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Archaeology and the Body

HI7336

28/05/2024 (7-day Extension)

Word Count: 3,504

Exploring the Relationship Between Gender and Body Art in Ancient Egypt:

Predynastic and Middle Kingdom

The word ‘tattoo’ derives from the Tahitian word ‘tatatau’, which means “to strike
properly” and which Captain Cook recorded as ‘tattow’ (Hassan et al. 1991). In traditional
societies, permanent body decoration has a practical and psychological purpose, or sometimes
both. Sending out a range of social signals, body decorations play an important part in
reinforcing and expressing social relationships, values, and society itself. Permanent body
decoration is often applied when an individual goes through a rite of passage and attains a new
social status, such as adulthood (Rubin 1988). While the reasons for tattooing can change over
time, the result is still permanent and must mean something more. In this essay, we must first
go over the differences between sex and gender, then onto how females and males lived in
ancient Egypt. Moving onto the generalized known history of tattooing and outlining the
reasons why skipping the Old Kingdom in this essay timeline is necessary.

This is where the essay focuses on the relationships between tattoos and their purpose,
by looking at two case studies. The first in Ancient Egypt is during the Predynastic period with
the emergence of Gebelein Man A and he is the first case study due to his unique nature of
being the earliest example of tattooing and the fact that he is the only male found in Egypt with
animal representation. The second case study of tattooing is that of three female mummies
from the Middle Kingdom (11th Dynasty) in Deir el-Bahri, modern-day Thebes. Amunet, a
possible Priestess of Hathor, and two other females were found with tattooed dots and dashes
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that were shaped into patterns, like diamonds. Lastly, there will be a discussion section where
these case studies will be interpreted with current body theories to help determine the purpose
of these tattoos and possibly why females are tattooed more than males.

Sex and Gender in Ancient Egypt

I’d like to take a moment to talk about sex, gender, and what that meant for females,
males, and others in Ancient Egypt. With this essay looking at the difference between sexed
female and male tattooed mummies, it is important to acknowledge what their lives were like
before death and how that might impact who gets tattooed and what they got tattooed on
them. It is first crucial to explain that sex and gender are different. Sex is your chromosomes
(XX, XY, XXY, YXX, etc.) and external sex organs, though there are intersex persons as well
(Mukhopadhyay 2017, 44). Gender is the set of culturally and historically invented beliefs and
expectations about gender that one performs and learns, while this is also your identity for
society (Mukhopadhyay 2017, 44). There were other sexes and genders in Ancient Egypt, such
as men who become “women” as Bata (Lichtheim 1976, 207), the images of Queen Hatshepsut
with a male body (Keller 2005), representations of the goddess Mut with an erect penis (Leitz
2002, 251), or females taking on masculine attributes such as the occasional image of
goddesses with royal beards (Niwinski 1989, 227). Although representations of humans in
Ancient Egypt are almost always graphically gendered through details of costume and body,
there is a subset of material that seems to be deliberately ungendered, such as coffins (Wilfong
& Wendrich 2010, 168). It is important to note that we cannot assume the gender of any
mummies discussed in this paper; only the biological sex was researched and confirmed by
experts. For this paper, I will be using the Western terminology of sex only, as female and male.

History of Tattooing

Research on Egyptian tattooing has been extremely limited due to the very few human
remains exhibiting tattoos. The most comprehensive study on the topic was conducted by
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Keimer in 1948, who used evidence from mummies, figurines, and ethnography to document
tattooing in Egypt and Nubia. Keimer (1948) found the earliest evidence for tattooing comes
from Predynastic (5000-3000 BC) figurines bearing geometric patterns on their arms and legs
(all female) (Austin & Gobeil 2017). However, it was difficult to differentiate markings intended
as tattoos or other decoration, such as the same markings showing on pottery (Austin & Gobeil
2017). During the pre-dynastic period, the first hard evidence of tattooing shows up with the
finding of two mummies from Gebelein, Egypt, one being female and the other male. The male
mummy is highly significant as he is the only male tattooed Egyptian mummy found (Austin &
Gobeil 2017; Friedman et al. 2018, 118). Gebelein Man A will be discussed further below as a
case study. Other than the Gebelein mummies, no other tattoo evidence and found in the pre-
dynastic period.

As time goes by, the Old Kingdom starts to rise and grow, where tattooing may have
been a part of the culture, but it is unknown, as we do not have figurines or mummies with
tattoos (Austin & Gobeil 2017). The Old Kingdom gets left out of this research and time moves
on to the Middle Kingdom (2055-1782 BC), where tattooing is popular enough for modern
research to find and study eight tattooed mummies, all female (Austin & Gobeil 2017).
Figurines were found with dots and dashes on the arms, abdomen, and thighs which match the
tattoos of the female mummies (Austin & Gobeil 2017). The most famous of these Middle
Kingdom mummies is Amunet, who served as a priestess of the goddess Hathor at Thebes (Deir
el-Bahari) in the 11th Dynasty, along with two other female mummies with tattoos (Bianchi
1988, 21-22). These three mummies from Thebes will be discussed below as part of a case
study

The Middle Kingdom sets off the trend of tattooing and it leads into the New Kingdom
(1550-1070 BC) with an explosion. During the New Kingdom period, tattoos continue to be
reserved exclusively for women but are dramatically transformed (Bianchi 1988, 27). The
abstract geometric patterns of dots and dashes left and gave way to representations of gods
and goddesses through hieroglyphs (Bianchi 1988, 27). I will not go into further detail on the
tattooed mummies of the New Kingdom as that is not the focus of the paper. This paper will
focus on the Predynastic period and the Middle Kingdom. I have chosen this timeline as it is
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important to get a male example and there is only one, which happens to be the earliest
example we have. For the Middle Kingdom, it is important to see the new rise of tattooing and
how patterns and meanings have changed.

Male Tattoos

To start off the case studies, looking at the tattooed male mummy from ancient Egypt
seemed most important to mention first. As said before, there are few examples of male
mummies having tattoos. The best example all researchers will use is that of Gebelein Man A
(EA 32751) who died between the ages of 18 and 21 due to interpersonal violence (Farouk
2023, 96). He has been on display almost continuously for the last 100 years and the black
smudges on his upper right arm raised little interest and remained unexamined (Friedman et al.
2018, 118). That was until he was discovered accidentally at the British Museum in 2018, where
researchers examined seven Predynastic (3017-3050 BC) natural mummies with infrared
scanning (Friedman et. al, 2018, p.1). During the scanning, tattoos were found on Gebelein Man
A which led to a once-in-a-lifetime discovery. Even with the scans, the patterns are blurry and
hard to make out, but researchers believe one tattoo depicts a wild bull, possibly an Aurochs
and a Barbary sheep on the upper arm, while they both face towards the front of the body
(Farouk 2023, 96). The two images, one somewhat lighter lined than the other, overlap slightly
and one is placed in front of the other, which possibly suggests that the two tattoos were
applied at different times (Friedman et al. 2018, 118).

Male Tattoos: Purpose

The purpose, social roles, and significance might not be tied to the fact that it is a tattoo,
but because the animal chosen is of extreme importance to the Predynastic ancient Egyptians.
Both the Aurochs and Barbary sheep were well-known in Predynastic art on incised potmarks,
decorated palettes, carved ivories, and rock art (Friedman et al. 2018, 119-200). The symbolism
of the Barbary sheep is vague, and popularity dwindled by the Dynastic period, whereas the
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Aurochs continued to play an important role in Egyptian society and religion (Friedman et al.
2018, 119-200). The Aurochs were a symbol of male power and virility, possibly giving purpose
and symbolism to the tattoo, such as strength and power (Friedman et al. 2018, 119-200).
Gebelein Man A might have gotten the tattoo of the Aurochs in the hopes of embodying the
bulls' power and strength; if not for this reason, there is an alternative theory to do with
hunting. During the Predynastic period, hunting was not critical for subsistence and had instead
become a symbolic activity demonstrating the order over chaos in nature (Friedman 2018, 17).
Men could practice with weapons and show their prowess, but the main goal was not to kill the
animal, but to capture and save for ritual slaughter (Friedman 2018, 17). With this context, it is
possible that Gebelein Man A got his tattoos to represent triumph during the hunt and
commemorate bravery.

Female Tattoos

As the Middle Kingdom came along, the first undeniable evidence took the form of
actual tattoo preservation on mummies since the Predynastic Period. This case study focuses
on the female mummies in the Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, set during the 11th Dynasty,
roughly from 2160 BC to 1994 BC (Bianchi 1988, 21-22; Friedman 2018, 22). During this period
there was a rise in tattooing on the body and small figurines. These tattoos are decorated with
geometric patterned dots on the arms, thighs, and abdomen, and sometimes pictures of
hieroglyphs (Austin & Gobeil 2017). These decorated patterns were observed when three
female mummies were discovered at Deir el-Bahri, the modern name of Thebes (Bianchi 1988,
21-22).

The most famous of the three is a female named Amunet who was discovered by
Grebaut in 1891 (Tassie 2003, 90). She was in a wooden coffin and sealed in a tomb south of
the temple in Deir el-Bahri (Austin & Gobeil 2017). In the tomb, Amunet had a list of titles, such
as “Priestess of Hathor” and “King’s Favorite Ornament” (Austin & Gobeil 2017). Her tattoos
comprise a series of blue abstract patterns of individual dots or dashes, sometimes randomly
placed with “apparent disregard for formal zoning” (Bianchi 1988, 22). On her left shoulder and
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breast is a tattoo consisting of a row of dots encased in two lines, while on her right arm right
below the elbow, there are nine rows of dotted tattoo marks (Tassie 2003, 90). Tassie (2003,
90). The tattoos on her stomach make an elliptical pattern of dots and dashes just about the
navel and below the chest, then creating seven to nine rows and strokes in a rectangular
pattern (Keimer 1948, 9-13).

Two other female mummies were found at Deir el-Bahri but were not given individual
names, only known as pit numbers 23 (mummy 2) and 26 (mummy 3), the “Hathoric Dancers”
and “Nubian Dancing Girls” in the court of King Mentuhotep II (Tassie 2003, 90; Friedman 2018,
24). Female mummies 2 and 3 have tattoos like Amunet's. Their tattoos consist of dots of
diamond-shaped patterns on the upper arms, chest, dorsum of their feet, and across their
abdomen (Bianchi 1988, 22; Tassie 2003, 91). Dot work is scattered all over the body, but it is
most noticeable that with the pattern on the abdomen, it would have been particularly notable
if the female became pregnant, as the pattern would expand, forming an even more symbolic
pattern like a web or netting design (Tassie 2003, 91).

Female Tattoos: Purpose

The tattoos of the three female Dier el-Bahri mummies were placed in public and visible
areas of the body, most likely for the community to see them. The more hidden tattoos, like on
the lower chest and abdomen, may be for more of a personal reason or some scholars would
note an “erotic undertone of tattoos in these regions” (Austin & Gobeil 2017). These tattoos
have also been hypothesized as healing tattoos, but this idea has been met with backlash, as
there is a high number of tattoos on these three females, which would mean they were very
sick (Austin & Gobeil 2017). Instead, there are speculations that these females were
“magicians” as they worked with Hathor or the temple (Austin & Gobeil 2017). This is only a
hypothesis though and should not be taken lightly. When focusing on mummies 2 and 3, we see
how the tattoos have influenced their titles. The tattoos resemble marks found on Middle
Kingdom figurines depicting nude or scantily class women, often called Brides of the Dead
(Friedman 2018, 24). These depictions of tattoos on underdressed acrobats and musicians and
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a misunderstanding of Amunet's titles also influence the interpretations of why these females
have tattoos (Friedman 2018, 24).

Discussion: Body Theory, Sex and Purpose

To start the discussion on tattoo and body theories, sex, and purpose, Rainbird (2002)
argues that on the body, tattoos are the inscriptions of history; a “wrapping in images” that
does not just mark but forms the skin of the person. The tattoo is not simply an image on the
body but the person becomes the image and identifies as such. This is because tattoos create
permanent marks, unlike the use of clothing or ornaments, which can be adopted or changed
more easily. Boyd (2002, 142) states that decorative elements (I am including tattoos)
symbolize subjective meanings and ideas, which are materially inscribed on the body to convey
those meanings and ideas to other individuals in their society. We see this with our two case
studies about Gebelein Man A and the three female mummies from Deir el-Bahri, which will be
discussed more below.

To start, Cassirer (1955, 42) coined a term called mythical consciousness, which
concerning images, is characterized by the idea that an image has a greater function than the
mere transfer of information; “that rather than being a symbol of an entity, it is connected
directly with the entity itself” (Lippert 1980, 159). This idea of mythical consciousness manifests
itself clearly in the use of tattoos, a category called “magico-religious” (Lippert 1980, 159). This
is a category that looks past the simple ideas of symbolic expression and decoration for ancient
Egyptian tattoos, by looking at those uses of tattooing in which the person tattooed holds the
overt belief that this tattoo will have the power to affect some spiritual or physical change in
some aspect of their being (Lippert 1980, 159). More prevalent among these beliefs are those
regarding passage to the afterlife, fertility, the assumption of unusual powers, protection from
disease and malicious forces, and membership in the totemic clan (Lippert 1980, 159).

Totemic clans and totemism are very interesting to address because this is a form of
religion with tattoo marks that when used, the wearer will be in alliance with the spiritual parts
of an animal or other being whose qualities are emulated (Lippert 1980, 165). We might already
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have evidence of totemism in ancient Egypt during the Predynastic period and that is looking at
our first case study involving Gebelein Man A. The tattoos depicted are of an Aurochs bull and a
Barbary sheep. The Aurochs were a symbol of male power and virility in ancient Egypt, possibly
giving purpose and symbolism to the tattoo, such as strength and power (Friedman et al. 2018,
119-200). Gebelein Man A might have gotten the tattoo of the Aurochs in the hopes of
embodying the bulls' power and strength. It was mentioned above that the tattoos were most
likely done at separate times, as there is overlapping of the lines. This is significant since some
type of event would have happened twice and caused this individual to get a tattoo, which was
a painful process. The meaning behind these tattoos must be important if he is to go through all
of that, and maybe more.

Mythical consciousness functions within the idea of fertility as well, which brings up the
interesting topic of the three female Deir el-Bahri mummies with their abdominal tattoos. Dot
work is scattered all over the body, but it is most noticeable that with the pattern on the
abdomen, it would have been particularly notable if the female became pregnant, as the
pattern would expand, forming an even more symbolic pattern like a web or netting design
(Tassie 2003, 91). It is unknown if the real purpose of abdomen tattoos is to create this pattern
during pregnancy, but I support the idea that because these tattoos would have caused
significant pain during the process, which further shows the determination of these females,
these tattoos would have symbolized something deep in their culture or personal life; maybe
fertility being one of them.

Body ornaments are understood as marking the already-given social status of the
person, or as imagery for the communication of social identities (Joyce 2005, 142). This is seen
with the three female mummies from Deir el-Bahri, including Amunet, where they have
matching tattoos with figurines and artist depictions of dancers and musicians for the Goddess
Hathor, mummies 2 and 3 specifically being called the Hathoric Dancers, which have given
these female a rank of status that could be shown off to the world (Bianchi 1988). These
mummies help to show a correlation between the cult of Hathor and tattooing in ancient Egypt,
with Bianchi (1988, 22-23) stating that these tattooed females had a function linked to the
goddess Hathor or they are placing themselves under Hathor's divine and protective command,
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but Pinch (2006) notes “it is tempting to see such tattoos as the mark of a devotee of Hathor,
but there is no definitive evidence for this”. Even though these figurines are not allowed for a
direct connection, it is still very important to take this as possible evidence for tattooing and the
connection to Hathor, as these figurines are known to have Hathor's inscriptions on them and
similar blue and black patterns on the skin.

In conclusion, we started this essay by focusing on the meanings and differences

between sex and gender. In the Predynastic period, tattooing is first seen on 2 mummies, a
female and male from Gebelein. One of these mummies is the only male example of tattooing
found in Egypt, which raises the question as to why there are not others. We do not have any
other Predynastic mummies with tattoos and as the Old Kingdom came around, there is still no
evidence of tattooing; not until the Middle Kingdom. As the 11th Dynasty starts, we have our
first new evidence of tattooing reemerging in ancient Egypt with the finding of three female
mummies in Deir el-Bahri.

With our case studies and discussion on theories, new light is shown on the possible
purposes for tattooing in ancient Egypt. First, Gebelein Man A was discovered with two animal
tattoos, one of an Aurochs bull and a Barbary sheep. The Aurochs was a symbol of male power
and virility in ancient Egypt, possibly giving purpose and symbolism to the tattoo, such as
strength and power (Friedman et al. 2018, 119-200). Finding that there is a mythical
consciousness, totemism, and magico-religious views that the person who tattoos such images
on their body will become that entity, body and soul. It is unknown if Gebelein Man A subjected
his tattoos to such interpretations but there has to be a greater reason for causing himself that
much pain for a tattoo. Same goes for the three Deir el–Bahri female mummies. Amunet and
mummies 2 and 3 all share the same dot and dash work, mostly on their arms, thighs, lower
abdomen and chest. These areas would have been visible by the public which would give more
sense of identity and status, as people would know who and what they represent because of
the tattoos.
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The tattoos on the females are seen as having a connection with the Goddess Hathor,
serving her as a Priestess like Amunet, or a dancer and musician like mummies 2 and 3 who
have been labeled as Hathoric Dancers. These mummies also have large dot work over their
abdomen, which has been theorized to show the exaggeration of pregnancy when the tattoos
are stretched and create a new pattern, which leads me to believe there is a magico-religious
action taking place, where the dots placed on the body is to represent the fertility of the
female; possibly to manifest the act of getting pregnant as well. In the end, whether these
tattoos on Gebelein Man A, Amunet, or mummies 2 and 3 represent bigger meanings or
nothing at all, it is still important to find and study tattooing in ancient Egypt and should be
continued for the benefit of finding out exactly why females are tattooed more than males and
the purposes behind female and male tattoos.
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