MODULE 1.
1: GOVERNANCE
This part will give the learners an in-depth
understanding of the nature of governance
and the underlying principles of good
governance from three sources namely the
United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), the Asian Development Bank (ADB),
and the Institute of Governance (IOG), a
non-profit think- thank.
Governance: Varying Definitions
 In broad terms, governance is about the
institutional environment in which citizens
interact among themselves and with
government agencies/officials.
 The manner in which power is exercised in
the management of a country’s social
and economic resources for
development. It is referred to as the
quality of the institutions to make,
implement and enforce sound policies in
an efficient, effective, equitable and
inclusive manner. (The Asian
DevelopmentBank, 2005).
 The exercise of economic, political, and
administrative authority to manage a
country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises
mechanisms, processes, and institutions
through which citizens and groups
articulate their interests, exercise their
legal rights, meet their obligations, and
mediate their differences.
It refers to how any organization, including
a nation, is run. It includes all the
processes, systems, and controls that are
used to safeguard and grow
assets. (United Nations Development
Program,1997)
 In governance, citizens are rightly
concerned with a government’s
responsiveness to their needs
and protection of their rights. In
general, governance issues pertain to
the ability of government to develop
an efficient, effective, and
accountable public management
process that is open to citizen
participation and that strengthens
rather than weakens a democratic
system of government. (USAID, Office
of Democracy &Governance)
 promoting fairness, transparency and
accountability (World Bank, 1995)
 Governance is about autonomous self-
governing networks of actors. (The
emergence of self-governing networks
raises difficulties over accountability).
Governance networks, in Stoker’s
terms, “involve not just influencing
government policy but taking over the
business of government” (1998, p. 23).
 This reminds us of the privatization and
deregulation policies of the Corazon
Aquino's and her successor, Fidel
Ramos' administrations. The “hollow
state” that networks have
triggered (Milward, 1996; Milward and
Provan, 2000) raises questions about
how government can manage public
programs when they consist largely of
entities outside the public domain.
Examples of this were the privatization
of water delivery (case of Maynilad
and Manila Water concessionaires)
and energy systems (privatization of
NAPOCOR), which are basic public
needs that are supposedly state-
controlled and regulated. Network
theory and governance issues overlap,
 and they are both directly linked to
questions of implementation. This will
be elaborated on the topic, fields of
Public Administration, wherein there is
a need for modern governments to
find ways to involve the private
sector in governing the
state resources.
 The dilemma of governance in this
context is that there is a broader concern
with the very real potential for leadership
failure, differences among key partners in
time horizons and goal priorities,
and social conflicts, all of which can result
in governance failure. Stoker draws on
Goodin as he suggests that design
challenges of public institutions can be
addressed in part by “revisability,
robustness, sensitivity to motivational
complexity, public dependability, and
variability to encourage
experimentation” (Stoker, 1998, p. 26,
quoting from Goodin, 1996, p. 39-43).
 As Peters and Pierre note, “governance is
about maintaining public-sector
resources under some degree of political
control and developing strategies to
sustain government’s capacity to act” in
the face of management tools that
replace highly centralized, hierarchical
structures with decentralized
management environments where
decisions on resource allocation and
service delivery are made closer to the
point of delivery (1998, p. 232).
MODULE 1.2: GOOD GOVERNANCE AND
PUBLIC ADMINISTARTION
The historical roots of the development of
public administration in the Philippines as a
young nation-state can be traced back in
the post –WWII era, when the Philippines
gained its independence from the
Americans. To a certain degree, it can be
said that in the early years of its statehood,
the Philippines was heavily influenced by the
American brand of public administration (this
will be elaborated in our topic on nature of
public administration and bureaucracy). So,
what is the relationship of governance to
public administration?
The many failed development
interventions in the 1950s into the 1990s
spurred the introduction of other
development reforms in the so called third
world or developing countries like the
Philippines. The “governance” paradigm was
introduced and advocated by the United
Nations (UN), World Bank (WB), Asian
Development Bank (ADB) and other
international institutions. The word
“governance” suddenly “has become
something of a mantra in recent years,
uttered by donors, reformers and pundits
alike.” (Frechette 2000: 25)
Governance entails a larger scope
and has a wider meaning. Though the term
“governance” has been used to refer mostly
to “government,” when correctly used,
“governance” really goes beyond
government. It involves the institutionalization
of a system through which citizens,
institutions, organizations, and groups in a
society articulate their interests, exercise their
rights, and mediate their differences in pursuit
of the collective good. (ADB 1995 as cited in
ADB 2005: 1)
 UNDP describes it as “the exercise of
political, economic and administrative
authority to manage a nation’s affairs. It
embraces all of the methods- good and bad
– that societies use to distribute power and
manage public resources and problems.”
(UNDP 1997: 9)
Cariño (2000), in her reflections on the
term “governance,” identified actors and
factors that pushed for governance. She
acknowledges that governance is not the
sole responsibility of the government per se
but the role of the market and civil society
are of equal importance too and should also
be recognized. She then identified the
factors or processes that pushed for
governance and some of these are:
1. the quest for growth and
development,
2. the environmental movement,
3. globalization and
4. consolidating peace.
These are practically the same values
or virtues found in the UN Charter. Likewise,
governance promotes the virtues of
decentralization, participation,
responsiveness and accountability among
others. From “governance”, the concept of
“good governance” has emerged and
became prominent in international aid
circles around 1989 or 1990. It served as a
general guiding principle for donor agencies
to demand that recipient governments
adhere to proper administrative processes in
the handling of development assistance and
put in place effective policy instruments
towards that end. When there is good
governance, there is sustainable
development. (Doornbos, 2003)
Kofi Annan, in his inaugural speech in
the 1st International Conference on
Governance for Sustainable Growth and
Equity in United Nations, New York, in July 28-
30, 1997 affirms this when he said that:
“Good governance and sustainable
development are indivisible. That is the lesson
of all our efforts and experiences, from Africa
to Asia to Latin America. Without good
governance – without the rule of law,
predictable administration, legitimate
power, and responsive regulation -- no
amount of funding, no amount of charity will
set us on the path to prosperity…We are fully
engaged in efforts to improve governance
around the world…good governance is
indispensable for building peaceful,
prosperous and democratic societies.”
(Annan, 1997)
Annan concluded that “good
governance is perhaps the single most
important factor in eradicating poverty and
promoting development.” (Annan 1997)
An ADB document (2005) affirmed
that good governance is synonymous with
sound development management. They
then identified some key principles of
development which may be considered as
elements of good governance. These are:
accountability, participation, predictability,
and transparency.
FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF GOOD
GOVERNANCE BY ADB
ADB likewise regards governance as
synonymous with sound development
management. It relates to governance to
the effectiveness with which development
assistance is used, the impact development
programs and projects and the absorptive
capacity of borrowing countries. To address
governance issues, the Asian Development
bank has built upon the approach of the
World Bank and has identified four basic
elements of good governance
1. Accountability
Accountability is imperative to make
public officials answerable for government
behavior and responsive to the entity from
which they derive their authority. This may be
achieved differently in different countries or
political structures, depending on the history, Participation is often related to
cultural milieu, and value systems involved. accountability but not necessarily so. In
representative democracies, where citizens
Accountability also means
participate in government through the
establishing criteria to measure the
electoral process, public officials are indeed
performance of public officials, as well as
accountable ultimately to the electorate.
oversight mechanisms to ensure that
This may not be the case however, in other
standards are met. The litmus test is whether
political systems. For all economies though,
private actors in the economy have
the benefits of participatory approaches can
procedurally simple and swift recourse for
be considerable.
redress of unfair actions or incompetence of
the executive authority. These include improved
performance and sustainability of policies,
Lack of accountability tends in time
programs, and projects as well as enhanced
to reduce the state’s credibility as an
capacity and skills of stakeholders. At the
economic partner. It undermines the
grassroots level, participation implies that
capacity of governments to sustain the long-
government structures are flexible enough to
term business confidence essential for
offer beneficiaries and others affected, the
growth-enhancing private sector investment.
opportunity to improve the design and
Looked at from this angle, accountability
implementation of public programs and
can help reduce sovereign risk.
projects.
The accountability of public sector
This increases “ownership” and
institutions is facilitated by evaluation of their
enhances results. At a different level, the
economic and financial performance.
effectiveness of policies and institutions
Economic accountability relates to the
impinging on the economy as a whole may
effectiveness of policy formulation and
require the broad support and cooperation
implementation, and efficiency in resource
of major economic actors concerned. To the
use. Financial accountability covers
extent that the interface between the public
accounting systems for expenditure control,
agencies and the private sector is conducive
and internal and external audit
to the latter’s participation in the economy,
national economic performance will be
enhanced. Participation in economic life
2. Participation by agents other than the state would cover
not only the role of the private sector but also
The principle of participation derives
the activities of NGOs. These elements of civil
from an acceptance that people at the
society offer an alternative means of
heart of development. They are not only the
channeling the energies of private citizens.
ultimate beneficiaries of development but
They can be helpful in identifying people’s
are also the agents of development. In the
interests, mobilizing public opinion in support
latter capacity, they act through groups or
of these interests and organizing action
associations (e.g. trade unions, chambers of
accordingly. Being close to their constituents,
commerce, NGOs, political parties) and as
NGOs can provide governments with a useful
individuals. (e.g through letters to newspaper
ally in enhancing participation at the
editors, participating in radio and television
community level and fostering a “bottom-
talk shows, voting). Since development is
up” approach to economic and social
both for and by the people, they need to
development.
have access to the institutions that promote
it. 3. Predictability
 Predictability refers to the existence
of laws, regulations and policies to regulate
society; and their fair and consistent
application. The importance of predictability
cannot be overstated since, without it, the
orderly existence of citizens and institutions
would be impossible.
The rule of law encompasses both
well-defined rights and duties, as well as
mechanisms for enforcing them, and settling
disputes in an impartial manner. It requires
the state and its subsidiary agencies to be as
much bound by and answerable to, the
legal system as are private individuals and
enterprises. The importance of rules-based
systems for economic life is obvious. They are
essential component of the environment
within which economic actors plan and take
investment decisions. To the extent,
therefore, that legal frameworks help ensure
that
a. business risks can be assessed
rationally,
b. transaction costs are lowered and
c. governmental arbitrariness is
minimized, they should prove conducive to
risk taking, growth and
development.
In an opposite scenario, the
capricious application of rules generates
uncertainty and inhibits the growth of private
sector initiatives. Regulatory uncertainty also
tends to raise the cost of capital by
increasing the risk of investment. Besides
legal and regulatory frameworks,
consistency of public policy is also important.
Government policies affect the
investment climate directly and economic
actors require reasonable assurance about
the future behavior of key variables such as
prices, the exchange rates, and the
employment levels. However, it must be
emphasized that consistency does not mean
rigidity.
Governments do need to respond
flexibly to changing circumstances and to
make midcourse corrections as necessary.
Also, when government’s change, the
successor administration will,
understandably, want public policy to reflect
its priorities, rather those of its predecessor.
4. Transparency
Transparency refers to the availability
of information to the general public and
clarity about government rules, regulations
and decisions. Thus, it both complements
and reinforces predictability. The difficulty
with ensuring transparency is that only the
generator of information may know about it,
and may limit access to it. Hence, it may be
useful to strengthen the citizen’s right for
information with a degree of legal
enforceability, for similar reasons.
Broadly restrictive laws that permit
public officials to deny information to citizens
need to provide for independent review of
claims that such denial is justified in the
greater public interest. Transparency in
government decision making and public
policy implementation reduces uncertainty
and can help inhibit corruption among
public official. To this end, rules and
procedures that are simple, straightforward,
and easy to apply are preferable to those
that provide discretionary powers to
government officials or that are susceptible
to different interpretations. The table below
shows the basic elements of good
governance and its key dimensions, as
published by the Asian Development Bank in
2005.
Key Dimensions and Specific Areas of
Actions in Good Governance
KEY DIMENSIONS SPECIFIC AREAS OF
ACTION
 clear government
1. ACCOUNTABILITY • Public Sector rules, regulations,
• means making Management and decisions
public officials • Ensuring access to
answerable for • Public Enterprise accurate and
government Management timely information
• behavior and about the economy
responsive to the • Public Financial and government
entity from which Management policies
they derive Source: ADB, 2005
authority • Civil Service
• Establishing criteria Reform
to measure
performance of THE EIGHT CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
public officials GOVERNANCE BY the UN DEVELOPMENT
• Institutionalizing
mechanisms to PROGRAM
ensure that
standards are met. Source: United Nations Development
Programme(1997): Reconceptualizing
2. PARTICIPATION • Participation of
Governance. Discussion Paper 2. New York:
• refers to enhancing beneficiaries and Management Development and
people’s access to affected groups Governance Division, Bureau of Policy and
and influence on
public policy • Interface Programme Support, UNDP, retrieved from:
processes between http://www.ombudsman.gov.ph/UNDP4/wp
• Undertaking government and -content/uploads/2013/01/Module_I.pdf
development for the private sector
and by the people service delivery
Good governance is participatory,
functions
(empowerment of consensus oriented, accountable,
Local transparent, responsive, effective and
Governments)
efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows
• Cooperation with the rule of law. It assures that corruption is
non-government minimized, the views of minorities are taken
Organizations
into account and that the voices of the most
vulnerable in society are heard in decision-
3. PREDICTABILITY making. It is also responsive to the present
• refers to the
existence of laws, • Law and
and future needs of society. Much has been
regulations and Development written about the characteristics of efficient
policies to regulate government, successful businesses and
society and the fair • Legal Frameworks
and consistent for Private effective civil society organizations, but the
application of these Sector characteristics of good governance defined
• establishing and Development in societal terms remain elusive.
sustaining
appropriate legal
Interrelated, these core
and institutional
arrangements characteristics are mutually reinforcing and
• Observing and cannot stand alone. For example, accessible
upholding the rule
of law
information means more transparency,
• Maintaining broader participation and more effective
consistency of decision-making. Broad participation
public policies
contributes both to the exchange of
4. TRANSPARENCY • Disclosure of information needed for effective decision-
• refers to the Information making and for the legitimacy of those
availability of
Information to the
decisions.
general public and
 Legitimacy, in turn, means effective that representative democracy does not
implementation and encourages further necessarily mean that the concerns of the
participation. And responsive institutions must most vulnerable in society would be taken
be transparent and function according to into consideration in decision making.
the rule of law if they are to be equitable. Participation needs to be informed and
These core characteristics represent the ideal organized. This means freedom of
- and no society has them all. association and expression on the one hand
and an organized civil society on the other
Even so, UNDP believes that societies
hand.
should aim, through broad-based consensus-
building, to define which of the core features 2. Rule of law
are most important to them, what the best
Legal frameworks should be fair and
balance is between the state and the
enforced impartially, particularly the laws on
market, how each socio-cultural and
human rights. Good governance requires fair
economic setting can move from here to
legal frameworks that are enforced
there. UNDP is faced increasingly with post-
impartially. It also requires full protection of
crisis situations and disintegrating societies.
human rights, particularly those of minorities.
For them, the issue is not developing good
Impartial enforcement of laws requires an
governance - it is building the basic
independent judiciary and an impartial and
institutions of governance. The first step is
incorruptible police force.
towards reconciliation - building society's
ability to carry on a dialogue on the meaning
of governance and the needs of all citizens.

Good governance has major

characteristics. It is participatory, consensus 3. Transparency
oriented, accountable, transparent,
Transparency is built on the free flow
responsive, effective and efficient, equitable
of information. Processes, institutions and
and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It
information are directly accessible to those
assures that corruption is minimized, the views
concerned with them, and enough
of minorities are taken into account and that
information is provided to understand and
the voices of the most vulnerable in society
monitor them. Transparency means that
are heard in decision-making. It is also
decisions taken and their enforcement are
responsive to the present and future needs of
done in a manner that follows rules and
society.
regulations. It also means that information is
1. Participation/Participatory freely 38 available and directly accessible to
those who will be affected by such decisions
Participation by both men and and their enforcement. It also means that
women is a key cornerstone of good enough information is provided and that it is
governance All men and women should provided in easily understandable forms and
have a voice in decision-making, either media.
directly or through legitimate intermediate
institutions that represent their interests. Such 4. Responsiveness
broad participation is built on freedom of
Institutions and processes try to serve
association and speech, as well as
all stakeholders. Good governance requires
capacities to participate constructively.
that institutions and processes try to serve all
Participation could be either direct or
stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.
through legitimate intermediate institutions or
representatives. It is important to point out 5. Consensus oriented
 Good governance mediates differing
interests to reach a broad consensus on what
is in the best interests of the group and, where
possible, on policies and procedures. There
are several actors and as many view points in
a given society. Good governance requires
mediation of the different interests in society
to reach a broad consensus in society on
what is in the best interest of the whole
community and how this can be achieved. It
also requires a broad and long-term
perspective on what is needed for
sustainable human development and how to
achieve the goals of such development. This
can only result from an understanding of the
historical, cultural and social contexts of a
given society or community.
6. Equity and inclusiveness
All men and women have
opportunities to improve or maintain their
well-being. A society’s well-being depends
on ensuring that all its members feel that they
have a stake in it and do not feel excluded
from the mainstream of society. This requires
all groups, but particularly the most
vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or
maintain their well-being.
7. Effectiveness and efficiency
Good governance means that
processes and institutions produce results
that meet the needs of society while making
the best use of resources at their disposal. The
concept of efficiency in the context of good
governance also covers the sustainable use
of natural resources and the protection of
the environment.
8. Accountability
Decision-makers in government, the
private sector and civil society organizations
are accountable to the public, as well as to
institutional stakeholders. This accountability
differs depending on the organization and
whether the decision is internal or external to
an organization. Accountability is a key
requirement of good governance. Not only
governmental institutions but also the private
sector and civil society organizations must be
accountable to the public and to their
institutional stakeholders. Who is
accountable to whom varies depending on
whether decisions or actions taken are
internal or external to an organization or
institution. In general, an organization or an
institution is accountable to those who will be
affected by its decisions or actions.
Accountability cannot be enforced without
transparency and the rule of law.
After knowing the different perspectives of
good governance from the different sources,
we can
safely say that:
Good governance is, among other things,
participatory, transparent and accountable.
It is also effective and equitable, and it
promotes the rule of law. Good governance
ensures that political, social and economic
priorities are based on broad consensus in
society and that the voices of the poorest
and the most vulnerable are heard in
decision-making over the allocation of
development resources.
I. GOOD GOVERNANCE
Definition: is the process of decision making
and the process by which decisions are
implemented. It is not about making decision
but about the best possible process for
making those decisions which are correct for
nation and helpful to the society.
Different Forms of Governance:
1. Between governments and markets
2. Between governments and citizens
3. Between governments and the
private or voluntary sector
4. Between elected officials and
appointed officers
Bad Governance:
 1. Inefficiency  is a cooperative group effort in a
2. Red Tape public setting
3. Maladministration  covers all three branches –
4. Corruption executive, legislative and judicial
5. Secrecy and interrelationships
 has important role in the
formulation of public policy and is
, thus, part of the political process
Good Governance:  as a field of study and practice ,
it has been influenced by human
1. Rule of Law
relations approach
2. Transparency  is closely associated with
3. Participation numerous private groups and
4. Accountability individuals in providing services to
5. Sustainability the community

Rossenbloom, 1989
Benefits of Good Governance:
 PA is the action part of
1. Promotes community confidence government. The means by
2. Encourages elected members and which the purposes and goals of
council officers to be confidence government are realized. PA as a
3. Leads to better decisions field is mainly concerned with the
means for implementing political
values
 The process of PA consists of the
MODULE 2.1: NATURE OF PUBLIC
actions involved in effecting the
ADMINISTRATION
intent or desire of a government.
It is thus the continuously active,
“business” part of government,
Basically public administration refers to the concerned with carrying out the
cooperative human action or group efforts in law, as made by the legislative
public setting which covers all the three bodies (or other authoritative
branches of the government to achieve its agents) and interpreted by
basic purposes and finally to carry out courts, through the processes of
the will of the state. organization and management.

CONCERNS: De Guzman, 1993

1. institutional framework of  From a very broad perspective,

government
2. socio-political milieu of the
government
3. behavior of the individuals who
man the bureaucratic machine
 From a broader perspective, PA
Definition of Public Administration Caiden,
1971:
PA may be viewed to refer not
only in activities carrying out or
implementing policies and
programs of the government but
also to the processes and
contents of these policies and
programs
may refer to the cooperative
human action whether within the
public bureaucracy, the private
sector or in nongovernmental
 organizations aimed at delivering
services to the people
Gulick, 1937
 Public Administration is that part
of the science of administration
which has to do with government
and thus, concerns itself primarily
with the executive branch where
the work of the government is
done.
Waldo, 1948
 Public Administration is the art
and science of management as
applied to the affairs of the state
Conclusion
All above modern definitions of Public
Administration emphasize the value-
based character of Public Administration
and Public Administration as a science and
art of administration. A close scrutiny of the
definitions reveals that Public Administration
has important characteristics or features.
Characteristics of Public Administration
1. It is part of executive branch of
government.
2. It is related with the activities of
the state.
3. It carries out the public policies.
4. It realizes the aspirations of the
people as formulated and
expressed in the laws.
5. Waldo and other thinkers insist on
the commitment and dedication
to the well-being of the people.
Otherwise, Public Administration
behaves in a mechanical,
impersonal and inhuman way.
6. Public Administration is politically
neutral.
ROLE:
 for public service
 implementation of public policy
and giving meaning to it by
affecting economic and social
behavior
Hence, public administration requires:
Coordination
Problem-solving
Decision-making
ADMINISTRATION:
 Refers to the capacity of
coordinating various and
oftentimes conflicting social
energies in a single organization.
 as an institution: aggregate of
individuals running the
government for the period of their
term of office
 it also refers to the aggregate of
persons in whose hands the reins
of the government are placed at
the time being
 as a function: actual running of
the government
**Q: Is administration the same
with government?
A: No. While the two concepts are intricately
related, there are fundamental differences
between them. Government is that institution
or aggregate of institutions by which an
independent society makes or carries out
those rules of actions which are necessary to
enable men to live in a social state or which
are imposed upon the people forming that
society by those who possess the power or
authority of prescribing them.
Administration, on the other hand, refers to
that aggregate of individuals holding the
reins of government for the time being. Thus,
compared to administration, government
has a more permanent character.
Views of Public Administration As a Field of
Practice
Example of PA as a field of study
 how a policy is made and
implemented
 The interrelationship between
government institutions
 Human Resource development
 Impact of environmental
regulation on communities and
economic activities
 the behavior and attitude of
public officials as they perform
their official duties
 Leadership styles of public
manager
 Mechanisms adopted by
poverty-focused programs
Views of Public Administration As: Both an Art
and a Science
As a science:
 There is a body of knowledge or
theories that can explain or
predict phenomenon or variables
in the field of PA
 The PA theories and concepts are
built based on empirical research
using systematic methods
 These theories can be used not
only to explain but also improve
the art and practice of PA
(Bautista, 1990)
Hence, uses the following methods:
 Empirical studies
 Case method analysis
 Surveys
 Quantitative analysis
As an Applied Discipline:
 It has practical use for
government, particularly in
improving government
performance
 it prepares persons for careers in
public service and trains them to
be good public administrators
As an Art:
PA involves creativity, leadership, a good
sense of the intangibles in administration. This
view is closely related to the practice of PA
SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The views of Leonard D. White (who
wrote the first published textbook in
PA, Introduction to the Study of Public
Administration in 1926) and the traditionalists
led by Gulick on the the one hand, and that
of the scientific management school
representing the prevailing view, differ
regarding the nature and scope of Public
Administration. Hence, we should
understand various perspectives about the
scope of Public Administration.
The following are the three important
perspectives about the scope of Public
Administration:
A. Narrow perspective or POSDCORB
perspective
Luther Gulick (dubbed as the "Dean of
American Public Administration), is the main
exponent of this perspective. According to
him the scope of public administration is
narrow or limited. It is also regarded as
POSDCORB view. It insists that the Public
Administration is concerned only with those
aspects of administration which are related
with the executive branch and its seven
types of administrative functions.
 These seven types of functions which
shows the scope of Public Administration are
as follows -
1. ‘P’ stands for Planning which is the
first step of Public Administration.
i.e. working out the broad outline
of the
things that need to be done.
2. ‘O’ stands for organization which
is the establishment of the formal
structure of authority through
which the
work is sub-divided, arranged and
coordinated for the defined objective.
3. ‘S’ means staffing which
essentially refers to the
recruitment and training of the
staff and maintenance of
favorable conditions of work for the
staff.
4. ‘D’ is Directing which includes the
continuous task of making
decisions and embodying them
in specific
and general orders and instructions,
and thus guiding the enterprise.
5. ‘Co’ stands for Co-ordination It
means inter-relating the various
parts of organization such as
branches,
divisions, sections of the work and
elimination of overlapping.
6. ‘R’ refers to Reporting which
means informing the authority to
whom the executive is
responsible as to what
is going on.
7. ‘B’ means Budgeting which includes
accounting, fiscal planning and control.
B. Broad perspective or subject - oriented
perspective
Prof. Woodrow Wilson (dubbed as the
"Father of PA" in the US) and Leonard D. White
are the main exponents of this perspective.
They have taken a very broad approach
about the scope of Public Administration.
According to them Public
Administration covers all three branches of
the government - legislative, executive and
judicial and their interrelationship. Legislative
organ makes the laws, the executive organ
of the government implements the laws while
the judicial organ of the government
interprets the laws. There is interrelationship
among these three branches, considering PA
as part of the political process. It has an
important role in the formulation of public
policy at all levels, from national to grassroots.
It is closely associated with numerous private
groups and individuals in providing services
to the community. It has been influenced in
recent years by the human relations
approach.
C. Contemporary Prevailing View (known as
"Scientific Management" School)
The Scientific management
theory/approach is one of the most
important theories of traditional public
administration formulated by Frederick
Winslow Taylor who was an engineer by
profession and worked in the production
field, and whose principles led to the
successful creation of Ford's T-Ford
Model. He always viewed each and every
thing and its aspects scientifically. Peter
Drucker always recognized him as the source
of his 1954 book “The Practice of
Management”. Peter Drucker coined the
term “management by objectives” or
MBO. MBO compares the performance of
employees to the typical standards required
for that position which is the most basic under
Taylor's principles of scientific management.
Principles of Scientific management:
1. Develop a science for each
element of a man's work instead
of traditional ways. By this best
way of doing a task can be found
and standard operation can be
determined.
2. Scientifically select, train, teach
and develop workmen by
determining initial qualifications
and future potential for
development.
3. Management should fully
cooperate with workers to ensure
work is done in accordance to
scientific principles.
4. Equal division of work and
responsibility between
management and workers.
Management should become
involved in job by planning,
organizing, controlling than just
being authoritarian.
Note: These principles if adopted in running
the government results to professionalization
of the bureaucracy (thru continuing skills
training programs and promotion via the civil
service merit system), efficiency and
effectivity in meeting the agency's mission
and vision. Moreover, this view emphasizes
on the use of statistical tools or data analytics
as bases for policy formulation and
implementation.
The prevailing view divides the scope of
Public Administration into two parts.
1) Administrative theory
2) Applied administration
1. Administrative theory
It includes the following aspects:
 Organizational Theory
The Structure, organization, functions
and methods of all types of public authority
engaged in administration, whether
national, regional or local and executive.
 Behavior
The functions of administrative
authorities and the various methods
appropriate to different types
of functions, the various forms of control
of administration.
 Public Personal Administration
The problems concerning personnel
e.g. recruitment, training, promotion,
retirement etc. and the problems relating to
planning, research, information and public
relation services.
2. Applied administration tackles the
actual application of the government
functions in terms of the following:
 Political functions include the
executive - legislative
relationship, administrative
activities of the cabinet
 Legislative function refers to the
delegated legislation (quasi-
legislative function under the
principles of proper delegation of
legislative power)
 Financial functions
 Defense functions (internal and
external)
 Educational
 Social welfare administration
which includes the activities of
the departments concerned with
food; housing, social security and
development activities.
 Economic Administration is
concerned with the production
and encouragement of industries
and agriculture.
 Foreign administration includes
the conduct of foreign affairs,
 diplomacy, international
cooperation etc.
 Local administration It concern
with the activities of the local self-
governing institutions.
Conclusion
The modern state cannot confine its
field of activities only in the maintenance of
law and order, dispensation of justice,
collection of revenue and taxes. The modern
state is expected to provide more and more
services and amenities to the people. This
results in the tremendous growth both in the
governmental responsibilities as well as in the
administrative machinery of the state.
Naturally the scope of public administration
is constantly evolving.
ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
In the modern state and in developing
countries functions and role of Public
Administration is very important, and they
are as follows:
1. It is the basis of government.
It is possible for a state to exist without
a legislature or judiciary; but not even the
most backward state can do without
administrative machinery. The modern state
cannot confine its field of activities to merely
maintenance of law and order, dispensation
of Justice, collection of revenue and taxes
and participation in welfare activities. The
modern welfare state is expected to provide
more and more services and amenities to the
people. Public Administration is the
machinery used by the state to place itself in
a position to make plans and programs that
can be carried out.
2. It is the instrument of change in
the society.
Public Administration is regarded as
an instrument of change and is expected to
accelerate the process of development. In
our country, the government has undertaken
the task of leveling down the economic
inequalities, spreading education, securing
equality of status, rights of women and
effective and all round economic and
industrial development. The burden of
carrying out these social changes in a
planned and orderly way rests upon the
public administration of the country.
3. It plays vital role in the life of the
people.
Today every aspect of human life
comes within the range of public
administration. Various departments of
government such as education, social
welfare, food, agriculture, health, sanitation,
transport, communication etc. are run by the
department of Public Administration. Thus
Public Administration is rendering various
types of services to the people from birth to
death of an individual.
4. It is a stabilizing force in the
society as it provides continuity
It is a stabilizing force in the society as
it provides continuity public administration is
carried on by the civil servants who are the
permanent executives. Political executives
i.e. ministers may come and go, systems of
government or constitutions may undergo
change but administration goes on forever.
Hence, Public Administration is a great
stabilizing force in society. It is a preserver of
the society and its culture.
5. It is instrument of national
integration in the developing
countries which are facing class
wars.
Since socio-economic inequality is a
reality in all states, most especially within the
less developed and developing states, there
is a need to bridge the economic gap and
lessen the poverty incidence in the society.
Class wars create political and economic
instability that impede the growth and This is related to the judicial functions in
development of the state. Public government which emphasizes the
administration seeks to unite both the administrators' role in applying and enforcing
government institutions, the citizens (as the law. It is also concerned with the
clients and beneficiaries of public good), adjudicatory role of public organizations. In
and the private sector towards the administrative law, this approach relates to
achievement of these common goals. the quasi-judicial function/power of
administrative bodies.

For a better understanding of these

MODULE 2.2: PHILIPPINE PUBLIC three Approaches to PA, the Table below
ADMINISTRATION shows the key differences in terms of their
origin/tradition, values, organizational
structure, and the view of the individuals.
MODULE 3.1: APPROACHES TO PUBLIC
THREE APPROACHES TO PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AND VALUES
ADMINISTRATION
There are three disparate
1. MANAGERIAL
approaches to deal with the basic question
of what public administration is. These
 Origin/Tradition:
approaches are traditionally labeled
as managerial, political and legal and they Emerged in late nineteenth century in the
are often overlapped. Their primary influence USA as a result of the civil service reform
has been to pull public administration in three movement and was influential in the 1930s
separate directions.
Pioneers:
These approaches are oriented to
follow the pattern of the separation of Woodrow Wilson: Advocated the business
powers of a state as established by the part of the government which should be
constitution. Thus, each of these approaches carried out in a sound businesslike manner or
has its own intellectual tradition, emphasizes in a “managerial endeavor”
different values, promotes different types of
organizational structures and views Frederick W. Taylor who focused on
individuals in distinct terms. protecting the values of efficiency and
economy

LD White said that the study of

Managerial Approach administration should be started from the
base of management rather than from the
This is directly related to the executive foundation of law.
function of the government emphasizing on
the management and organization of public Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urlick, who
offices promoted the POSDCORB

 Values:

Political Approach three core values of PA:

This corresponds to the legislative function of  economy

the government and is concerned with
policy formulation  efficiency

 effectiveness

Legal Approach
Thus, this approach is oriented to minimize public administration is ultimately a problem
the distinctions between public in political theory.
administration and private administration.

 Organizational Structure
seeks to address the fundamental problem in
managerial approach to PA under the New democracy
Public Management thrust
*responsibility and responsiveness of the
Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Model of administrative agencies
Organization

It stresses on:  PA as integral part of the political

1. functional specialization (division of work
on the basis of functions)
2. merit based and politically neutral
competence employees for promoting
efficiency and effectiveness
 View of the Individual
impersonal view of individuals whether
individual may be an employee or a client or
a victim of a public agency.
Manifestations:
-Dehumanization i.e. lack of pity, sympathy,
kindness
process since it engages the
bureaucracy in public policy-
making
 Values
political values:
 representation
 (political) responsiveness
 (political) accountability through
elected officials to the people, i.e.,
vertical accountability
 Organizational Structure
Stresses on:

-Nepotism and other type of favor towards  political pluralism within public
people administration

The structure of public administration should

2. POLITICAL be a microcosm of society (PA should has all
features of society)
 Origin/Tradtion
More precisely, public administration should
'New Deal' era
reflect the values, interests and competing
1933-1938 and the Second World War period forces/diverse groups to be found in a plural
in the USA society.

Pioneers: since public administration is a policy

making center of government, it must be
Paul H Appleby who viewed public structured by providing political
administration as a 'political process' and representation to a comprehensive variety of
public accountability and political character the organized political, economic and social
as the aspects of governmental functions. interests that are found in the society at
large.
Wallace Sayre (Classic of Public
Administration-1978) who stressed that
  View of the Individual Governs the legitimacy of government
action.
views individuals as:
Its concerns are:
part of an aggregate/organized group
legal authority of government, abuse of
It tends to identify an individual's interest
power, individuals' fundamental rights, etc. it
which is similar and identical to those of
tends to check unconstitutional practices
others within the same group
from the part of government and public
administration

3. LEGAL  Values

 Origin/Tradition Key values are:

The legal approach to public administration  Constitutional Integrity

has historically been eclipsed by managerial  procedural due process
approach.  individual substantive rights (real
or fundamental rights of
It sought for the judicialization of public individuals)
administration and the constitutional law.  equity/fairness on the part of
the judges and justices
It has three interrelated sources:
Due process: it is viewed as requiring
1) Administrative law: it determines/describes procedures designed to protect
the position and liabilities of state officials individuals/citizens from malicious, arbitrary,
including official procedures to be adopted; cruel or unconstitutional harm at the hands of
civil rights and liabilities of private individuals government.
in dealing with public officials and official
Individual rights: protection of constitutional
procedures
and legal rights of individual people.
2) Judicialization of public administration: Equity and fairness: it prevents arbitrary or
(judiciary role of public administration) If invidious (unpleasant) treatment of
public officials/administrators engage in individuals
adjudication, they must exercise their
discretions. It may become legal matter  Organizational Structure

The legal approach advocates Adjudicatory

Pioneers:
structure {formal legal structure for dispute
Frank Goodnow ((The Principles of the settlement
Administrative Law of the United States, 1905) Administrative agencies exercising
adjudicatory functions may enjoy a greater
Kenneth Davis (Administrative Law and
degree of independence from the rest of
Government, 1975) Marshall Dimock (Law
government since they are concerned with
and Dynamic Administration, 1980) have application of law [they should be free from
contributed to administrative law and political interference}
stressed legal approach to public
administration stresses on the formal official duties of
agencies and administrators; limitations of
3) Constitutional law: discretionary authority of public
organizations and administration; disciplinary
actions against employees, equal explores modern management techniques
employment opportunities, employee/labor such as reinventing, reengineering and other
relations and presence of regulatory improvement methods in organization and
commissions in public administration. management like total quality management
(TQM), which has largely contributed to
public administration reforms.
 View of Individual NOTE: TQM was adopted by Japan and US
to improve their production in a competitive
Considers the individual as a unique person
market vis a vis cost effective strategies with
in a unique set of circumstances.
the ultimate goal of improving customer
The procedure (adversary procedure) satisfaction. See Mangahas and Leyesa
enables an individual to explain his/her own 2003. “Improving Government Administration
unique and particular circumstances, his/her through TQM” and Mariano “TQM and
thinking, and motivation to the Philippine Local Government Units.”
governmental decision makers / in Introduction to Public Administration: A
administrators Reader.

MODULE 3.2: FIELDS OF PUBLIC Public Personnel Administration

ADMINISTRATION
Traditionally, the discipline of public
administration itself has had the following
sub-fields:
1. organization and management;
2. public personnel administration;
3. public fiscal administration;
4. Local government administration;
5. policy analysis and program
administration;
6. public enterprise management;
7. voluntary sector management;
and
8. spatial information management
Public administration consists of
administrative processes. It involves people,
its most important element, therefore public
personnel administration is an equally
important field. In here, the definition of
personnel management as “the recruitment,
selection, development, utilization of, and
accommodation to human resources by
organizations” (French 1990) is explored.
Specifically, it discusses on the evolution of
public personnel administration,
arrangements of the personnel system, and
general attributes of personnel functions in
the public sector. It is also concerned with
the developments and current trends in
personnel administration.

In the traditional public administration,

Organization and Management organization and management and
personnel administration were emphasized
Organization and Management is one of the as salient features of study in public
oldest subfields of public administration. It administration. Personnel administration has
basically focuses on sub-areas like widened its scope and evolved
organization theory and practice, dynamics into human resource management or
of organization, decision-making in human resource development. The
administration, leadership and other sub- inspiration that not only these two fields
areas. It particularly discusses the theories, complement but supplement each other put
processes and techniques involved in them together into what is now
the organization and management of the called “Organization Studies.”
national government and its agencies. It also

Public Fiscal Administration
Public finance belongs to the branch of
economics but that was during the earlier
times. With the emergence of the field of
public administration, much interest has
been directed towards fiscal administration.
Again, this subfield of public administration
covers a wide range of issues and topics
affecting government operations like
taxation, public expenditures and borrowing,
resource allocation, revenue administration,
auditing and intergovernmental relations.
As Briones (1996) puts it, “public fiscal
administration embraces the formulation,
implementation, and evaluation of policies
and decisions on taxation and revenue
administration; resource allocation,
budgeting, and public expenditure; public
borrowing and debt management; and
accounting and auditing.” Through the
years, many researches were devoted on
these topics and issues; the government has
also introduced reforms like reforms in tax
administration, value added tax (VAT),
expanded value added tax (E-VAT),
procurement reforms, the medium-term
expenditure framework (MTEF), accounting
reforms, re-engineering the bureaucracy
program (REBP), transforming local finance,
and many others.
Local Government Administration
This is another distinct subfield of public
administration. In studying local government
administration, the concepts of
decentralization are taken into account.
Decentralization, as a process, is one of the
widely researched topics in promoting
development and democratic governance.
Administrative organizations and operations
of local governments; the structure and
processes of regional administration are
likewise discussed. In particular, local
government administration may also include
topics on theoretical and empirical
perspectives of local government and
regional administration, community and
institutional development, local government
systems/procedure, intergovernmental
dynamics, local public finance or local fiscal
administration, local economic promotion,
local and regional development planning,
local government innovations and many
others.
New Sub-fields of Public Administration
As the field evolved, and in response to the
changing demands of the time, new sub-
fields emerged. These included the following:
Policy Analysis and Program Administration
The post-war years saw the emergence of
public policy as a subfield of public
administration. In the US, interest in policy
studies started in 1950s. In the Philippines,
however, it started not too long ago, in 1970s
in the then Institute of Public Administration in
the University of the Philippines.
Generally, policy studies can focus on the
content of public policy, its processes,
models, theories and approaches of public
policy its impact as well as evaluation of
public programs and projects.
Other significant concepts, principles and
techniques for systematic analysis and
decision - making in public policy and
management are also considered in policy
analysis. Dye (1995) said that certain
theoretical approaches and models have
been introduced in studying public policy
which include institutional, process, group,
elite, rational, incremental, game theory,
public choice and systems model.
Public Enterprise Management (PEM)
Privatization is one of the foci of this area of
public administration. Other topics include
the nature and processes of public
enterprises; the relationship between the
government and the public enterprise
sector; issues on managerial autonomy,
public accountability, corporate social
responsibility and the role of the state in the
economy. In the graduate level, courses
include financial management of public
enterprise and management of public
enterprises.
Voluntary Sector Management (VSM)
Voluntary Sector Management is another
emerging field of Public Administration. In
recognition of the growing voluntary sector in
the Philippines, UP NCPAG has pioneered in
offering Voluntary Sector Management
(VSM) as a field of specialization.
This field has developed expertise through
the years through its institutional linkage with
UP Pahinungod with Dr. Ledivina Cariño as its
founding director. Voluntary sector
management can be referred to similar
terms such as “voluntary sector, “third
sector”, “non-profit organizations,” “non-
governmental organizations,” and “civil
society organizations.”
Spatial Information Management (SIM)
In delivering public goods and services
efficiently and effectively, it is very important
that we will be aided with support tools
enabling the use of all kinds of spatial
data/information. With the study and
utilization of geographic information system
(GIS), data/information can be processed
immediately and can be transported easily.
This technology is currently used by many
government agencies and corporations; thus
the introduction and popularization of some
technology terms in government such as e-
government, e-commerce, geo-
visualization, e-finance, among others.
Other systems are also introduced in SIM like
global positioning systems and remote
sensing. Public administration indeed has
evolved both as a scholarly discipline and as
a profession. It has reached wider dimensions
of governance, from political, economic,
social, cultural aspects of public
management. In the executive branch, for
instance, it has retained traditional functions
such as O and M (management functions like
planning, organizing) and personnel
management but explored possibilities in
organizational development, fiscal
administration (budgeting, accounting,
auditing) and public policy and program
administration which is concerned with the
processes and analysis of public policy.
IV.I NATURE OF BUREAUCRACY
Generally, bureaucracy refers to
some organizing principles for the purpose of
achieving coordination of work in large
organizations. It has been central to public
administration since it has at least stabilized
delivery of public service. It's an
administrative system that relies on policies,
rules and hierarchy in both public and
private sector environments.
 Remember that even if there is a
revolution or political upheaval, the
bureaucracy constituting the rank and
file and career service officers provide
continuity and stability of the operation
of the government, since only
the elected, non-career administrators
in the executive branch of the
government are the only ones who will
be changed (we will deal more into
these types of officers in the next
discussions of PD 807 or the Phil. Civil
Service Law)
For Max Weber (1864-1920), the noted
German sociologist, philosopher and
jurist, believes that it is the most efficient form
of organization due to the
following characteristics:
 1. there is division of labor--people
perform specific tasks;
specialization of works follow that
results in efficiency
2. hierarchy of offices
3. set of general rules that govern
performance (rules-based)
4. impartiality in doing one's official
tasks; there is rigid separation of
personal life from work life
5. selection of personnel is based on
technical qualifications and
equal treatment of all employees
(merit system in hiring and
promotion)
6. participants view employment as
a career; there is security of
tenure that protects
the individual from arbitrary
dismissal
Watch these links for a better understanding
2. Conflict
of burea ucracy:
Max Weber
Bureaucracy: https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=zp554tcdWO8Links to an external
site.
Bureaucracy: A documentary by Dr. Richard
Cole: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I
8EQAnKntLsLinks to an external site.
Dysfunctions/Bureaucratic Pathologies:
1. Red tape
 is an idiom referring to excessive and
often unnecessary rigid or redundant
procedures that are involved in
transactions or interactions with an
organization which hinder or prevent
prompt action or decision-making. It is
usually applied to governments,
corporations, and other large
organizations.
 An example of red tape is when
you have to fill out tons of
annoying forms just to get a
driver's license. Another is when
review processes that take
months and prevent teams from
deploying vital software quickly
to a government agency
 It is generally believed that the
term originated with the Spanish
administration of Charles V, King
of Spain and Holy Roman
Emperor, in the early 16th
century, who started to use red
tape in an effort to modernize the
administration that was running
his vast empire.
 Sometimes the goals of various
bureaucratic agencies just don’t
match up, and they end up working at
cross purposes or competing over the
same idea. Conflict can also look like
different units within an organization
disagreeing about a policy, action, or
decision.
 A decision is made that affects the
budget for a department that does not
approve of it.
 example can be the recent conflict
between the Anti-Red Tape Authority
(ARTA) under the Office of the
President which was created under RA
11032 otherwise known as the Ease of
Doing Business and Efficient
Government Service Delivery Act of
2018, and primarily implemented by
CSC and DTI in coordination with the
DILG, DICT, Housing and Land Use
Regulatory Board (HLURB) and the
Union of Local Authorities of the
 Philippines (ULAP), and the Office of
the Ombudsman.
The latter recommended the suspension of
the Director-General and other officials of
ARTA due to the complaints filed by a DITO
Telecommunity in relation to the alleged
grave misconduct, gross neglect of duty
and conduct prejudicial to the best
interest of the service that it committed
when it assigned frequency to NOW
Company, another telco player. But this
was opposed by DITO Telecommunity Inc.,
which has been selected as the third
telecom provider. ARTA claimed that it just
exercised its function when the Natl.
Telecommunications Commission (NTC)
under the DICT, did not act on the request
of application by NOW . ARTA invoked its
power to assign frequencies under RA
11032.
This is creating conflict among the various
agencies that are the implementing said
law.
3. Duplication or Overlapping of functions
 Duplication occurs when two
government agencies seem to be doing
the same thing
 an example is on the contentious issue
on who is in charge in classifying public
lands that are arable and disposable
(under EO 292 or the Phil. Administrative
Code of 1987, it is exercised by the DENR
thru its agency the National Mapping
and Resource Information Authority or
NMRIA. But under the Indigenous
Peoples' Rights Act or IPRA of 1997, the
NCIP is involved for the identification,
delineation, and recognition of
ancestral land/domains.
4. Imperialism
 Imperialism happens when one group or
organization tries to impose a certain
way of thinking, behaving, and believing
on another group. This can be done
through different means including
pressure tactics but it’s most commonly
seen in organizations that want to buy
out another company or when one
country wants to dominate another.
Examples:
 An employer that requires their
employees to use certain software
without providing any clear benefits for
the workers themselves.
 Imperialism is extremely common inside
the US military services and can result
in valuable team members staying
silent rather than using their
voice. (https://rise8.us/thoughts/overc
oming-the-5-main-problems-of-
bureaucracy/Links to an external site.)
5. Waste
 Waste is anything in the business that
does not lead to the desired outcome.
Businesses waste money and resources
through inefficiencies,
underperforming staff members, and
poor customer service. Waste can
occur for many reasons including time
spent due to the inherent problems of
the bureaucracy itself.
Examples:
 Time spent on red tape when there are
quicker and more effective ways to get
things done.
 Different teams having overlapping
responsibilities, causing duplication
without any clear division of
responsibility. This creates double the
work, doubling also the expenses from
taxpayers' money.
 Bureaucracy encompasses or has the is headed by the appointed Secretary of the
following connotations: President, with Assistant Secretaries and
Undersecretaries, then subdivided further
 all government offices (that continue the into Bureaus and unit offices
public functions despite changes of
political leaders)
 entire public officialdom (elected,
appointed bureaucrats, rank and file)
 inefficiency characterized by red
tape (unnecessary delays), cumbersome
procedures in government procedures.

However, this is just an invective, negative

and unnecessary derivative of the desire of
the earlier governments to put some order in
administering the affairs of the state by
dividing the functions of the different offices
catering to the needs of the public.

So, how do you imagine the

operationalization of bureaucracy in our
government in the Philippines?

Think of a specific Cabinet office

(Department under the executive branch), it