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Toward A Holistic Theory
Toward A Holistic Theory
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—Confucius
The concepts of knowledge and learning can be traced back to more than
2 thousand years ago in Confucius time. These two concepts are playing
increasingly significant roles in the modern age as knowledge has become
one of the crucial resources for wealth, and learning becomes an integrative
component of the workplace. Learning is one of the key concepts in the
fields of adult education and human resource development (HRD), and
facilitating learning for individuals and organizations is one of the key roles
for HRD professionals. After analyzing many different definitions of HRD,
Gilley and Maycunich (2000) concluded that the field consists of three pro-
fessional practice domains: organizational learning, performance, and
change. Consequently, the principles of learning continue to be a central
topic of the field (Swanson & Holton, 2001).
Although adult learning has been defined in a variety of ways, most theo-
rists have examined the concept of learning at the individual level. For exam-
A Theoretical Framework
of Knowledge and Learning
tain extent, but it fails to offer a complete picture of the concept of knowl-
edge. It cannot capture the complexity of some ambiguous problems. For
example, when we have some health issues and need to find a medical doc-
tor, we don’t normally pay much attention to the physician’s grade point
average (GPA) achievement in medical school. Even though a high GPA in
the professional school may indicate that the doctor performed well aca-
demically, it only shows how well the doctor may have learned content in the
domain of explicit knowledge. Equally important to us is the doctor’s pro-
fessional experience and practical expertise.
The implicit or tacit facet is the behavioral component of knowledge that
denotes the learning that is not openly expressed or stated. In most cases, we
know more than we think we know (Polanyi, 1967). Implicit knowledge is
personal, context-specific familiarity, or the familiarity that has yet to be
articulated, and therefore hard to formalize and communicate. It speaks to
us if something works or not in reality based on direct observation or
involvement. Implicit knowledge usually comes from and exits in one’s
behavior, action, and accumulated experiences. However, experience itself
cannot automatically become valid implicit knowledge. Only the learning
and familiarity evolved from experience that has been confirmed can be
viewed as knowledge. Research has suggested that unconscious thoughts
and actions can be developed, received, stored, and recovered without the
involvement of conscious awareness (Dienes & Perner, 1999). Such uncon-
scious thoughts can be viewed as implicit knowledge. Eraut (2000) identi-
fied three types of tacit knowledge in professional work: tacit understanding
of people and situations, routinized actions, and the tacit rules that underpin
intuitive decision making. Lubit (2001) categorized four types of tactic
knowledge: hard to pin down skills such as know-how, mental models, ways
of approaching problems, and organizational routines. With regard to the
previously mentioned medical case, the doctor’s professional experience
and practical expertise comprise implicit knowledge. Therefore, we want to
visit a doctor with adequate explicit and implicit knowledge. Nevertheless,
we will probably still hesitate to visit a doctor when he or she is competent in
only these areas. Equally important for most patients is a doctor’s personal
care of clients, professional integrity, and interpersonal communication
skills.
The emancipatory facet is the affective component of knowledge and is
reflected in affective reactions to the outside world. Emancipatory knowl-
edge is emotional affection, and thus it is value-laden. It is indicated by feel-
ings and emotions people have in relation to the objects and situations
around them. Emancipatory knowledge defines one’s view about what the
world should be, and it is the product of one’s efforts to seek freedom from
natural and social restraints. It reflects one’s internal affective and motiva-
tional states. Bornstein (1999) maintained that a comprehensive theory of
The differences among the three facets of knowledge have both theoreti-
cal and practical importance. Table 1 compares the three facets of knowl-
edge and their related characteristics. Explicit knowledge is based on the
separation of object and subject, and it serves for the interest of rationality.
Implicit knowledge is established on the interrelation between object and
TABLE 1: Holistic Theory of Knowledge and Learning: Comparison of Three Knowledge Facets
Knowledge Facets
Characteristics Explicit Implicit Emancipatory
Nature Knowledge of rationality (mind) Knowledge of experience (body) Knowledge of meaning (heart)
Downloaded from http://hrd.sagepub.com by Gito Sugito on October 26, 2008
Function Sequential knowledge (there and Simultaneous knowledge (here Essential knowledge (where and
then) and now) why)
Domain Digital knowledge (theory) Analog knowledge (practice) Vital knowledge (spirit)
Approach Separation of object and subject Interrelated object and subject Object within subject (affective)
(objective) (subjective)
Carrier Formal, abstract symbols & Informal, concrete, and vivid Values, conscience, dignity, & ethics
languages experiences
Direct source Logic, reasoning Practice, experience Freedom, justice
Evaluation criteria Empirically sound, clear, and con- Workable, practical, communica- Enlightening, ethical, responsible
sistency (true or false) tive (workable or not) (right or wrong)
Ability to learn Analytical intelligence Practical intelligence Emotional intelligence
Goal Truth Reality Liberty
Efficiency Effectiveness Significance
Maximize Artistic Empowering
Problem nature Structured Less-structured Nonstructured
Related theory Prescriptive Heuristic Descriptive
Research tool Empirical-analytic Experiential-interpretive Critical-reflective
Research domain Cognition (thinking) Behavior (action) Affect (emotion)
Yang / HOLISTIC THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE AND ADULT LEARNING 113
Although the differences among the three facets of knowledge have long
been recognized, few scholars have examined their unitary nature and their
dynamic relationships. Even though knowledge facets may come from dif-
ferent sources and develop toward diverse directions, as previously dis-
cussed, none of them can be simply dismissed. A holistic theory must incor-
TABLE 2: Holistic Theory of Knowledge and Learning: Indications of Three Knowledge Facets and Three Knowledge Layers
Knowledge Facets
Knowledge Layers Explicit Implicit Emancipatory
Foundation Axioms, assumptions, beliefs, Habits, social norms, traditions, Values, aspirations, vision
hypotheses routines
Manifestation Theories, principles, models, Tacit understandings, know-how, Attitudes, motivations, learning needs,
conceptual frameworks, intuition, mental models equity, ethics, moral standards
formulas
Orientation Rational Practical Freedom
115
116 Human Resource Development Review / June 2003
porate all of the knowledge facets. Each of the three facets of knowledge
provides a support needed for the other facets to exist. Explicit knowledge
will exist only as meaningless facts, figures, or bytes of information without
the support of other facets (i.e., when two other facets are disconnected). We
normally use “body of knowledge” to denote theories, models, and empiri-
cal findings but fail to realize that these things only represent explicit facet
of knowledge. From the perspective of the holistic theory, theories and mod-
els themselves are not knowledge per se. They are carriers or indications of
explicit knowledge, and they become available information when human
factors are detached. As Davenport and Prusak (1998) noted, information
itself is not knowledge. Thus, the term knowledge base is a better term to
represent explicit knowledge such as theories and models in textbooks. One
cannot simply learn a great deal of robust knowledge in a profession by
memorizing all theories and models (i.e., explicit knowledge) in the chosen
professional field without adequate associations to a practice-based context
to gain adequate implicit knowledge. By the same token, emancipatory
knowledge that defines the objectives and missions that guide our actions
also influence learning.
Implicit knowledge also connects with the two other facets. It will appear
as random, idiosyncratic, and isolated practical experiences without the
support from two other facets. One can learn a great deal of technical know-
how (i.e., implicit knowledge) about fixing a car through trial-and-error and
learning by doing on one’s own. However, such knowledge about the pas-
senger vehicle is limited and may not work well with other cars. A compe-
tent auto mechanic needs to have some basic understanding of scientific
principles and engineering specifications (i.e., explicit knowledge) of an
automobile’s engine and other components. The third facet, emancipatory
knowledge, also influences the learning, because it determines the motiva-
tion of learning and career direction in the vocation.
Similarly, emancipatory knowledge will be simply emotion or affection
when the explicit and implicit facets are removed in the learning process.
The different terms used in the previous paragraphs and characteristics are
divided and examined just for the purpose of discourse, and they are explicit
writings with rational interest. In reality, a robust piece of knowledge con-
sists of three interrelated facets. A holistic view of knowledge should be a
dynamic dialectic among all three facets.
Consideration of these facets of knowledge can be facilitated by thinking
of them as angles of an equilateral triangle with the angle of the triangle
being the different facets of knowledge. The area inside of the triangle can
be regarded as the arena of knowledge, and the sides of the triangle represent
interactions among the facets. Even though educators and scholars can view
the concept of knowledge from one of the angles and work on a particular
side, there is always the influence of the other two angles in the arena. Each
of the angles is bounded by two angles and shaped by the inputs and influ-
ences from the other facets of knowledge. Learning can start in one of the
facets, and educators and learners can, consciously or unconsciously, move
toward one of the directions characterized by the knowledge facets. How-
ever, any change of one facet is always bounded by both of the other facets.
The dynamic relationships among the knowledge facets and related
learning modes are presented in Figure 1. The three circles in the figure rep-
resent the knowledge facets, and the lines with arrows refer to the interac-
tion between the facets. It is assumed that knowledge is created and trans-
formed through the interactions among explicit, implicit, and emancipatory
knowledge. These relations allow us to draw at least nine modes of learning:
participation, conceptualization, contextualization, systematization, vali-
dation, legitimization, transformation, interpretation, and materialization.
It is possible that a number of interactions are involved in a learning situa-
tion. For the purpose of clarity, it is necessary to describe them one by one in
a linear fashion.
Learning occurs as a result of interactions within each of and among the
three knowledge facets. Learning can start in any of three knowledge facets
and in different forms. Learning may involve one, two, or all of the three
knowledge facets. Learning is defined as the process whereby knowledge is
created, acquired, transformed, converted, or utilized in a different context
from its origin. Knowledge creation is a learning process where new under-
standing (in either of three facets) about reality is formed. For example, the-
ory building is a knowledge creation process that normally results in a new
format of explicit knowledge. Knowledge acquisition such as attending a
lecture is also a learning process where a learner gains knowledge from
another source in the original form. Knowledge transformation refers to a
process where the learning outcome is a new format of knowledge. For
instance, research seminars and symposiums are sometimes very powerful
in transforming the participants’ knowledge to a greater understanding on
the topic. Knowledge conversion refers to the exchange from one knowledge
facet to another, and the following paragraphs will discuss different forms of
knowledge conversion in detail. Finally, knowledge utilization can also be
viewed as learning when a learner applies it in a different context from its
original and gains new understanding about the problem facing him or her.
In sum, learning involves all of three knowledge facets and appears in differ-
ent forms.
Participation is a process of learning from practice and thereby creating
implicit knowledge from experiences. Although a learner can build implicit
knowledge directly from experience, differences between implicit knowl-
edge and experience should be acknowledged. Experience refers to some-
thing personally encountered, undergone, or lived through. Although expe-
rience provides a basis for implicit knowledge, experience does not
Transformation
Emancipatory
Knowledge
Ma
teri
tion
aliz
Int
erp
ion
lida
atio
reta
zat
Va
n
mi
tion
giti
Le
cated learning process lies in its inherent force of seeking physical, psycho-
logical, social, emotional, and spiritual freedom and in the interactions
between emancipatory knowledge and the two knowledge facets. Examples
of this learning mode are: nonviolence action, self-reflection, and participa-
tory study.
Materialization is a process of transferring emancipatory knowledge into
implicit knowledge. Those who utilize what has been learned from partici-
patory action research to improve the quality of their daily life are in the pro-
cess of materialization. Examples of this learning mode include: action
learning, community development, and task force. In a typical educational
program for community development, participants work on consensus val-
ues and development of shared vision (i.e., starting from emancipatory
knowledge) and then take individual actions accordingly (i.e, at the implicit
level).
Interpretation is a process of making a meaning scheme from tacit learn-
ing and direct experiences. People are often empowered and have a new look
about life through their involvement in participatory action research, and
this is an example of the learning process of interpretation. Critical ques-
tioning and conscious awareness technique are two examples of this learn-
ing mode as the ultimate outcome is aimed at changing emancipatory
knowledge. Learners may interpret the same life experience differently. One
longitudinal study shows that adult life experiences can result in diverse
development outcomes (Merriam & Yang, 1996). For example, those who
have experienced a period of unemployment have expressed more sensitiv-
ity to social and economic inequality. However, they felt marginalized, vul-
nerable, and controlled by external forces. The results suggest that those
who experienced unemployment had different interpretations of personal
agency and perceived different social issues from those who never had such
experiences. Under the perspective of the holistic theory, perceived individ-
ual freedom and social justice may cause the reason for such ambivalent
interpretations of life experiences as well (i.e., under the influence of orien-
tation layer within emancipatory knowledge).
Critical
Knowledge
Emancipatory
Knowledge
Individual
Explicit Implicit
Knowledge Knowledge
Technical Practical
Knowledge Knowledge
Social Group/
Organization
Contemporary Paradigms in
the View of the Holistic Theory
There has been a great deal of discussion about the paradigms of learning
and research (Merriam, 1991; Mezirow, 1996). From the perspective of the
proposed holistic theory of knowledge and learning, contemporary para-
digms have evolved with emphasis on one facet of knowledge or another.
The positivist or objectivist paradigm posits that only the explicit facet is
Conclusion
This article presents a holistic theory of knowledge and adult learning.
By examining the major characteristics of three knowledge facets, it argues
that learning can be understood within the interactions among the three fac-
ets of knowledge. It further argues that each of the knowledge facets should
be examined in three layers because of their different roles and functions.
The conventional paradigms assume that knowledge facets are divisive and
thus fail to integrate the dynamic relationships among knowledge facets.
Therefore, research and theory building need to consider the nature of
knowledge facets. Theories must meet the requirements of empirically
sound, communicative clarity, and critically analysis (Brookfield, 1992).
As part of knowledge base, theory-building efforts should consider the
nature of three knowledge facets. Adequate criteria of theory building
should include explicit facet of knowledge (i.e., empirically sound and logi-
cal), implicit facet of knowledge (i.e., communicative and practical), and
emancipatory facet of knowledge (i.e., critical and ethical).
More research and theory building activities need to be done to test and
validate the proposed holistic theory of knowledge and adult learning.
Because of space limitation, this article largely focused on the nature of
knowledge and learning at the individual level and learning in certain social
or cultural contexts. Similar theorization needs to be done at the group and
organizational levels to explore the effective ways of knowledge manage-
ment and organizational learning.
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