Week 4 Lecture Material

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Geo-Spatial Analysis in Urban Planning
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Saikat Paul (PhD) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Department of Architecture & Regional Planning
IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 04: Modeling Spatial Relationship
Lecture 16 : Service or Trade Area Analysis in an Urban Area
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➢ Prescriptive Service Area
➢ Bayesian Belief Network
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Service or Trade Area Analysis
Prescriptive Service Area
❑ Transportation problem involves making efficient allocations between points of supply

and points of demand.
❑ Transportation problem - used for allocation plan for a warehouse or manufacturing
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facility to deliver product to its customers
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❑ Gives prescriptive service area for each warehouse and is based on optimizing system
efficiency
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❑ Several factories are distributed across the country - producing the same item
❑ Each factory’s output – can vary output depending on demand - has upper limit on
production in a given time
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Prescriptive Trade Area
❑ Customers are distributors, who buy product, store it in a warehouse and then deliver the product to
retail customers upon need, then the company must ship their product to these warehouses
❑ Product source - company’s factories and product demand - distributor’s warehouses
❑ Conditions must be satisfied in allocating/transporting from source/supply facilities to demand
❑ First Constraint for source facility j - amount shipped from a given source cannot exceed capacity
at that facility
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sum of product amount committed from
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that is shipped this source is required to
from source j be less than its capacity, sj
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i = index of demand (e.g., distribution warehouses) where i = 1, 2, . . . , n
j = index of source/supply facilities (e.g., factories) where j = 1, 2, . . . , m
cij = cost per unit to ship from source j to demand i
ej = cost of materials and production per unit at source j
ai = numbers of units of product required at demand i
sj = maximum supply available from source j
Xij = amount to be shipped from source j to demand i
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❑ Second Constraint for source facility j – all demand must be fulfilled
total amount that total amount committed by the

is shipped from all company to demand i, and must
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possible sources equal or exceed ai
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❑ Third Constraint – efficiency i.e. cost optimisation - costs to company are a function of production
and transportation associated with allocations from a product source to point of demand and can
be written as -
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Shipment cost + Production or Expansion cost
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Prescriptive Trade Area transportation problem – what demand is served by which product sources
special case of generalized network flow problem, which can be solved by specially tailored linear programming
algorithms, these specialized algorithms are very fast, and typically more computationally efficient than a general
purpose linear programming solver
❑ Let us write the complete model :
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Subject to
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Bayesian Belief Networks
❑ Bayesian networks, or Bayesian belief networks (BBN) - directed graphs with probability
tables
❑ Nodes represent relevant variable dependencies that can be continuous or discrete.
❑ Arcs represent causal relationships between a variable and outcome
❑ BBN helps us to understand events that have a degree of uncertainty (probabilistic events)
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Bayesian Belief Networks and GIS as Decision-Making Aides
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❑ BBNs can be used within GIS
❑ BBNs can help define spatial relationships in spatially probabilistic models .
❑ Used in ecological studies or environmental management. For instance, in understanding
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social-environmental interactions, where a complex set of variables could affect outcomes of Conceptual framework
the environment and subsequent human decisions in landscape/ecological management, and BBN building
BBNs and GIS can be used as decision aides to give an idea of probability of events unfolding process using inputs
from GIS layers. IMAGE:
❑ BBN’s assist decision-making by also defining key variables and how they could affect GONZALEZ-REDIN ET.
outcomes. AL, 2016
Gonzalez-Redin, J., Luque, S., Poggio, L., Smith, R., et al. (2016) Spatial Bayesian belief networks as a planning decision tool for mapping ecosystem
services trade-offs on forested landscapes. Environmental Research. 144, pp 15–26.
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Applications of Bayesian Belief Networks
BN, also known as Bayesian Belief Network (BBN), composed by graphical structure and Bayes’ theorem
❑ qualitative component of BN is a directed acyclic graph, where nodes and directed links signify system variables and
their causal dependencies
❑ quantitative one of BN model is presented with a set of conditional probabilities or probability distributions for each
child node given its parent nodes in the network
Urban flood disaster risk
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❑ Capture the potential relationships between factors impacting flood disaster and has capacity of
quantifying uncertainty
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o identification of main factors (drivers of change) that can influence directly or indirectly
occurrence of flood disaster
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o collection of data from different data sources associated with factors identified in previous
step
o development of BN structural graph
o calculation of probability distribution table based on BN structure and
o assessment of flood disaster risk and model evaluation
Zening Wu, Yanxia Shen, Huiliang Wang, Meimei Wu. (2020) Urban flood disaster risk evaluation based on ontology and
Bayesian Network. Journal of Hydrology 583, pp 2163-2184.
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Baye’s Theorem : probability of an event, based on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event
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Bayesian Belief Networks
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N = < G, P >
where
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G is BN structure graph, G=<V,E>,
V stands for the set of nodes, i.e. V1, V2, …, Vn, denoting variables in flood disaster
E represents set of directed edges that indicate causal dependence between nodes, which generally
points from parent node to child node;
P expresses parameters set of BN, including prior probability and conditional probability distribution
table (CPT) of nodes, denoting strength of dependencies between nodes
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Applications of Bayesian Belief Networks Disaster Drivers
(blue nodes)
Urban flood disaster risk
❑ BN model contains four groups of factors:
1. flood disaster(white node): level of flood disaster risk Flood Disaster Risk
was classified according to probability of flood
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disaster;
2. a group of disaster drivers’ factors (blue nodes),
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namely: accumulated rainfall and rainfall duration;
3. a group of disaster environment (red nodes) that are
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river density, proximity, elevation, slope and
impervious area ratio and
4. factors of disaster bearers (yellow nodes) which
include population density, road density and per unit
GDP Factors of Disaster Disaster Environment (red nodes)
Bearers (yellow nodes)
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Service or Trade Area Analysis Urban flood disaster risk assessment
Applications of Bayesian Belief Networks ❑ BBN Conditional Probabilities
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(a) accumulated rainfall, (b) elevation, (c) slope, (d) river density, (e) river proximity,
(f) impervious area ratio, (g) population density, (h) per unit GDP, (i) road density
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Distribution of flood disaster risk
obtained from BN model
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from historical disaster cases
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References :
Research Articles:
Gonzalez-Redin, J., Luque, S., Poggio, L., Smith, R., et al. (2016) Spatial Bayesian belief networks
as a planning decision tool for mapping ecosystem services trade-offs on forested landscapes.
Environmental Research. 144, pp 15–26.
Zening Wu, Yanxia Shen, Huiliang Wang, Meimei Wu. (2020) Urban flood disaster risk evaluation
based on ontology and Bayesian Network. Journal of Hydrology 583, pp 2163-2184.
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Book:
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David W. S. Wong, The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), WorldMinds: Geographical
Perspectives on 100 Problems, pp 571-575, Springer
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Website :
Trade Area Analysis
https://fyi.extension.wisc.edu/downtown-market-analysis/understanding-the-market/trade-
area-analysis/
Recapitulation
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➢ Prescriptive Service Area
➢ Bayesian Belief Network
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IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 04: Modeling Spatial Relationship
Lecture 17 : Landscape metrics and its applications
➢ Landscape Composition
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➢ Landscape Configuration
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➢ Properties of Landscape Metrics
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➢ Applications of landscape metrics
Introduction
Land Cover (LC)-physical cover of Earth
Land Use (LU)- describes how that land is used by humans.
LU, LC provide a baseline for many ecological and societal studies such as:
• environmental models
• weather and climate studies
• hydrological and landscape planning studies.
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Some different standard LC/LU systems developed by different agencies for various scales and needs are:
• BHUVAN – Land cover assessment of India
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• NLCD- National Land Cover Database of United States
• LCCS- United Nations Land cover maps of Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
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• CORINE (Coordination of Information on Environment) project of European Union (EU)
Disadvantage of LC/LU maps- on screen digitization could be very time consuming when applied to large
areas.
Conclusion: mapping land cover/land use (LC/LU) characteristics of Earth’s surface becomes important.
LC/LU maps are useful to analyze patterns in a landscape.
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Landscape metrics
Landscape is defined by Forman and Gordon as “a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of
interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout”.
• Landscape metrics are indices developed to characterize geometric and spatial

properties of map patterns.
• These metrics enable quantitative and objective analysis of different landscape types.
• Used to test future scenarios of environmental policies and to monitor environmental
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goals determined by international conventions and agreements.
• Landscape metrics are useful tools to measure arrangement of landscape components
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both in time and space.
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• Used to characterize spatial patterns.
• There are several spatial processes that transform land by affecting landscape in
different ways and cause changes in spatial patterns and ecological processes.
• Landscape pattern analysis- studies landscape components and their spatial
patterns
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Landscape metrics
Categories of metrics that quantify
Landscape composition of map without reference to spatial attributes
Landscape configuration of map requiring spatial information for its calculation.
Landscape Composition-
• Easily quantified
• Refers to features associated with variety and abundance of patch types within
landscape, but without considering spatial character, placement, or location of
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patches within mosaic
• principle measures of compositions are:
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1. Proportional Abundance of each Class – One of simplest and most useful pieces
of information that can be derived is proportion of each class relative to entire
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map.
2. Richness- It is number of different patch types.
3. Evenness- It is relative abundance of different patch types, typically emphasizing
either relative dominance or its compliment, equitability.
4. Diversity- It is a composite measure of richness and evenness and can be
computed in a variety of forms
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Landscape metrics
Landscape configuration-
• Difficult to quantify
• Refers to spatial character and arrangement, position, or orientation of patches within class or landscape.
• principle measures of compositions are:
1. Patch size distribution and density – A fundamental attribute of spatial character of a patch
2. Patch shape complexity- Geometry of patches, whether they tend to be simple and compact, or irregular and
convoluted
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3. Core Area- Interior area of patches after a user-specified edge buffer is eliminated
4. Isolation/Proximity- Tendency for patches to be relatively isolated in space (i.e., distant) from other patches of same
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or similar (ecologically friendly) class
5. Contrast- Relative difference among patch types
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6. Dispersion- Tendency for patches to be regularly or contagiously distributed (i.e., clumped) with respect to each
other
7. Contagion & Interspersion- Tendency of patch types to be spatially aggregated; i.e., to occur in large, aggregated or
contagious distributions.
8. Subdivision- degree to which a patch type is broken up (i.e., subdivided) into separate patches (i.e.,
fragments), notsize (per se), shape, relative location, or spatial arrangement of those patches.
9. Connectivity- Functional connections among patches
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Properties of Landscape metrics
• More than one metric is needed to define landscape pattern.
• metric group should describe pattern variety seen throughout landscape, but should be
minimized in use, especially in indexes that are highly related to each other.
• Landscape metrics can be defined at level of heterogeneity and aspect of landscape pattern;
• Level of heterogeneity:
1. Patch level- metrics are calculated for individual patches which represent discrete areas
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of similar characteristics
2. Class level- metrics are calculated from all patches of a particular type for example LC/LU
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classes
3. Landscape level- metrics are combination of all patch and class types in a given area.
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Aspect of landscape pattern:
Area and edge metrics- a loose Shape metrics- collection of unitless Core area metrics- a collection
collection of metrics that deal metrics that describe geometric of metrics that describe patch
with size of patches and amount complexity and/or compactness of interior (i.e., core) area after
of edge created by these patch shapes and quantify landscape accounting for depth-of-edge
patches. configuration effects
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Contrast metrics: a collection of Aggregation metrics: tendency of patch types to be spatially aggregated;
metrics that describe magnitude that is, to occur in large, aggregated or "contagious" distributions.
of contrast (difference) along This property is also often referred to as landscape texture.
patch edges
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Subdivision metrics: a collection Isolation metrics: a collection of Diversity metrics: a collection of
of metrics closely allied to metrics closely allied to subdivision metrics that describe
aggregation metrics that describe (and thus aggregation) metrics that compositional makeup of
degree of subdivision of class or describe degree of spatial isolation of landscape
landscape. patches.
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Examples of class level metrics
• There are many landscape

metrics that can be used in
patch, class and landscape levels.
• Most metrics at class level are
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derived from patch level
attributes and integrated over all
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patches of a particular class.
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• class-level landscape metrics are
more effective in defining
ecological processes.
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Applications of landscape metrics
• To understand changes in landscape from different perspectives (Visual, ecological, cultural).

• biodiversity and habitat analysis
• estimating water quality
• evaluation of landscape pattern and changes therein
• urban landscape pattern, road network
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• aesthetics of landscape
• management, planning and monitoring
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• Landscape ecology contributions are listed below:
• relationship between landscape structure and landscape function with Landscape metrics
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• estimated effects of planning activities on ecological systems.
• Quantifying of structural characteristics is necessary for sustainable planning.
• ecological processes are understood
• determine changes in landscape over time.
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Landscape metrics- FRAGSTATS
Quantifying Landscape Metrics - computer programs have been developed like
Fragstats and Patch Analyst
• FRAGSTATS is a spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying structure (i.e.

composition and configuration) of landscapes
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• FRAGSTATS quantifies spatial heterogeneity of landscape as represented in either a
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categorical map (i.e. landscape mosaic) or continuous surface (i.e. landscape gradient)
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• Useful for
• Computing general landscape metrics
• Flexibility in defining and scaling landscapes
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Recapitulation
➢ Landscape Composition
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➢ Landscape Configuration
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➢ Properties of Landscape Metrics
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➢ Applications of landscape metrics
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IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 04: Modeling Geographical Space and spatial analysis
Lecture 18 : Urban sprawl characterization using Landscape Metrics
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➢ Urban Sprawl Characterisation
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• Metrics to assess urban growth pattern
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• Patterns of Urban Growth
• Urban Growth Analysis
Urban sprawl characterization
Metrics to assess urban growth pattern
Landscape Metrics used to study

the underlying spatial processes are
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determined using :
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❑ Complexity and aggregation
❑ Centrality
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❑ Compactness and dispersion
❑ Porosity
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Urban sprawl characterization Metropolitan Area of Granada, Spain
Urban Growth Analysis
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Francisco Aguilera, Luis M. Valenzuela, André Botequilha-Leitão, Landscape metrics in the
analysis of urban land use patterns: A case study in a Spanish metropolitan area,
Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 99, Issues 3–4, 2011, Pages 226-238
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Linear pattern
Urban sprawl characterization Mumbai Metropolitan Region
4 patterns of Urban Growth
Aggregated pattern –
❑ Increased aggregation and generally by reduced dispersion
❑ Urban growth pattern tends either to remain constant or to
decrease landscape fragmentation
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Aggregated pattern
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Aggregated Linear
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Linear pattern –
❑ Urban growth around road networks, preferably industrial or
mixed industrial land use
❑ From this pattern we can identify two main processes:
o increased or stable aggregation;
o decreased compaction
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Leapfrogging pattern
4 patterns of Urban Growth
Leapfrogging –
❑ Appearance of urban patches with a principally residential
function
❑ Predominance of low-density dispersed single-family houses,
and is dominated by the following processes: Leapfrogging
o decreased aggregation and greater dispersion of urban
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uses
o decreased elongation because of the formation of more
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or less rounded patches
o increased dispersion Nodal pattern
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Nodal pattern –
❑ Reflects existing industrial and commercial urban growth near
the main transportation nodes
❑ Decreased aggregation along with increased dispersion and Nodal Pattern
compaction
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Urban Growth Analysis
Land use land cover trajectories of Kathmandu Valley
Some questions that needs answers:

❑ sustainability implications of urban sprawl in this
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fragile, mountainous landscape
❑ impacts of the conversion of agricultural land to
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the built environment
❑ socio-ecological significance of disappearing
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open space
❑ fragmentation of habitats and important
biological corridors
Ishtiaque, A.; Shrestha, M.; Chhetri, N. Rapid Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal:
Monitoring Land Use Land Cover Dynamics of a Himalayan City with Landsat
Imageries. Environments 2017, 4, 72.
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Metrics to assess urban growth pattern in Shanghai
Spatiotemporal variation of landscape patterns and their spatial determinants in Shanghai during the
past two decades using exploratory regression and Generalized Additive model (GAM)
❑ Fragmented in nearest suburban areas and more aggregated in far suburbs

❑ Multicollinearity was eliminated and dominant spatial factors for each landscape metric were
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identified
❑ Sort-order of factors and accumulation of residual deviance were applied to quantify effects
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of factors on landscape patterns
❑ Distances to outer-ring expressway and subway stations inside outer-ring expressway are
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most influential to landscape patterns
Yongjiu Feng, Yang Liu, Xiaohua Tong, Spatiotemporal variation of landscape patterns and their
spatial determinants in Shanghai, China, Ecological Indicators, Volume 87, 2018, Pages 22-32
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No. Acronym Name Purpose
1 Dcc Distance to city center Assessment of the proximity to city
and district centers that define the
2 Ddc Distance to district centers
high-density built-up areas
3 D95mr Distance to 1995 main roads
4 D15mr Distance to 2015 main roads Assessment of the proximity to main
5 Dmre Distance to middle-ring expressway roads and ring expressway that
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6 Dore Distance to outer-ring expressway fragment the natural landscape
7 Dsre Distance to suburban-ring expressway
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Distance to subway stations inside the
8 Dssi Assessment of the proximity to subway
outer-ring expressway
stations that are distributed in the city
Distance to subway stations outside the center and its nearest suburban areas
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9 Dsso
outer-ring expressway
Assessment of the proximity to ports
10 Dpt Distance to ports that reflect the effects of airports and
deep-water ports on landscape
Assessment of the proximity to
protected areas that reflect the effects
11 Dpa Distance to protected areas
of ecologically significant areas on
landscape
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The Generalized Additive model (GAM) is given as :
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where g(M) is a link function that represents effects of variables on metric M,
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β0 is a constant,
is a smoothing function that describes relationships
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between and the ith variable Di, and δ is the model residual
Yongjiu Feng, Yang Liu, Xiaohua Tong, Spatiotemporal variation of landscape patterns and their
spatial determinants in Shanghai, China, Ecological Indicators, Volume 87, 2018, Pages 22-32
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Land-use patterns of Shanghai in 1995 and 2015
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Landscape Metrics to assess urban growth pattern in Shanghai
Perimeter-Area Interspersion
Largest patch index Number of patches Shannon’s diversity index
fractal dimension juxtaposition index
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Urban growth pattern in Shanghai
❑ landscape patterns were aggregated in Shanghai

center
❑ fragmented in the nearest suburban areas but
were aggregated the most in the distant suburbs
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❑ explained by dominant factors such as the existing
built-up areas, and infrastructures such as the
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outer-ring expressway and subway stations inside
the outer-ring expressway
❑ statistical significance of each spatial variable
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estimated in addressing these relationships
❑ provides insights on potential impact of new

infrastructure on urban landscapes
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Recapitulation
➢ Urban Sprawl Characterisation
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• Metrics to assess urban growth pattern
• Patterns of Urban Growth
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• Urban Growth Analysis
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IIT KHARAGPUR
Module 04: Modeling Geographical Space and spatial analysis
Lecture 19 : Multi-criteria Decision Analysis
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➢ Multi-criteria Decision Analysis
• Definition and application areas
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• Most popular MCDA approaches
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• Tools (Softwares) for MCDA
• Endogenous Variables
• Weighting of variables
• Structure of MCDA
Multi-criteria Decision Analysis
Definition and application areas
❑ MCDA - resolve decision-making problems - formalised analytical decision methods -

employing structured and comprehensive databases
❑ DSS - Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) provide support for multidisciplinary
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management of factors to be optimized in fulfillment of objective being evaluated
❑ application areas –
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❑ mathematics, management, information technology, psychology, social sciences and
economics
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❑ MCDA - different schools of thought - extensive number of methods (more than 100
approaches)
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Most popular MCDA approaches
Most frequently used MCA approaches:
❑ ELimination Et Choix Traduisant la REalitè (ELECTRE) - Outranking approach
❑ Multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) - aggregation approach
❑ Analytic Network Process (ANP) - aggregation approach
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❑ Measuring Attractiveness by a Categorical Based Evaluation (MACBETH) - aggregation
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approach
❑ Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) - aggregation approach
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❑ Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) - Goal,
aspiration or reference level approach
❑ Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE)
MAUT can use only quantitative indicator all other models can use qualitative, quantitative as
well as mixed indicators
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Most popular MCDA approaches
All MCDA approaches - two macro-phases:

❑ construction and compilation - evaluation of problem in question of Qualitative
evaluation matrix - consists of different alternatives and their
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performance - based on various criteria and sub-criteria weightages
Typology of
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and indicators of assessment (exogenous variables) Quantitative
Indicators
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❑ processing of data in evaluation matrix used to evaluate alternatives
on basis of objectives to be reached - similar for all MCDA methods
Mixed
(endogenous variables)
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Tools (Softwares) for MCDA
MCDA approaches
o Large number of criteria and sub-criteria and a small number of
alternatives
❑ MakeItRational
❑ ExpertChoice for AHP o Participatory process activated with a significant number of stakeholder
❑ SuperDecision for ANP preferably organized in categories
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o Limited number of criteria and sub-criteria and a large number of alternatives
❑ RightChoice for MAUT o Participatory process with a limited and specialized number of stakeholder
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o Limited number of criteria and sub-criteria and a small number of
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❑ Electre III–IV software for ELECTRE alternatives
o Definition of n alternatives valid in relation to objectives
o Participatory process not activated
❑ Topsis for TOPSIS
❑ M-MACBETH for MACBETH o Large number of criteria and sub-criteria and a large number of alternatives
❑ SmartPickerPro for PROMETHEE o Participatory process activated with a significant number of stakeholder
preferably organized in categories
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Endogenous Variables
Described as:
Type of Decision-making Problem
❑ Description problem
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❑ Sorting problem
❑ Ranking and Choice problem
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Solution Approach
❑ Full Aggregation Approach
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❑ Outranking Approach
❑ Goal, aspiration or reference level approach
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Implementation procedure
❑ Preference thresholds, indifference thresholds, veto thresholds

❑ Utility function
❑ Pairwise comparisons on a ratio scale
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❑ Pairwise comparisons on a ratio scale with interdependencies
❑ Pairwise comparisons on an interval scale
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❑ Ideal option and anti-ideal option
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Output Typology or Order of Alternatives
❑ Partial and complete order obtained by expressing pairwise preference degrees and scores
❑ Partial and complete order obtained by expressing pairwise outranking degrees
❑ Full order obtained by considering scores assigned to alternatives in various ways
❑ Full order with a score closest to desired objective
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Solution to decision problem
❑ n categories of alternatives of equal score but different behaviors
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o consideration of several valid alternatives at same time
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❑ Alternative with higher global score
o choice of alternative that gets highest score
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❑ Alternative with closest score to ideal solution
o Choosing alternative that gets a score, which is closest to
o Ideal normalization of recorded performances for alternatives considered
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Weighting of variables
❑ Weighting of variables – depends on:

o variance in degrees of criteria
o independency of criteria
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o subjective preferences of decision-makers and stakeholders when
communicating their weights
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❑ Weighing Methods
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o subjective weighting methods - direct assignment, Simple Multi-Attribute Rating
Technique(SMART), SWING, SIMOS, pairwise comparison, AHP
o Objective weighting methods - entropy method, TOPSIS and combination
weighting methods
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Structure of MCDA
Framework of
expected properties
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Structure of MCDA Calculation of overall
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Solutions index of suitability
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Identification of
method best suited to
resolving decision-
making problem
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Recapitulation
➢ Multi-criteria Decision Analysis

• Definition and application areas
• Most popular MCDA approaches
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• Tools (Softwares) for MCDA
• Endogenous Variables
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• Weighting of variables
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• Structure of MCDA
References
Books
Belton, V.; Stewart, T. Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis—An Integrated Approach; Kluwer Academic Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2002.
Figueira, J.; Greco, S.; Ehrgott, M. Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis—State of Art Survey; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2005.
Nijkamp, P.; Beinat, E. Multi-Criteria Analysis for Land Use Management; Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1998
Research Papers:
Saaty,T.L. modern science of multicriteria decision making and its practical applications: AHP/ANP approach. Oper. Res. 2013, 61,
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1101–1118.
Roy, B. Classement et choix en presence de points de vue multiples: La méthode ELECTRE. Rev. Fr. Inform. Rech. Opér. 1968, 8, 57–75.
Dyer, J.S. MAUT—Multi-attribute utility theory. In Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis: State of Art Surveys; Springer: New York, NY, USA,
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2005; pp. 265–292.
Saaty, T.L. Analytic network process. In Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science; Springer: New York, NY, USA,
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2001; pp. 28–35.
Bana e Costa, C.; Vansnick, J. MACBETH: An interactive path towards construction of cardinal value functions. Int. Trans. Oper. Res.
1994, 1, 387–500.
Saaty, T. A scaling Method for priorities in hierarchical structures. J. Math. Psychol. 1977, 15, 234–281.
Hwang, C.L.; Yoon, K. Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications; Springer: Heidelberg, Germany, 1981.
Brans, J.P.; Vincke, P. Note—A Preference Ranking Organisation Method: PROMETHEE Method for Multiple Criteria Decision-Making.
Manag. Sci. 1985, 31, 647–656.
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IIT KHARAGPUR
Software Module : Basics of GIS using QGIS

Software Module : Basics of GIS using QGIS
Unit 01 : Introduction to QGIS - 1
⮚ Installation of Software – QGIS

⮚ Introduction to the basics of QGIS
⮚ Starting a new project
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⮚ Plugins
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⮚ Creating/Editing a shapefile
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About QGIS
Installation of the software
Step 1: Download the software from the official website of QGIS or click on the following link (Preferably the latest version).
A window will open as shown in Figure 1.
Link - https://qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html
Note: Please check and download the correct version suiting your system’s configuration (34bit / 64 bit). The software is
open source. QGIS is available on Windows, macOS, Linux and Android (Shown in figure 2)
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Figure 1 Figure 2
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Step 2: Install the downloaded software. In the installer, choose ”Desktop Express Install” and select QGIS to
install the latest release as shown in figure 3. Then click on “NEXT” button. Check all the boxes as shown in
figure 4 in the next window.
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Figure 3 Figure 4
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Step 3: Check the terms and condition box for Step 4: Click on Finish button (Figure 6). The
further installation (Figure 5). installation is complete. Start the“QGIS
Desktop” from your start menu.
EL
PT
N
Figure 5 Figure 6
3
Introduction to QGIS
Open QGIS, Click on “start a new project”, the Interface of QGIS as shown in figure will appear.
Menu Bar
These Panels can

be shifted within
as per the
convenience
EL
Layer Panel Browser
Panel
PT
canvas
N
4
Introduction to QGIS
By right clicking on toolbar area, we can see the available panels and can be switched “on and off” as per
requirement.
⮚ Through the menu bar

you can access all the
functions.
⮚ Some functions are
EL
buttons and some have
dedicated shortcuts
PT
N
5
Introduction to QGIS-
Plugins
⮚ Plugins are small programs that add functionality to QGIS.
⮚ They can be installed through plugin manager (have repository of QGIS online and keeps track of available
plugins )as per the need, many are pre-installed.
⮚ New plugins can also be installed through Zip file.
EL
PT
N
6
Creating a Shapefile
A shapefile is a vector data storage format for storing the location, shape, and attributes of geographic
features in form of point, line and polygon.
Step 1: Go to Layer > select “New shape file” (Figure 1 )
Step 2: The dialogue box will appear as shown in figure 2. Add the necessary fields like Coordinate system, name of the field, type of
data and click on ok. The shapefile will be added to the Table of Contents panel on the left hand side. RIGHT click on the layer to bring
up a menu of options connected to it.
EL
PT
N
Figure 1 Figure 2
7
Editing a Shapefile
⮚ First open the file in QGIS which needs to be edited.
⮚ Before editing the layer need to be set as editable.
⮚ This can also be achieved by right clicking on the layer in the layer
control and selecting Toggle Editing. Keep adding/editing feature type
into the file.
For editing points, lines and polygons:
✔The Move Feature button allows a whole feature to be moved to a
EL
new position.
PT
✔The Node tool allows you to select the feature and move one of the
points to a new position.
N
✔RIGHT click on the layer in the Table of Contents and select Open attribute
table to view and edit the information connected to the features
✔RIGHT click on the layer in the Table of Contents and select Save As to save
the layer in various formats
8
Software Module : Basic GIS Operations using QGIS
Unit 02 : Introduction to QGIS - 2
⮚ Type of Data sources
EL
⮚ Projection Setting
PT
⮚ Adding Raster layer
N
⮚ Adding Vector layer
⮚ Georeferencing
Types of Data sources
⮚ USGS Earth Explorer: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
o allows you to custom tailor your search parameters for Landsat data.
⮚ Bhuvan: https://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan_links.php
o Bhuvan, is a web based utility which allows users to explore a set of map based content prepared by Indian
EL
Space Research Organisation. The content which the utility serves is mostly restricted to Indian boundaries
and is offered in 4 regional languages.
PT
⮚ Open Street Map: https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=4/21.84/82.79
N
o It is a project to create a free editable map of the world. The geodata underlying the map is considered the
primary output of the project.
⮚ Naksha: https://naksha-solutions.com/remote-sensing/gis/
o The geological survey of India’s website for toposheets
1
Projection Setting
QGIS allows users to define a global and project-wide CRS (coordinate reference system) for layers
without a pre-defined CRS. The global default CRS is EPSG:4326 - WGS 84
When you use layers that do not have a CRS, you need to define
how QGIS responds to these layers. This can be done globally or
project-wide in
Settings > Options > CRS (A dialogue box as shown will
open)
EL
There are three different ways to change/manipulate
projections in QGIS.
PT
1. Project Properties > CRS (or you can click on the icon where EPSG is
written in the bottom right corner)
N
2. Right click on vector/raster layer > Set Layer CRS
3. Right click on vector/raster layer > Save As...
For further details about the projevtion setting and alteration, Kindly refer
following link.
https://docs.qgis.org/2.8/en/docs/user_manual/working_with_projections/working_
with_projections.html
2
Add Raster Layer
• Download your chosen data layer
Use the ‘+’ button to add your chosen raster dataset to your collection, and
click Export
Select your preferred file format, and download your dataset (from the data sources
suggested above). Your raster download will include a number of image tiles.
• Extract your download to a new folder
EL
Your dataset will have been downloaded as a ZIP file, so you’ll first need to extract
these files.
PT
Note: It is important to keep all the files in the same folder.
N
• Select Add Raster Layer
Navigate to the folder that contains the tile images and select all the images in the
layer.
Once you have selected the images, select Open, and the selected image tiles will be
added to your map.
QGIS > Layer > Add layer > Add raster Layer (As shown in figure)
3
Add Vector Layer
First need to open the New Vector Layer dialog that will
allow you to define a new layer.
Step 1: Navigate to and click on the menu

entry Layer ‣ New ‣ New Shapefile Layer (a
EL
dialogue box will open as shown)
PT
N
It’s important to decide which kind of dataset you
want at this stage i.e. Point, Line or ppolygon.
Each different vector layer type is built differently
in the background, so once you’ve created the
layer, you can’t change its type.
4
Add Vector Layer Step 3: Later, some group of fields are listed under New attributes head.
By default “ID” field is added in attribute list. To add some attribute type,
For example: We will continue with Point dataset define the type of attribute, its label and width of that data.
Similarly, keep
adding number of
Step 2: Click on Point radio button. fields to the
attribute table
EL
Step 4: New field looks like this.
PT
Step 3: Next define the CRS system. By Click Ok and save
N
default it is WGS84 your new layer
The new layer will
appear in the
layer list.
5
Georeferencing a toposheet
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Georeferencer
• In the Georeferencer dialog box, go to File ‣ Open raster.
• In the dialog box that opens up, set the layer Co-ordinate
Reference System(CRS). Survey of India toposheets generally
uses WGS 84/ UTM system and based on the area mapped the
UTM zone will change.
• In the Georeferencer dialog box go to Edit ‣ Add point to add
Ground Control Points (GCP).
EL
• Identify a point on the map’s coordinate grid system where
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latitude and longitude values are known and click on it to add
the GCP. Make sure to zoom in as much as possible and select
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the point accurately.
• Make sure to zoom in as much as possible and select the
Figure 1
point accurately.
• In the dialogue box enter the coordinate values of the GCP.
• Click OK.
6
• Choose three more GCPs similarly. 1
4
Minimum number of GCPs required is 3 but
4 is points are ideal.
• Next go to Settings ‣ Transformation
Settings.
• Against Transformation type give Thin Plate
Spline.
• Choose Nearest Neighbour as the
Resampling method.
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• Set the output file name and location in
Output raster
PT
• Under Target SRS, choose the same CRS as
the original. Or alternate projections as
N
required.
• Check the box next to Load in QGIS when
done
• Click OK and close the box. Figure 2
• Next in the Georeferencer dialogue box, go
to File ‣ Start Georeferencing 2
Figure 3
7
Unit 03 : Raster Data Operations - 1
Raster Analysis Tools

■ Proximity
EL
■ Terrain Analysis
PT
■ Raster Calculator
N
⮚ Semi-Automatic Classification in QGIS
Raster Proximity
This is useful in generating a raster proximity map
showing the distance from the center of each pixel to
the center of the nearest pixel identified as a target pixel
(having a particular value).
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Analysis‣

Proximity(Raster Distance)
EL
• In the dialog box, against Input Layer select the raster
PT
layer.
• Set the output file name and location in Output File.
N
• Check the box next to Values and enter the value for
the pixels to be targeted.
• The Dist units can be changed to be pixel or
Figure 11: Slope of a terrain
georeferenced coordinates.
• Check the box next to Add result to project
• Click OK to calculate slope
This is useful in generating a raster
proximity map showing the distance
from the center of each pixel to the
center of the nearest pixel
identified as a target pixel (having a
particular value).
EL
PT
N
Figure 6
Terrain Analysis
Contour Generation
This tool can be used to generate a vector layer containing
the elevations from a raster DEM layer.
Generating the contour map of a terrain:

• Load the DEM file by Layer‣ Add Raster Layer
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Extraction‣ Contour
EL
• In the dialog box, under Input file select the required DEM
PT
layer.
• Set the output file name and location in Output file for
N
contour lines.
• Set the Interval between contour lines as required.
Figure 5
• Check the box next to Attribute name for the output vector
and name the attribute as required.
• Check the box next to Load into canvas when finished
• Click OK to generate contours.
Figure 6
EL
PT
N
Hill Shade
Hill Shade is a raster that shows the terrain through light and
shadows, generating an elevation map that appears 3D.
Generating the Hill shade of a terrain:
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Terrain Analysis‣ Hillshade
• In the dialog box, under Elevation layer select the DEM
Figure 7
EL
layer.
• Set the output file name and location in Output Layer
PT
• You may leave all the other options unchanged
N
• Click OK to generate the hillshade
Figure 8
To generate a Hillshade with colour (Figure 2):
• Change the symbology of the DEM to use the Pseudocolor scheme
• Make sure DEM is beneath the hillshade layer in the Layers list.
• For the hillshade, go to Layer Properties ‣ Transparency tab. Set the Global transparency as 50% or less
EL
PT
N
Fig 9: A Sample hillshade Figure 10
Calculating Slope
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Terrain
Analysis‣ Slope
• In the dialog box, under Elevation layer select
the DEM layer.
• Set the output file name and location in
Output Layer
EL
• Click OK to calculate slope
• In the raster obtained, white areas show steep
PT
slope and black pixels the flat regions.
N
• You can know the slope of each pixel using the
Identify Features option.
Figure 11: Slope of a terrain

Using Raster Calculator
Raster Calculator can do mathematical operations on the values
stored in pixels, and can be used to do interesting analysis using
raster datasets like climate data, population data etc.
For this example, we have taken the precipitation data for each
month of the year 2019 from WorldClim site and calculated the
annual average rainfall
EL
• Add the 12 rasters having precipitation data for each month
PT
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Raster Calculator
N
• In the dialog box, choose the raster bands required for the
analysis.
• Formulate the expression under Raster calculator expression.
Here the expression for calculating average is used.
• Set the output file name and location in Output Layer
• Check the box next to Add result to project Figure 11: Slope of a terrain
• Click OK to calculate the average rainfall as a new raster.
Raster to Vector Conversion
Raster to Vector Conversion is a useful tool to quickly get vector output
from raster. The time consuming alternative is manually digitizing the
raster.
To do this:
• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Conversion‣ Raster to Vector

• In the dialog box, under Input file select the required raster layer.
EL
• Set the output file name and location in Output Layer which would be a
PT
vector file.
• Set the attribute name as the data value that we will get from the raster. Figure 11: Slope of a terrain
N
• Check the box next to Load into the canvas when finished
• Click OK
For example, we have the population density data of India as a raster data
obtained from NASA’s Earth Observing System Data and Information
System (EOSDIS). We can get regions of similar density as a polygon after
conversion to vector.
EL
PT
N
Fig 9: A Sample hillshade Figure 10
Classification in QGIS
• Open QGIS and install SEMI AUTOMATIC CLASSIFICATION (SCP) plug-in from the plugin option.
• After installation of the plugin if SCP toolbox is not visible, then go to View ‣ Panels and check both SCP:
ROI creation and SCP: classification.
• Go to SCP ‣ Pre-processing and select the folder containing the images and MTL file. Check the boxes
Apply DOS1 Atmospheric Correction and Create Virtual Raster. Click perform conversion.
EL
• Set the symbology of the Landsat virtual raster as per your convenience, to easily identify land cover and
PT
land use classes.
N
• In SCP: Input panel enter the virtual raster file as the Input Image and under the Training input tab, click
on the Create new training input button to create the shapefile for the training set.
• Go to the ROI creation tab, click on create a ROI. Create a polygon over an area of which you can
distinguish the landuse and give a Macroclass name and class name. Click save ROI and check add sig. box
N
PT
EL
• Similarly create new ROI’s for different classes and save all the ROIs.
• Select algorithm for classification as Spectral Angle Mapping.
• Before going for classification you can see a preview with the option provided as classification preview
by clicking on the + sign and clicking on the area where you want to see the preview.
• If the preview is satisfactory, go for final classification, otherwise make new ROIs.
EL
• Click on perform classification for final classification.
PT
• After the classification is done go to Post processing and generate classification report.
N
EL
PT
N
Sample LULC classification
Unit 04 : Vector data operations
⮚ Vector data analysis

⮚ Buffer
⮚ Union
EL
⮚ Intersect
⮚
PT
Dissolve
⮚ Clip
⮚
N
Difference
⮚ Polygon to lines
⮚ Polygon centroid
⮚ Voronoi polygons
⮚ Field calculator
Vector Analysis- Buffer
Buffering usually creates two areas: one area that is within a specified distance to selected real world features and the other area that is beyond.
1. Run the buffer process from the menu: TOOLS -> Geoprocessing Tools -> Buffer(s)
i. Set the Input vector layer to point Enter Buffer distance. This will be in metres.
ii. Set the Output shapefile by pressing Browse button. Press Save button to select that filename. There is an option of
creating a temporary output file.
iii. Press OK button to run the process.
2. Buffer(s) window remains open. Press Close to close the window.
EL
3. Reorder the layers so the resulting buffer polygons layer is on the bottom of the layer stack. Click and drag the buffer layer
to beneath points. Output Layer
Further layer properties can be changed (right
PT
click on buffer in layer panel > Properties).
Input Layer
N
1
Vector Analysis- Buffer
NOTE: There are two types of buffering tools
Variable buffer tools: Allows every point to buffer as per Fixed distance buffer: Allows every point to buffer as
the defined field in the attribute table per the a fixed defined distance.
EL
PT
N
2
Vector Analysis- Union
Union allow to merge two layer into one layer but it does not remove the boundary line. To do that open the tool from
Vector > Geoprocessing Tools > Union
Area
Area 1
EL
Input layer is area and area1 as seen
in layer panel
PT
Give input layer 1 and 2 which you
N
want to make union of
Output Layer
Union dialogue box
3
Vector Analysis- Intersect
Intersect tools allow you to exclude the area that is not overlapping. To do that open the tool from
Vector > Geoprocessing Tools > Intersect.
Area
Area 1
EL
Input layer is area and area1 as seen
in layer panel
PT
Give input layer 1 and 2 which you
N
want to intersect.
Output Layer
Intersect dialogue box
4
Vector Analysis- Dissolve
Intersect tools allow you to exclude the area that is not overlapping. To do that open the tool from
Vector > Geoprocessing Tools > Dissolve.
Input layer is
area1, where Give input layer which you want to
multiple polygons dissolve
are drawn
EL
PT
Select on what basis you want to dissolve
N
Output Layer:
All the
polygons are
dissolved
showing only
one common
boundary
Dissolve dialogue box
5
Vector Analysis- Clip
Clipping allows you to clip the feature with the defined boundary line. To do that open the tool from
Vector > Geoprocessing Tools > Clip.
Give input layer

Area Input layer is
“area” and clip
layer is
“buffer”
EL
Buffer
PT
Give the layer which you want to clip
with the input layer
N
Output Layer:
Clip The buffer layer
is clipped as per
the Input layer
“Area 1”
Clip dialogue box
6
Vector Analysis- Difference
Difference layers allows to create area of input layer that is not overlapped. To do that open the tool from
Vector > Geoprocessing Tools > Difference.
Input layer is
Area “area”, and
difference layer is
Area 1 “Area 1”
EL
PT
Output Layer:
Created an area of
N
input layer which
Difference is not overlapped
by difference layer
Difference dialogue box
7
Vector Analysis- Polygons to lines
This tool can convert the polygon layer into individual lines without changing the orientation, shape and size
Vector > Geometry Tools >polygons to lines. (vise versa is also possible using the command available in toolbox)
Input layer is
area1, where
multiple polygons
are drawn
EL
Give input layer which you want to
convert to lines from polygon features
PT
N
Output Layer: All
the polygons are
converted in line
feature which are
further editable
Polygons to lines dialogue box
8
Vector Analysis- Polygon centroid
This tool can helps in calculating the center of all the polygons in a layer from
Vector > Geometry Tools >polygons centroids.
Input layer is
“area”, where
multiple polygons
are drawn
EL
Give input layer of which you want to
calculate centroids
PT
N
Output Layer: The
blue dots shows
the centroid of
each polygon in
the layer
Union dialogue box
9
Vector Analysis- Voronoi Polygon
Voronoi polygons is a systematic way to divide spaces into a number of regions using a set of points. For each point there will
be a corresponding region that consists of the points closer to that points than any other. These regions are
called voronoi cells.
Give input layer
Input layer is
points
EL
PT
Buffer: This is the amount by which the
resulting polygons will extend beyond the
N
Output Layer: All perimeter points.
the points now
have a
corresponding
region of polygon
Voronoi Polygon dialogue box
10
Vector Analysis- Field calculator
Field calculator allows you to perform calculations on the basis of existing attribute values or defined functions
Example: to calculate length of roads, area of ward boundaries.
The results can be written in new attribute table or can create a virtual field or can update the values in the existing field.
Step 1: Suppose the input layer is Step 2: Press “open attribute table“ and click on “toggle editing mode”
road map, load the layer in QGIS
layer panel.
EL
PT
N
11
Step 3: Open “Field Calculator” dialog. Step 4: Select “create a new field” checkbox to save the
calculations into a new field.
EL
PT
N
12
Step 5: Add “Length” as output field name and decimal number as output field type define output field and precision. Now
click on the function “$length” in the geometry group to add it into the field calculator expression box. Type “$length/1000”
in field calculator and click okay.
EL
PT
Expression
N
box
Functions
A new field length in the attribute table is now added
13
N
PT
EL
EL
PT
N
IIT KHARAGPUR
Response to queries
1. Optimisation modeling for design of energy efficient building envelope
Zhang, X., Lovati, M., Vigna, I., Widén, J., Han, M. et al. (2018) A review of
urban energy systems at building cluster level incorporating renewable-
energy-source (RES) envelope solutionsApplied Energy, 230: 1034-10.
EL
PT
N
Different types of cluster by number of floors and floor
(a) Plan area density (b) Frontal area density for one building area ratio; an equal floor area ratio is achievable with
different heights by varying ground floor openness
1
1. Optimisation modeling for design of energy efficient building envelope
SAGA-GIS Module
where H/W is the canyon aspect ratio defined as the

Sky View Factor
building height (H) divided by the street width (W)
Block Facade Density Fraction
EL
Bottoms up engineering
physical simulation tools such as
PT
Energy Plus, TRNSYS, Modelica
where SF the area of free external facade (m²), and
N
SREF is the area of the urban block (m²)
Boehner, J., Antonic, O. (2009): 'Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology'. in:

Hengl, T., Reuter, H. (Eds.): 'Geomorphometry - Concepts, Software, Applications'.
Matzarakis, A.; Matuschek, O. Sky View Factor as a parameter in applied
Developments in Soil Science, Volume 33, p.195-226
climatology—Rapid estimation by the SkyHelios Model. Meteorol. Z.
Hantzschel, J., Goldberg, V., Bernhofer, C. (2005): 'GIS-based regionalisation of radiation,
2011, 20, 39–45
temperature and coupling measures in complex terrain for low mountain ranges'.
Meteorological Applications, V.12:01, p.33-42
1
2. Contour accuracy and DEM resolution
❑ Accuracy of a derived raster DEM using interpolation

method (RMSE Interpolation) is related to the contour
X Spatial interpolation of DEM values density and the DEM output pixel size
EL
IDW – used for interpolating contour to DEM
Where,
PT
contours DEMs with 2.5 moutput pixel size from S stand for resolution in meters;
D stands for contour density expressed as Km/ Km2
N
1:5,000 maps (DEM-2.5) and 5 m output
pixelsizes based on 1:25,000 maps (DEM-5) ε is an error term related to D
Contour density was calculated by dividing the total length of
contour by the size of the study area
1
2. Contour accuracy and DEM resolution
References:
❑ Height precision of each DEM is Hameid NA, Bannari A, Kadhem G (2016) Absolute
expressed by the root mean square error Surface Elevations Accuracies Assessment of
(RMSE DEM-j) Different DEMs Using Ground TruthData Over
Kingdom of Bahrain. J Remote Sensing & GIS 5: 166.
USGS (1997) General standards for digital elevation

models. Part 1, p: 11
EL
Where
PT
HRef is the reference DGPS elevation data (in situ measurements),
N
HDEM-i is the elevation data from each considered source (SRTM, ASTER and
topographic contour maps), and
“n”corresponds to the total number of DGPS points used for validation
❑ USGS recommends - DEM error estimation is usually made with a minimum

of 28 GCPs
1
3. Geoid vs Ellipsoid
EL
PT
N
References:
B.K. Srivastava, K. Ramalingam, 2009, Error Estimates for
WGS-84 and Everest (India-1956) Transformation;
Geospatial World
https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/error-estimates-
for-wgs-84-and-everest-india-1956-transformation/
1
3. Geoid vs Ellipsoid
❑ The GPS uses height (h) above the reference ellipsoid that
approximates the earth's surface.
❑ The traditional, orthometric height (H) is the height above

an imaginary surface called the geoid, which is determined
by the earth's gravity and approximated by MSL.
EL
❑ The signed difference between the two heights—the
difference between the ellipsoid and geoid—is the geoid
PT
height (N)
N
Reference:
https://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0703/geoid1of3.html
1
Ellipsoid, Geoid and Shape of Earth
• Earth's shape is not a perfect sphere or ellipsoid.
• For representation and calculations, many shapes are used

which approximately describe the shape of the earth. For
globes we use spheres.
EL
• But since the shape of the earth is more flattened at the
poles and bulging out at the equators, an ellipsoid is better
PT
shape than sphere to describe earth.
Variations between Earth surface, Geoid and Ellipsoid
N
• The problem with ellipsoid is that since it is not an accurate
representation of the shape of earth, all points on earth
surface can't be correctly placed on the ellipsoid shape at the
same time.
• Then we can change the axes of the ellipsoid or shift the centre of the ellipsoid so that it will fit better for a
particular area.
• This it might mean compromising some other areas fit on the ellipsoid.
• As a result many regions and countries have their own local ellipsoids which would represent their part of
the earth as accurately as possible, so that they can do calculations like heights. sea level etc.
• That is the reason we have so many ellipsoids.
EL
PT
N
The red ellipsoid fits the geoid well in North The blue ellipsoid fits the geoid well in
America Europe
• Global Ellipsoids are the ones which try to represent as
many points from all over the earth as accurately as possible.
• Local ellipsoids are more accurate for the local region.
• Standard ellipsoids used are WGS 84 which is one that is

used internationally and in GPS.
EL
PT
N
International and Local Ellipsoids difference in fit
International Ellipsoid WGS 84
Local Ellipsoid for India
• Indian Local Ellipsoid is Everest 1830.
• The centre of this ellipsoid is about 1 km away from Earth’s centre of gravity, making it a non-
geocentric
EL
PT
N
UTM zones for India
• It is useful to know the UTM zones for the different regions while setting your projection
EL
PT
N
4. Classification Accuracy – Kappa Coefficient
Kappa coefficient(K): It is a measure of how the classification results compare to values assigned by chance.
• The values range from 0 to 1.
• If K=0, there is no agreement between the classified image and the reference image.
• If K=1, then the classified image and the ground truth image are totally identical.
EL
PT
N
4. Classification Accuracy – Kappa Coefficient
An example of Kappa Coefficient
Oab = (C11+ C22+ C33)/ N

=(37+25+43)/142
=0.739
(C11) (C12) (C13)
EL
Aab= (ƩA* Ʃa+ ƩB* Ʃb+ ƩC* Ʃc)/(N*N)
PT
(C21) (C22) (C23) = (57*47+ 30*39+ 55*56)/ 142*142
= 0.3436
N
(C31) (C32) (C33)
Kab = (Oab- Aab) /(1- Oab)
= (0.739-0.3446)/(1-0.3436)
= 0.6023
level of agreement is Moderate

N
PT
EL

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EL

❑ Transportation problem involves making efficient allocations between points of supply

total amount that total amount committed by the

• Landscape metrics are indices developed to characterize geometric and spatial

• There are many landscape

• Most metrics at class level are

• To understand changes in landscape from different perspectives (Visual, ecological, cultural).

• FRAGSTATS is a spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying structure (i.e.

Landscape Metrics used to study

Some questions that needs answers:

❑ Fragmented in nearest suburban areas and more aggregated in far suburbs

The Generalized Additive model (GAM) is given as :

❑ landscape patterns were aggregated in Shanghai

❑ provides insights on potential impact of new

➢ Urban Sprawl Characterisation

❑ MCDA - resolve decision-making problems - formalised analytical decision methods -

❑ DSS - Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) provide support for multidisciplinary

All MCDA approaches - two macro-phases:

❑ Preference thresholds, indifference thresholds, veto thresholds

Solution to decision problem

❑ n categories of alternatives of equal score but different behaviors

❑ Weighting of variables – depends on:

➢ Multi-criteria Decision Analysis

Software Module : Basics of GIS using QGIS

⮚ Installation of Software – QGIS

These Panels can

⮚ Through the menu bar

⮚ Type of Data sources

• Extract your download to a new folder

Step 1: Navigate to and click on the menu

Raster Analysis Tools

• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Analysis‣

Generating the contour map of a terrain:

Figure 11: Slope of a terrain

• Click on the menu item Raster‣ Conversion‣ Raster to Vector

• Select algorithm for classification as Spectral Angle Mapping.

⮚ Vector data analysis

Give input layer

Clip dialogue box

Difference dialogue box

Polygons to lines dialogue box

Voronoi Polygon dialogue box

A new field length in the attribute table is now added

where H/W is the canyon aspect ratio defined as the

Block Facade Density Fraction

Boehner, J., Antonic, O. (2009): 'Land-surface parameters specific to topo-climatology'. in:

❑ Accuracy of a derived raster DEM using interpolation

USGS (1997) General standards for digital elevation

“n”corresponds to the total number of DGPS points used for validation

❑ USGS recommends - DEM error estimation is usually made with a minimum

❑ The traditional, orthometric height (H) is the height above

• Earth's shape is not a perfect sphere or ellipsoid.

• For representation and calculations, many shapes are used

• That is the reason we have so many ellipsoids.

• Local ellipsoids are more accurate for the local region.

• Standard ellipsoids used are WGS 84 which is one that is

• Indian Local Ellipsoid is Everest 1830.

Oab = (C11+ C22+ C33)/ N

level of agreement is Moderate