets?
How could such orbits be formed?
3. Do comets go through any stages of evolution in their existence ?
4. How can we explain that groups of meteorites are soon discovered in the place of
comets?
Other questions may be asked.
Modern science has put forward two hypotheses about the origin of comets. According
to the first of them, put forward by the Soviet astronomer S.K. Vsekhsvyatsky, comets are
the results of powerful volcanic eruptions on large planets and their satellites. According to
the second hypothesis, put forward by the Dutch astronomer J. Oort, comets come from a
giant comet cloud surrounding the solar system. This cloud extends over enormous
distances - up to 150 thousand astronomical units and was formed at the same time as all
the planets. Here, however, the existence of short-period comets orbiting within the solar
system within the orbit becomes incomprehensible
Jupiter. But this is attributed to the disturbing effect of the planets. However, the first
hypothesis is not confirmed by statistics, and the second is not confirmed by astronomical
observations.
From the standpoint of etherodynamics, a hypothesis can be put forward about the
origin, structure and evolution of comets, which differs from the above.
money
532 Chapter 11.
As was shown above, all celestial bodies absorb ether from the surrounding space,
which enters them on average at a speed equal to the second cosmic speed; for the Earth it
is 11.18 km/s. Due to the absorption of ether, all celestial bodies increase their mass and
expand. The absorption of ether is distributed unevenly over the surface of bodies, since
different parts of the surface of the planets , due to the presence of different rocks, have
different ether-dynamic resistance, therefore the accumulation of ether in the depths of the
body occurs unevenly. Partially accumulated ether is processed into a substance, and part
of it accumulates in deep layers, creating in some places excess pressure held by rocks that
have a high ether-dynamic resistance, such rocks are any conductive rocks.
The accumulation of ether pressure cannot continue indefinitely. It begins to either seep
out, swirling and creating so-called geopathogenic zones, or, if the accumulation of ether
proceeds faster than resorption, the rocks holding the ether break through, and then a stream
of ether comes out through rocks that have a high dielectric constant and from -for this they
are ether pipelines, i.e. channels with low ether-dynamic resistance. Such rocks are any non-
porous insulators.
After the jet of ether from the insulator breaks out, it collides with an empty space in
which the dielectric constant is equal to unity, and the ether-dynamic resistance for the jet
increases sharply. This is enough for the jet to first expand and then collapse into a toroid,
its edges touching the surface of the Earth, the rocks of which have a dielectric constant
higher than that of free space. This contributes to the completion of the formation of the
ethereal toroid, which now includes surface rocks.
The ethereal toroid is a stable and energy-intensive system. Gradients of ethereal flows
inside the toroid create forces sufficient to tear off
and retention in it of matter torn from the Earth's surface. The ethereal toroid itself, like any
gaseous toroidal vortex, is repelled by its outer surface from the environment and moves in
space in the direction in which the ether flows in it move.
center, i.e. in the same direction in which the ether moved in the stream,
formed a toroid. Thus, an ethereal stream escaping from the bowels of the planet forms a
toroidal vortex on its surface, which will capture the rock in its body and carry some of it
through
the top of the toroid and will scatter around the circumference in the form of an annular
shaft, a small part will be collected in the center in the form of a slide, and the rest will be dragged away from
itself (Fig. 11.18, a). Further, everything will depend on what strength and power the initial
stream of ether was.
If the power was relatively small, then the toroid after formation (Fig. 11.18, b) will
quickly lose stability. Then an explosion will occur with a scattering of the accumulated
substance and ethereal jets. Gradients of ethereal flows will create forces that will cause
destruction, and along the axis of the jets the forces will be directed towards the movement
of the ether, and near the jets the direction of the forces will be towards the jets. The forces
can be very strong, sufficient to destroy rocks, buildings,
forests
If the power of the initial jet is large, then the toroid along with the matter will rush into
outer space, and a new comet will appear in space. Possessing, like any gas vortex, self-
propulsion, the toroidal vortex of the ether, pushing off from the surrounding ether, will
gradually increase its speed and orbital momentum, moving to an increasingly elongated
orbit until its energy is exhausted (Fig. 11.18 , V).
At the same time, the toroidal vortex will form into a pipe-type formation closed on
itself. The substance collected by it will be concentrated in the walls of this pipe, since it is
in them that the toroidal velocity gradient is maximum, therefore, all the substance will be
sucked into these walls. The boundary layer of ether on the surface of the pipe will not allow
either the ether or the trapped substance to be scattered. However, until the etheric vortex
begins to lose its energy due to diffusion and due to the conversion of rotational energy
into the energy of translational motion.
The further evolution of the comet is associated with the loss of energy by the ethereal
vortex due to the viscosity of the ether and the conversion of its toroidal rotation energy
into the energy of the translational motion of the comet, with the sublimation of the
substance captured by the comet and with a number of other factors, the full consideration
of which requires separate studies. However, here, too, several assumptions can be made.
The substance captured by the toroidal vortex is
subjected to grinding inside the vortex, since there are gradient flows of ether in it and
large forces arise that tear the substance. These forces can be so great that the rupture of
a substance can occur not only at the molecular or atomic level, but also at the nuclear level.
Therefore, transmutation of substances and elements can occur inside the ethereal toroid,
which probably explains the elemental composition of meteorites, in which the increased
iron content is due to the highest value of the bond energy of nucleons in the atomic
nucleus of iron (at. weight 56 = 14 alpha particles ) compared to the nuclei of other elements
found-
534 Chapter 11.
to the left and right of it in the periodic table, as well as an increased

content of SiO2 (at. weight 28 + 2x16 = 7 + 2x4 alpha particles) and MgO
(at. weight 24 + 16 = 6 + 4 alpha particles). The presence of other
elements - aluminum, calcium, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, nickel and
sulfur is also explained by the relatively high specific binding energy of
nucleons in even-numbered nuclei, although somewhat lower than that
of iron. In this case, it does not matter what composition of elements was captured by
birth.
If part of the rotational energy of the vortex is lost, then the boundary
layer on the surface of the vortex weakens, and it begins to allow
accumulated matter to pass through. In this case, part of the ground
dusty substance is thrown back by the whirlwind, and the comet forms
a “tail”, which will become visible when the comet approaches the Sun
(Fig. 11.18, d). If the energy losses increase further, then the boundary
layer in the central part of the toroid will be eroded and will no longer
retain matter. Then part of the ground substance is thrown forward at
high speed, and the comet forms, in addition to the rear one, a front “tail”
(Fig. 11.18, e). And if the energy losses become even greater, then the
substance will begin to be scattered in all directions (Fig. 11.18, f). This
means that the comet is close to death.
Since when the vortex loses energy, its rotation speed slows down,
large formations of matter - future meteorites, captured by the inner part
of the vortex, will gather together, as happens with tea leaves after
stirring tea in a glass. After the complete dissolution of the ethereal
vortex, in the place of the comet there will be only a swarm of meteorites,
which no longer increases the orbital momentum, does not produce any
transmutations, but simply flies by inertia in the same orbit. And the
comet died. However, since the disintegration of a comet is a gradual
process, the meteor shower and its parent comet may
coexist for a long time (Fig. 11.186, g).
The material accumulated by the comet becomes a swarm of
meteorites. Thus, the Leonid meteor shower, visible annually on
November 15, was identified in 1866 with the orbit of a faint comet, which soon disapp
eight meteor showers - Lyrids, Aquarids, Perseids, Jacobinids, Orionids,
Taurids, Leonids, Bielids, appearing annually, were confidently identified
with comets [46, p. 285–292].
Rice. 11.18. Comet formation: a) initial stage; b) formation c) release of a comet into space; d)
formation of a posterior “tail”; e) formation of the front “tail”; f) dispersion of the substance; g) meteor
shower remaining after co-
meta
It seems that such a version has a right to exist. In photographs of

comet Hyakutaki, taken at the Main Russian Observatory of the Academy
of Sciences by researchers I.S. Guseva and N.A. Sokolov from March 14
to March 21, 1996 (see the newspaper “Anomaly” No. 11 (119), 1996 , p. 5),
the toroidal structure of the comet is clearly visible (Fig. 11.19, a). There
are also photographs of comets at different stages of development (Fig.
11.19, b–d).
Ethereal toroids are apparently produced by planets quite often, but
on Earth this occurs more often in the ocean than on land. First, the
surface of the oceans is twice as large as the surface of the land.
Secondly, the bottom of the oceans is thinner, and the dielectric constant
of water is high, so the conditions here are better for the passage of
ethereal jets and for the formation of vortex toroids. There are numerous sig-
stories of sailors about how certain things break out of the water and go up
The UFO is gray in color and saucer-shaped. Are these future comets?
And is this why the cores of most comets that the Earth encounters are
made of ice? But there is evidence of another kind, when large closed
vortex formations are visible under water at great depths. Maybe these
are also toroids, but they did not have enough energy to move further, and
they got stuck in the water?
536 Chapter 11.
Rice. 11.19. Photographs of comets: a – comet Hyakutaki, 1996, the toroidal structure is
clearly visible; b – comet Ikeya–Seki, 1965, the comet has a spindle-shaped rear “tail”; c – comet
Ikea, 1963, the rear “tail” is widened and split; d – Arend-Roland comet, 1957, the comet has a
sharp front “tail”; d – comet Marcos, 1957, matter is dissipating, the comet is close to death.
Similar cases also happened on land. There are many dozens of

similar formations on Earth. In the North there are many round lakes into
which no rivers flow. In the city of Sasovo, Ryazan region, on April 12,
1991, a crater with a diameter of 28 m and a depth of about 4 m formed at
night. At the same time, 1800 tons of rock disappeared, and windows and
doors in the surrounding houses were squeezed out [64] (Fig. 11.20) .
Rice. 11.20. Structure of the Sasovo funnel
Evidence of this is also, for example, Puchezh-Katunskaya

astrobleme formed about 175 million years ago, the total diameter of
which is 80 km, in which, according to gravimetric surveys and seismic
profiling, there is a ring trench with an outer diameter of 40–42 km and a
depth of up to 1.6 km in the eastern sector and up to 1.9 km in the western
sector. There is a central rise in it, known as the “Vorotilovsky ledge”,
which has a diameter of 8–10 km at the arch, 12–14 km at the base and
rises above the bottom of the annular trench by 1.6–1.9 km, and The
steepness of the slopes at its base is estimated at 35ÿ–40ÿ. The top part
of the rise is a flat ring arch with a height difference of up to 200 m, in the
center of which there is a depression measuring 3x5 km and depth up to
525 m [65] (Fig. 11.21). But what can be said about the Moon, on the
surface of which there
are hundreds of “astroblems” with a diameter of many tens and
hundreds of kilometers? All of them have ring shafts, partially destroyed
due to large temperature differences (daytime +110ÿÿ, night -
120ÿÿ), at least 10% of them have preserved the central hill (Fig. 11.22). A
similar
phenomenon on the Moon in the area of the Alphonse crater, which
lasted only about 3 minutes, was observed in November 1958 by the
famous astronomer N.A. Kozyrev, which he confidently attributed to a volcanic eruption
538 Chapter 11.
but which could not be such, if only because of its short duration. Similar phenomena have
been repeatedly observed on Mars in the form of a bright flash of atomic-hydrogen luminosity
level with the expansion of the light spot to several tens of kilometers within a few seconds.
Rice. 11.21. Relief of the surface of the true bottom of the Puchezh-
Katun impact structure: a – astrobleme as a whole; b – central uplift; V -
arch of the central rise above the 0.5 km isohypse. The ratio of vertical and
horizontal scales is 1:3.
Rice. 11.22. The surface of the Moon in the first quarter (based on a drawing by
the Czech astronomer I. Klepesta)
540 Chapter 11.
It is possible that the famous “Tunguska meteorite” of 1908 was not a meteorite at all:
after all, no traces of the meteorite itself were ever found, and the fall of the forest and the
relief of the surrounding area resemble in its shape an astrobleme, perhaps not as large as
Puchezh -Katunskaya, but still... And all this happened directly above a geological fault
discovered later.
If we take into account that on the entire land surface of the Earth there are only about
150 large astroblemes, and if we assume that all of them are younger than the Puchezh-
Katunskaya, then it turns out that each large astrobleme appears no more often than once
every million years. But small astroblemes like Sasovskaya appear much more often.
Thus, the expressed etherodynamic hypothesis about the essence

the origin and evolution of comets seems probable.
11.10. Resolution of cosmological paradoxes in

aetherdynamics
When constructing cosmological theories and models, the question always arises
about the solvability of so-called cosmological paradoxes - difficulties, contradictions that
arise when extending the laws of physics to the Universe as a whole or to sufficiently large
areas of it. Thus, when the Second Law of Thermodynamics was extended to the Universe in
the past, the conclusion was drawn about the inevitability of heat death; age of the Metagalaxy
in the theory of a non-stationary Universe until the 50s of the twentieth century. turned out
to be less than the age of the Earth. However, usually under cosmological
Chinese paradoxes mean three specific paradoxes that arise

in the cosmological application of the laws of classical (Newtonian) physics: thermodynamic
[66, 67], photometric Shezo–
Olbers, named after the Swiss astronomer Chézo (1744) and the German astronomer Olbers
(1826) [68] and Neumann's gravitational
Seliger [70], named after German scientists. These paradoxes are considered to be overcome
by relativistic cosmology, but relativistic cosmology itself comes into conflict with the ideas
about space and time as general physical invariants.

Let us consider the resolution of the listed paradoxes from the standpoint of ethereal
Rodynamiki.
Thermodynamic paradox. The thermodynamic paradox of Clausius (1865) was

formulated by him on the basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics [66]. According to
the Second Law, any physical system
not exchanging energy with other systems (for the Universe as a whole such exchange is
apparently excluded), tends to the most probable equilibrium state with maximum entropy.
Therefore, all types of energy in the Universe must ultimately turn into the energy of thermal
motion, which will be evenly distributed throughout the substance of the Universe, after
which all macroscopic processes in it will cease. This reasoning is based on the assumption
that no movement can be reversed spontaneously. This is true, but only in relation to each
individual form of motion of matter localized in one particular region of space.
Boltzmann hypothesized that the Universe is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium,

but according to the laws of chance, deviations from this state sometimes occur in one place
or another. These deviations are less frequent, the larger the area they cover, the greater
the deviations themselves [67]. Such an attempt to explain the absence of “Heat Death” in
the Universe cannot be considered satisfactory
for many reasons, in particular, because the very concept of randomness is just an
unknown pattern, and not a principle of the structure of nature. Any deviation from the
equilibrium position must be causal in nature and have its own internal mechanism.
Consequently, the solution proposed by Boltzmann is just an attempt to push the explanation
to another level of organization of matter.
The relativistic explanation for the absence of “Heat Death” is based on the principles
of nonstationarity of the Universe, which implies the beginning of its creation, and cannot be
considered satisfactory.
Ethereal dynamics approaches the problem under consideration in a fundamentally
different way, and the explanation for the absence of “Heat Death” in the Universe based on
its concepts turns out to be relatively simple.
As shown above, in the Galaxy there is a circulation of the ether, while there are two
regions separated in space in which various processes take place: in the galactic core there
is a process of formation of vortices, accompanied by a decrease in the temperature of the
ether in this region, and on the periphery there is a process of resorption vortices,
accompanied by a spontaneous increase in the temperature of the environment and an
increase
pressure change.
Of course, the overall balance of energy at both levels of matter is
at the level of the ether and at the level of particles of matter - the sum is constant, the
energy is only converted from the form of ordered motion in each vortex into the form of
chaotic motion in the free ether, which then moves in the spiral arms of the Galaxy from the
periphery to the core. The reverse process occurs in the core: the forward movement of large
542 Chapter 11.
the mass of the ether and its chaotic movement are transformed into rotational
movement.
An increase in entropy at the level of matter particles loses its meaning after the
vortices disintegrate at the periphery of the Galaxy. An increase in entropy in the free ether
loses its meaning after vortices are formed in the core of the Galaxy. Thus, as Boltzmann
assumed, the total entropy of the Universe is constant, but this constancy can be traced at
the level of the ether and is maintained not due to spontaneous “random” deviations, but
due to the presence of a mechanism for transforming the forms of movement of the ether in
galaxies. A stable galaxy acts as an entropy unit that maintains entropy at a constant level.
In both movements of matter - in the form of matter from the core of the galaxy to its
periphery and in the form of free ether from the periphery of the galaxy to its core -
entropy increases, but in these extreme regions the form of existence of matter changes
qualitatively.
All radiations that permeate the Universe eventually decay, and their energy goes
into the free ether, from which this energy was taken in some other areas.
Thus, the thermodynamic paradox in ether dynamics is resolved in a fairly simple

way, which does not require any artificial constructions.
Photometric paradox. The Chezo-Olbers photometric paradox lies in the fact that,
given the homogeneous structure of the Universe and its infinite extent in space, the entire
sky for an observer from Earth should appear in the form of a sphere, shining brightly with
light similar to that of the sun [68]. In reality, there is no such phenomenon, and this is the
essence of the paradox.
In fact, if we put the distribution density of stars in space q, then the number of
stars dn contained in a spherical layer of radius r and thickness dr will be
dn = 4ÿr²qdr (11.25)
Area covered by stars, dS = 4ÿr²qÿdr,

(11.26)
where ÿ is the proportionality coefficient between the cross-sectional area

th cross-section of stars and their number.
The solid angle from the center of the sphere is equal to
dÿ = 4ÿqÿdr = dÿ (11.27)
Where
dÿ =qÿdr, (11.28)
Considering that some stars are blocked from the subsequent layer by the previous one,
layer, for the nth layer we find the solid angle:
dÿ n = 4ÿdÿ (1– dÿ) n . (11.29)
Summing up all the angles from the first to the nth layer of stars according to the
rules of geometric progression, we obtain the total angle
[ 1 – (1 – dÿ) ] n
S n = 4ÿdÿ —————— ÿ 4ÿ [ 1 – (1 – dÿ)] n . (11.30)
1 – (1 – dÿ)
Considering that
n = r/ dr, (11.31)
where r is the radius of the sphere covering all the stars under consideration, and
directing r to infinity, we obtain
S = 4ÿ, (11.32)
those. the light of the stars covers the entire sphere. However, experience shows that
in fact, stars do not fill the entire celestial sphere.
The above discussion is an example of a purely mathematical approach to solving
a problem, abstracting from a series of physical phenomena that take place in the real
world, which are
are very significant, but are not taken into account in any way in the above solution.
NI.
In fact, since the solid angles of two different stars located at different distances
from the observer are related to each other as the squares of the distances:
ÿ1/ÿ2 = r 1²/r 2², (11.33)

544 Chapter 11.
and the light fluxes emanating from the stars are inversely proportional to the squares of
the distances, then it would seem that the specific brightness of both stars in the sky is the
same. In reality, nothing like this can happen.
The interstellar medium does not have absolute transparency. It is known that
interstellar space contains unevenly distributed accumulations of interstellar gas, mainly
hydrogen, and interstellar dust. The average density of interstellar matter ranges from 0.1
to 10 particles per cubic centimeter [69]. In this regard, light is absorbed by the interstellar
medium; the average value of this absorption is 0.8 per 1000 ps (1 ps = 3.086·1016 m).
Interstellar absorption is inversely proportional to the first power of the wavelength, i.e.
unevenly across radiation frequencies. And in addition, the re-emission of the received
energy back into space by the interstellar medium occurs at other wavelengths.
Taking into account only these circumstances shows that the light of a more distant
star will be absorbed more strongly than the light of a closer star, and it will not be possible
for all stars in the sky to be equally bright. At large differences in distances, exactly the same
picture should be observed as the one that actually exists: closer stars glow brighter. Stars
located at long distances will be visible very faintly, which will appear outwardly in the form
of dark areas of the sky. If we recall the “red shift” of the spectra of stars, the nonlinearity of
light absorption
interstellar medium, associated, in particular, with quantum phenomena, partial polarization

of light, etc., then it will become clear that the Chézo–paradox
Olbers is not a physical, but a purely mathematical phenomenon abstracted from reality,
precisely
emphasizing that the abstract mathematical approach is not good in all cases.
It is advisable to note some additional circumstances that follow not from known facts,
but from the etherodynamic model of light, and which in fact can play a decisive role.
As has already been shown, over 10 billion years a photon loses energy by a factor of
e . This means that during a time the order of which is close to the named value, the photon
first largely loses its properties of rectilinear and uniform movement in space by analogy
with a smoke ring, which begins to slow down, and then stops and diffuses, stopping its
existence as a vortex formation.
If, as noted earlier, the cosmic microwave background radiation observed in space
represents photons at the limit of their existence, then it is logical to assume that photons
from sufficiently
distant stars located from the Earth at distances significantly greater than 10
billion light years do not reach the earthly observer at all. In turn, this means
that optical astronomy has a natural range limit for detecting objects. Distant
objects simply will not be visible.
Thus, the Chezo-Olbers cosmological paradox in ether-dynamics is resolved in a

completely natural way.
Gravitational paradox. The Neumann-Seliger gravitational paradox is

associated with an attempt to apply Newton’s theory of universal gravitation to
a stationary and homogeneous model of the Universe [70].
Based on Newton's law of attraction between bodies
M1M2
F = G ——— r² (11.34)
and present it as a result of the manifestation of the potential ÿ of a body of mass

M1 , So
M1
ÿ =G ———, (11.35)
r
then the energy of gravitational interaction will be equal to
M1M2
U = – G ——— = M2 ÿ. (11.36)
r
Summing up the energy over all the masses in the Universe, we find that for
any body the gravitational energy of its interaction with all the masses in the
infinite Universe is infinite, and the force of interaction of the body with all the
masses of the Universe is indefinite. Hence the conclusion was drawn about the
practical impossibility of applying Newton’s theory of gravitation to a stationary
homogeneous cosmological model of the Universe existing in Euclidean space.
Such reasoning is also abstract and mathematical in nature, abstract from

reality , in much the same way as reasoning about potential, as about the work
that needs to be done when transferring
546 Chapter 11.
displacing a body from infinity to a given point in space. A real physical concept can only be
potential difference.
There is no need to determine the energy of all gravitational interactions with all masses
of the Universe, since the interactions of all these masses are mutually balanced with respect
to any body. The body will be influenced only by bodies located close to it, which is what
actually happens. Potentially balanced energy cannot manifest itself in any way, therefore the
mathematically calculated value of the gravitational energy of the interaction of a body with all
the masses of the Universe has no meaning.
But, in addition, from the ether-dynamic approach to the law of gravity it is clear that the
form of this law should differ from Newton’s and have the following form:
M1M2
F = – G ——— ÿ (r, t). (11.37)
r²
The function ÿ (r, t) contains the Gaussian integral and at small distances is practically equal
to 1, and, starting from a certain distance, it decreases sharply, therefore it follows from this
expression that the real law of attraction is nonlinear in nature and with increasing distance
between interacting masses, the interaction decreases faster than the value inversely proportional
to the square of the distance. Consequently, there is no room left even for the mathematical
abstractions outlined above and, just as in the case of the photometric paradox, the gravitational
paradox should be considered purely mathematical, caused by the authors’ failure to take into
account the physical conditions for the interaction between bodies.
Thus, in the ether-dynamic model of the Universe, cosmological paradoxes are resolved
naturally within the framework of ideas about matter, space and time as basic and universal
physical invariants.
conclusions
1. Aether-dynamic ideas about the essence of physical phenomena made it

possible to develop a model of a stationary dynamic Universe with a stable
circulation of the ether. Within the framework of this model, a model of a stable
spiral galaxy with a local circulation of ether and a model of the exchange of ether
between galaxies - newly formed and decaying - have been developed. On this
basis, a principle of functional classification of galaxies is proposed, taking into
account the circulation and transformation of the forms of movement of the ether
in the Universe. The entropy of the Universe remains at a constant level, and the
existence of the Universe is eternal.
2. The hidden mass of ether, concentrated in galaxies and intergalactic
space, exceeds the mass of ether by several orders of magnitude,
concentrated in the matter of stars and interstellar matter, the pressure of the ether in free
space significantly determines the properties of the main particle of the universe - the
proton, and through them - the properties of matter, stars and stellar formations of all levels.
3. The origin and evolution of stars are based on the properties of the
proton, formed in the centers of vortex formation of the ether and diffusing after
the stability reserve has been exhausted. 4. The
developed etherodynamic model of the emergence and development of the
Solar system allows us to naturally explain the main features of its structure and
parameters - the concentration of the main mass of the system in the Sun, and
the orbital momentum in the planets,
the coincidence of the plane of the orbits of the planets and the equator of the
Sun, the direct direction of rotation of the Sun, the orbital motion of the planets
and the rotation of the planets and their satellites around their axes.
5. Ether, due to its viscosity, resists the movement of celestial bodies.
However, this resistance is relatively small, and the time constant for changes in
the velocities of celestial bodies for orbital and galactic motion is approximately
3–30 billion years.
6. The Earth, like all celestial bodies, continuously absorbs the ether of outer space,
due to which it expands, and a new substance is formed from the absorbed ether, which
comes out in the form of rift ridges. For the same reason, subduction of the seabed under
continental plates, continental spreading, a continuous increase in tension in the earth's
crust, mountain building and earthquakes occur. Presumably, the absorption of ether by
rotating celestial bodies is the reason for the appearance of their magnetic field.
7. The ethereal wind blowing the Earth leads to an uneven distribution of

ether pressure over the Earth’s surface: in the North, the ether pressure is greater
due to the inhibition of the ether flow, in the zone
548 Chapter 11.
There is less flow around due to the presence of a velocity gradient; in the Southern
Hemisphere, separation of the ether flow and the formation of an attached toroidal vortex
occur, which captures air in winter. Taking into account the blowing of the Earth by the
ethereal wind, as well as the entire solar system, allows us to explain all the main features of
the shape of the Earth - elongation to the north, the presence of a large land surface in the
Northern Hemisphere and some phenomena such as a colder climate and the presence of
an ice continent Antarctica, the occurrence of storms in winter in the area of the “roaring
forties” latitudes. 8. The main cosmological paradoxes - thermodynamic (“Heat death”),
photometric
Chezeau-Olbers, gravitational Neumann-Zeliger - are resolved naturally when using
etherodynamic concepts. The thermodynamic paradox is resolved by taking into account
two spatially separated transformation processes of the forms of motion of the ether - in the
core of a spiral galaxy due to the transformation of free ether into protons, on the periphery
of a spiral galaxy - due to the transformation of protons into free ether, in this case, the
entropy of the spiral galaxy remains constant on average. To resolve the photometric
paradox, it is sufficient to take into account the “Red shift” of photons. To resolve the
gravimetric paradox, it is enough to take into account the nonlinearity of the real law of
gravitational interaction of masses.
Conclusion
As follows from the above, the involvement of hidden forms of matter motion
allows us to understand the structures of material formations from elementary
particles of matter to galaxies, the essence of the main fundamental interactions
and even predict new ones, to reveal the mechanism of the most diverse physical
phenomena. The dynamic approach to the study of natural phenomena turns out
to be in many ways more fruitful than the generally accepted phenomenological
approach.
A natural question arises: why in relation to the theory
ether, such attempts, of which there have been many throughout the history of
natural science, were previously unsuccessful? The answer is simple: without
data on the behavior of elementary particles - the last stage of matter
organization on the way to ether particles during their interactions, it is possible
one could only guess about the properties of their parts. The data obtained in the
60s of the last century provided the missing information. Only in
After this, it became possible not only to guess or postulate
properties of parts of particles and properties of their totality - the world
environment, but to accurately determine them based on an analysis of the most
general properties of the micro- and macroworld. It should be borne in mind
that if this attempt had not been preceded by the work of many generations of
researchers and if in related fields - gas and hydrodynamics - extensive material
had not been prepared at the same time, it would be impossible to complete the task.
the task would be impossible.
The material presented is only the foundations of the dynamic theory of
matter, its beginning. There is no doubt that further research will lead to the
development of this direction. Along with the development of general
etherodynamics itself, it is quite reasonable to expect the emergence of particular
directions, such as etherocosmology, etherastronomy, etherelectrodynamics,
etherochemistry, etherobiology, etc., because each of the branches of science
currently most of all needs an understanding of its processes , in revealing the
internal mechanisms of phenomena, internal
of self-regulation processes, which can only be done by attracting
hidden movements of matter - movements of the ether.
The formation of etherodynamics is not easy. This is understandable, since it does not fit into
modern fashion theories. However, there is no doubt that the future belongs to ether dynamics,
since the development of natural science has always proceeded along the levels of organization of
matter, and the current stage does not represent
exceptions.
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23. Glazer A.G. Structure of a tornado vortex according to observational data //
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models. M.: Nauka, 1973. pp. 339–340. 31. Tikhonov A.N.,
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32. Nekrasov N.A. Vortex diffusion. Collection op. M.: Publishing House of the USSR
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5. M.–L.: ONTI, 1937.
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45 Vasilyev O.F. Fundamentals of mechanics of screw and circulation flows. M.
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To Chapter 6.
1. Vigier J.P. Questions of philosophy. 1956. No. 6. P. 91.

2. Rutherford E. The structure of the atom and the artificial transformation of
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5. Heisenberg V. Physics of the atomic nucleus. M. – L., 1947.
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7. Vlasov N.A. Neutrons. –2nd ed. M.: Nauka, 1971.
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16. Eisenberg I., Greiner V. Microscopic theory of the nucleus: Transl. With
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Chapter 8. Electromagnetic phenomena

8.1. Brief history of the theory

- generalizations of physical and mathematical theories of electromagnetism

The modern theory of electromagnetism was preceded by a long period of accumulation

Electromagnetic phenomena 299

works of a number of scientists such as W. Thomson, M. Faraday, G. Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, Rankin,

It is useful to recall that the equations of electrodynamics were derived by Maxwell on

Electromagnetic phenomena 301

existence of the environment in which this spread occurs

results that made it possible to create a modern mathematical theory of electromagnetism.

If a qualitative theory of electromagnetic phenomena were created, then, probably,

In 1906, in the famous work “The Theory of Electrons,” G. Lorentz noted

understanding the essence of electromagnetic phenomena. A direct consequence

Electromagnetic phenomena 303

Attempts by some researchers to change anything in these equations always ended in

Thirdly, it was discovered that there is a series of problems in electrodynamics that

Such a problem, for example, is the problem of the propagation of electromagnetic

Electromagnetic phenomena 305

is “vector potential A”? This is a quantity whose vortex is the magnetic

There is no physical meaning of this quantity.

placed in textbooks on the theoretical foundations of electrodynamics in

nia are no exception.

The stated points, as well as some other considerations, are not

J.C. Maxwell followed the dynamic method of research in electromagnetism. He imagined

the thing itself causes electrical phenomena by its movement.”

Electromagnetic phenomena 307

Today, the desire to understand the physical essence of electromagnetic phenomena is

8.2. The physical essence of electromagnetism

8.2.1. Units of electrical and magnetic quantities in the ISS system

in the SGSM system, absolute magnetic permeability is considered dimensionless and

invariant categories - mass, space and time.

Electromagnetic phenomena 309

and through this the concept of “current strength”

I = dq/ dt, kg/s². (8.1)

Work and Energy Joule J m²·kg·s– kg· m²·s–²

Current strength Ampere A A kg s–²

Electrical capacity Farada F A s4 m–² kg–¹ kg m–²

Magnetic induction Tesla Tl kg Aÿ¹ sÿ² mxy mzÿ¹

Magnetic permeability Henry on Hn mÿ¹ m kg Aÿ² sÿ² kgÿ¹ m s²

8.2.2. Free electron structure

Electromagnetic phenomena 311

Rice. 8.1. Structure of a free electron: a – in a metal; b – in free

re/rp = (me/mp) 1/3 = ( 9.1.10–31/1.67.10–27) 1/3

and, therefore, the radius of the electron will be:

re = 0.082rp = 0.082.1.12.10–15 = 9.10–17 m. (8.3)

The surface area of the electron will be

e = ÿvÿSe = 1.6.10–19 C (8.5)

vÿ = e/ ÿSe = 1.6.10–19/8.85.10–12 . 1.1.10–31 = 1.64.1024 m.s–1 . (8.6)

The circulation value of the annular velocity is determined as

(circ)e = 2ÿ revÿ= 2ÿ.9.10–17.1.64.1024 = 9, 27.108 m 2 .s–1 (8.7)

The cross-sectional area of the electron will be

2 Se sec. = ÿre = ÿ (9.10–17) 2 = 2.75.10–32 m 2 (8.8)

Electromagnetic phenomena 313

It should be noted that inside metals, electrons are not in an atmosphere of

As is known, an electron has its own energy equal to

E=h ÿ = me c², (8.9)

and spin - mechanical torque

If, in accordance with Maxwell’s principle, energies are distributed uniformly

8.2.3. The physical essence of the electric field

However, any force can arise as a result of the appearance of a gradient

Electromagnetic phenomena 315

rot v = ÿv; (8.16)