Physical Therapy Reviews

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The origins of Western mind–body exercise

methods

Jonathan Hoffman & C. Philip Gabel

To cite this article: Jonathan Hoffman & C. Philip Gabel (2015) The origins of Western
mind–body exercise methods, Physical Therapy Reviews, 20:5-6, 315-324, DOI:
10.1080/10833196.2015.1125587

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The origins of Western mind–body exercise
methods
Jonathan Hoffman1 , C. Philip Gabel2
Independent Human Movement Researcher, Tel Aviv, Israel, 2Independent Researcher
1

Background: Over recent decades, mind–body exercise methods have gained international popularity and
importance in the management of musculoskeletal disorders.
Objectives: The scope of this paper was to investigate: the origins of Western mind–body methods, their
philosophies, exercises, and relationship with mainstream healthcare over the last two centuries.
Major findings: Within a few decades of the turn of the 20th century, a cluster of mind–body exercise methods
emerged from at least six pioneering founders: Checkley, Müller, Alexander, Randell, Pilates, and Morris. Each
was based upon a similar exercise philosophy and similar functional movement-harmonizing exercises. This
renaissance of independent mind–body schools occurred in parallel with the demise of the 18th and 19th century
gymnasium Physical Culture movement and the concurrent emergence of bodybuilding and strength training.
Even though mostly forgotten today, Western mind–body exercise methods enjoyed celebrated success during
the first half of the 20th century, were hailed by medical and allied health practitioners and practiced by millions
from society’s elite to deprived minorities.
Conclusions: Rediscovering the Western mind–body exercise movement is hoped to facilitate official healthcare
establishment recognition of this kind of training as an integral entity. This may widen research opportunities
and consolidate approaches toward: optimal musculoskeletal rehabilitation and injury prevention, promotion
of a healthy active lifestyle environment in the modern world, and enhancement of the natural pain-free human
athletic look, feel, and performance.
Keywords: Functional exercises, Harmonious movements, Physical therapy, Preventative medicine, Active lifestyle, History

Introduction of MMB methods as an independent exercise category

Natural movement-harmonizing exercises and stretches
have likely been practiced since the beginning of man-
kind. Forms of non-strenuous rhythmical functional
movements were used for three main purposes: To man-
age and prevent musculoskeletal disorders, to maintain
a naturally healthy body and mind, and to enhance ath-
letic performance. Around the turn of the 20th century,
at least six independent Western modern mind–body
(MMB) methods emerged simultaneously. This phenom-
enon occurred during the same era in which Einstein,
Picasso, Freud, and Stravinsky also broke away from
dominating and restrictive establishment controls, sub-
sequently freeing their fields. The cultural changes and
personal emancipation that MMB pioneers brought to the
exercise world were no less dramatic, yet significantly
less documented.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the history,
origins, and influences of Western MMB training, to raise
healthcare stakeholders’ awareness of this type of train-
ing and to initiate the consideration of official acceptance
Correspondence to: Jonathan Hoffman, Independent Human Movement
Researcher, 25 Etzel Street, Herzelia, Israel. Email: jonhofpt@yahoo.com
alongside aerobic training and weightlifting. This would
provide decision-makers and individuals with new tools
to prescribe optimal exercise combinations for reme-
dial purposes, prevention of pathologies, and obesity as
well as general health and performance enhancement.
Significantly, these are the major factors that facilitate a
regular active lifestyle.
Background
Tracing the origins of Western MMB training suggests that
the regular practice of movement-harmonizing exercises
was embedded in ancient Greek culture.1 Calisthenics in
Greek means strength and beauty, a combination high-
lighted in Greek mythology and everyday life. This phi-
losophy engendered sporting activities that were practiced
to facilitate self-empowerment and prepare for events
such as the Olympic Games or military actions.2 Today,
Calisthenics refers to full-body movement exercises bene-
fiting the body and mind by employing functional motions
such as bending, stretching, twisting, kicking, jumping,
push-ups, sit-ups, and squats.3
An early detailed documentation of a Western mind–
body exercise philosophy was created in the late 18th

© 2016 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
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in any way.
DOI 10.1080/10833196.2015.1125587 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS. 5–6 315
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
century by Swedish medical gymnastics teacher Pehr
Henrik Ling (1766–1839), who is remembered as the
father of Swedish Gymnastics. Ling developed an appa-
ratus-free method to improve functional movement and
concurrently address the concept of prevention and healing
of human diseases.4 His early age rheumatism, experi-
ences as a Fencing Master and his studies of medicine at
Uppsala University influenced his ideas on the remedial
benefits of physical training.5 His 1853 book ‘Gymnastic
Free Exercises’ stated: ‘It cannot be denied that the art of
preventing disease is far preferable to that of curing it.’6
Ling regarded his ‘gymnastic free exercises’ as one of two
separate yet related systems; the other being competitive
gymnastics and athletics. Together, these two systems
defined what became the Physical Culture or Gymnasium
Movement of the 19th century.5,7 Ling founded the Royal
Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm in 1822, was
an elected member of the Swedish General Medical
Association, member of the Swedish Academy, and a
Titular Professor. However, Ling remained indifferent to
these honors due to the lack of the establishment’s imple-
mentation of his methods.7
In parallel, Prussian nationalist and exercise instructor
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) advocated strength-
ening one’s mind and body through gymnastics.8 Jahn
invented the standard equipment of modern gymnastics;
the parallel bars, rings, balance beam, horse, and horizontal
bar4 and in 1811, founded the Physical Culture Movement
in Germany.8 Ling and Jahn’s Physical Culture gained fol-
lowing and flourished in gymnasiums throughout Europe
and later in the United States of America until the end of
the 19th century. However, toward the end of the century,
the original concept of harmonious interaction between
the competitive and holistic exercise systems eroded and
Figure 1 Squat. Checkley9 and Randell, reproduced with kind permission of Wellcome Library. Demonstrated by Barbara
Mortimer Thomas.26
316 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS. 5–6
deteriorated. This was due to the late 19th century shift
in the gymnasium environment toward harsh paramilitary
style training.9–11 The fatal blow to traditional Physical
Culture in gymnasium clubs occurred at the turn of the
20th century when the new bodybuilding exercise force
emerged and dramatically superseded the entire gymna-
sium floor space.12 This forced both traditional Physical
Culture systems to require new professional establish-
ments. Competitive athletes and gymnasts started training
under ‘The International Gymnastics Federation’ (estab-
lished in 1881)13 and within the ‘International Olympic
Committee’ (established in 1894).14 Concurrently, mind–
body enthusiasts migrated to new independent schools,
in which pioneers could express their opinions freely and
gain popular following. Between 1890 and 1925, at least
six new MMB schools emerged, sharing a similar exer-
cise philosophy and practicing similar exercises. These
methods, which are the focus of this paper, were led by
six charismatic pioneers: Checkley, Müller, Alexander,
Randell, Pilates, and Morris.
MMB Pioneers
Edwin Checkley (1847–1925)
In 1890, English-born American physician Edwin Checkley
published ‘A Natural Method of Physical Training’ in
which he presented his MMB philosophy. Checkley’s
exercise method was non-competitive, did not encour-
age physical or mental exhaustion, and did not require
equipment. The aim was ‘to feel naturally light and strong
and to have an effective body.’9 Checkley expressed
his dismay toward the vigorous and ‘unnatural’ athletic
training methods utilized in the gymnasiums at the time,
as well as toward the new mechanized ‘muscle-mold-
ing schemes’ he referred to as ‘straining’ more than

Figure 2 Pushup. Checkley9 and Müller.15
‘training.’ He criticized the ethics of aggressive performance-
enhancing gymnastic and athletic training techniques
claiming they were not natural, therefore harmful for the
body and mind. In comparison, Checkley described ani-
mals in nature that sustain a lifetime of health, fitness, and
beauty by performing seemingly effortless movements on a
regular basis.9 Perhaps ironically, Checkley’s philosophy
and exercises famously ‘converted’ Alan Calvert, the
weightlifting pioneer who founded the Milo Bar-bell
Company in 1902 and started Strength Magazine in 1914
(Figures 1, 2).12
Jørgen Peter Müller (1866–1938)
In 1904, Danish prize-winning athlete and gymnastics
educator JP Müller followed Checkley’s exercise phi-
losophy with the publication of ‘My System’. This book
described how the relatively healthy, average person could
keep fit, fortify health and stamina, and increase physical
and mental efficiency with 15 min of daily exercise. He
claimed: ‘If people only knew how much more, how much
better and how much longer they can enjoy life, instead
of being controlled by a weakly body, they have a strong
and healthy one at their command!’15 Müller was born a
weak child and developed an exercise routine to re-build
his own body, inspired by the harmony of ancient Greek
statues. His routine included exercising natural functional
movements, self-massage of skin in fascial lines, expo-
sure to the sun, and bathing in cold water in addition to
running on the balls of the feet as an aerobic activity.15,16
He regularly exposed his physique publicly and famously
demonstrated his exercises and outdoor activities wearing
a loincloth, including skiing St Moritz.17 He stated:15
Make use of fresh air and clean water; let the sun shine
upon you, and do not let a day pass without every mus-
cle and every organ in your body being set in brisk
motion, even if only for a short time.
With his philosophy and training, Müller was a legend-
ary athlete in Denmark, winning national athletic events
from running, javelin throwing, speed walking, and discus
throwing to boxing and cross-country skiing.15,16 Müller,
like Checkley, took a firm stand against exercise machinery,
 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS.
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
stating they were unnecessary and harmful with advocates
described as having ‘biceps or triceps … as their chief
credentials.’15 After ‘My System’ was published, Müller
traveled throughout Europe with lectures and exercise
demonstrations and settled in London in 1912, to estab-
lish the ‘Müller Institute’ in which he offered group and
individual classes to the public.15,16 During the 1920s, the
method’s most popular decade, Müller’s books sold by
the millions and his exercises were practiced extensively,
including Franz Kafka and the Prince of Wales.16,17 He
was conferred a knighthood by the King of Denmark in
1919 and his work was granted patronage by the Prince
of Wales in 1925.15,16
In his homeland of Denmark, Müller was a contro-
versial figure. Some conceived his liberal philosophy and
promotion of exposing the entire body to the sun to be
anti-Lutheran and even pornography. During the last few
years of his life, Müller returned to Denmark and vigor-
ously promoted a natural ‘healing spring’, causing further
resentment for being perceived as over-spiritual. After
Müller’s death in 1938, a memorial bronze statue was
erected by the Danish Government, however, he is since
mostly forgotten by the general public (Figures 2–4).18
Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955)
Around 1900, Tasmanian-born Australian professional
reciter and theatrical producer Frederick Alexander
developed a novel methodology to harmonize full-body
functional movements. As a child, Alexander suffered res-
piratory ailments, leading to the initial purpose of develop-
ing the method – to normalize his personal voice function
in order to materialize a stage performance dream. In 1902,
Alexander established the Sydney Dramatic and Operatic
Conservatorium and in 1904, moved to London to spread
his teaching method. During the first years, Alexander
focused on teaching ‘full chest breathing’ techniques
mainly to stage artists and people with breathing pathol-
ogies.19 However, he soon discovered that retrieving the
natural ‘conscious control’ via mindful postures and move-
ments resulted in benefits not only for the vocal health
and performance but also the health and performance
of the whole body and mind.20 This holistic evolvement
5–6 317
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
Figure 3 Rollup. Müller.15
transformed the newly formed ‘Alexander Technique’ into
a general remedy and preventative tool suitable for all
populations. Alexander explained in his 1910 book ‘Man’s
Supreme Inheritance:’20
I look to that wonderful instrument, the human body,
for the true solution of our difficulty, an instrument so
inimitably adaptable, so full of marvellous potentiali-
ties of resistance and recuperation, that it is able, when
properly used, to overcome all the forces of disease
which may be arrayed against it.
In 1912, Alexander claimed that the principles of ‘con-
scious control’ constitute an unfailing remedy for disease,
including the cases of shortening of the spine, an injured
arm, and a golfer who is practicing his swing.21 Alexander
was against weightlifting, claiming that their focus on iso-
lating muscles did not address the short- and long-term
damage of impaired functional movements: ‘The phys-
ical body thus had two existences ... one fiercely active,
muscular, dynamic, the other sedentary, nervous, static.’21
He allied himself with the turn of the 20th century MMB
movement emergence:20
We find ‘physical-culture’ advocates who a few years
ago insisted upon the use of dumb-bells … now empha-
sizing the necessity for gentle exercises without even
mentioning the dumb-bell, which is perhaps as good a
proof as any of the truth of my contentions.
Alexander shared the main goal of other MMB pioneers,
to harmonize normal functional movements; however,
he differed in his approach of teaching the movements.
According to the Alexander Technique, the develop-
ment of nervous system control precedes the functional
improvements, unlike other MMB schools in which the
nervous system control is developed secondarily by doing
the exercises in the proper manner.21 In 1914, Alexander
expanded his teaching in New York and returned to
England in 1925. By the end of his career, he had culti-
vated a long list of loyal second-generation teachers who
preserved the Alexander Technique legacy and widespread
acceptance until today.19,21
318 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS. 5–6
Figure 4 Single Leg Circles and Double Leg Raise. Müller.15
The St Thomas Hospital project
In 1912, John Shields Fairbairn, a leading consultant
obstetrician at St Thomas Maternity Hospital, London,
started a program to revolutionize the medical approach
to child delivery.22 This aimed to replace the 19th cen-
tury medical practice of heavily medicating women dur-
ing labor and the common use of force to deliver. To
implement his vision of providing pregnant women with
education and natural physical health for childbirth and
recovery, Fairbairn chose Midwife and Physiotherapist
Minnie Randell (1875–1974) to lead the newly founded
St Thomas School of Physiotherapy, which served as the
project’s education and training center.22,23 To create the
method, Randell, (whose brother Francis William Randell
and wife Jessie experienced two failed births in 1907
and 1913)24 was inspired by Ling’s philosophy and exer-
cises of preventative medicine.22 Her repertoire included
full-body movement exercises in the lying, sitting, and
standing positions.25 The objectives of the pre-natal
exercises were ‘to improve the physical and mental well
being of the patient – encourage a cheerful and confident
outlook towards her confinement and so to help herself
effectively during labour’. Pre-natal training included
education, stretching, relaxing, and deep breathing with
many free arm movements to improve circulation. The
daily home exercises were designed to improve muscle
tone, increase flexibility, and control of movement. The
post-natal exercises were designed to improve the con-
dition of relaxed muscles, in particular the abdominal
muscles, so that the figure is restored to normal after
confinement.26 As a reflection of the women’s suffrage
movement, Randell encouraged female students to use
their knowledge and healthy physical ability to gain
self-empowerment and help others to do the same. She
encouraged women to teach spouses to perform and to
teach the exercises calmly and confidently; to reinforce

Figure 5 Mermaid and Side Kick. Randell, reproduced with
kind permission of Wellcome Library.26
the teamwork between parents and to be of practical assis-
tance during childbirth.25
Fairbairn also chose Obstetrician Kathleen Olga
Vaughan, who in 1912 had just returned from several
years of women’s health medical service in India.22,23 In the
sub-continent, Vaughan was amazed that mostly affluent
women suffered physically and mentally from childbirth,
while poor women typically gave birth with relative ease.
She explained that the active indigenous Indian lifestyle
and regular exercises that maintain a functional pelvic
anatomy were abandoned by the affluent.27 Vaughan also
observed that traditional Indian women, who covered their
entire body with garments, were at risk of medical dangers
including osteopenia due to sunlight deprivation.28
By the 1930s, the method was flourishing and the St
Thomas faculty was reinforced with two of Randell’s dis-
tinguished physiotherapy graduates: Australian hockey
star and medical student Barbara Mortimer Thomas
(1910–1940), who served as main instructor,29 and English
dancer and choreographer Margaret Morris (1891–1980),
who already used remedial exercises in her dance teach-
ing.30 Exercising to the beat of classical music, the dance
moves and grace typical of the St Thomas Method exer-
cises are attributed to Morris.
Publications, establishment recognition, and public
support followed the success. In 1932, Fairbairn was
elected President of the Royal College of Obstetricians
and Gynecologists.31 In 1936, Morris (in collaboration
with Randell) published ‘Maternity and Post-Operative
Exercises,’ that illustrated exercises for pregnant and puer-
peral women and those who had been operated on. The
book emphasized breathing, relaxation, conscious train-
ing of the pelvic floor muscles, and re-establishing good
posture.32 A year later, Morris published ‘Basic Physical
Training’ for the general public, dedicated to ‘all those
who, realising the inter-dependence of mental and physical
 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS.
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
well-being, are working to raise the standard of health.’33
In 1939, Randell published her seminal textbook ‘Training
for Childbirth - From the Mothers Point of View’ which
described her philosophy in detail with related anatomy
and pathology and exercise descriptions and instructions.25
This was followed up in 1949 with ‘Fearless Childbirth’,
a practical manual for mothers-to-be.34
In 1937, Randell’s number-two Thomas was sent to
Australia to lecture on the St Thomas Project, teach the
exercises, and assist local physiotherapists with the pro-
gram’s implementation.35 There are multiple indications
of an unknown video Thomas made during this visit, and
it was reported later that as a result of the visit, the St
Thomas method was implemented in maternity hospitals
in Sydney and Melbourne; the exercises were used by
physiotherapists on an individual basis and that Thomas
was remembered as a pioneer of Australian antenatal
physiotherapy.29,35,36
In London, the Medical Officer of Thorpe Coombe
maternity hospital approved and implemented the St
Thomas method in 1940, presented as ‘Training for
Childbirth - and After.’26 There was also interest from the
USA, but this option did not materialize.29
The St Thomas method, however, did not survive
World War II, besides the mentioned indications of
use in Australia a decade later, and Randell’s work has
since been forgotten. Various factors might attribute
to this, including the tragic loss in 1940 when two
bombs hit St Thomas hospital killing four physiother-
apists including Thomas;29 and the promotion of rival
London obstetric group, led by Grantly Dick-Read and
Physiotherapist Helen Heardman, with the concept of
natural childbirth. This movement gained favor with the
healthcare establishments, chartered physiotherapists
and the general public at the ultimate expense of the St
Thomas Project.23 Randell left St Thomas physiotherapy
school in 1945, just before the Chartered Society of
Physiotherapy imposed a new syllabus.37 She received
the royal title of OBE and extended her career inter-
est with a focus on gynecological cases; in 1948, she
co-founded the Obstetric Association of Chartered
Physiotherapists, was awarded an honorary fellowship
of the Chartered Society of Physiotherapists and was
later remembered as the pioneer of modern women’s
health physiotherapy (Figures 1, 5–7).38
Joseph Hubertus Pilates (1880–1967)
One of the most recognized MMB pioneers was Joseph
Hubertus Pilates, born near Dusseldorf in Germany to a
prize-winning gymnastics father and naturopath mother.
According to Pilates historians’, he was a bullied child who
suffered asthma and a weak body that he overcame as a
teenager by learning anatomy from medical books and the
practice of sports such as wrestling and gymnastics. During
this process, he developed a model body, which was even
displayed in anatomy classes.39,40 In 1912, Pilates moved to
5–6 319
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
Figure 6 Cat, Rest Position and Downward Dog. Randell, reproduced with kind permission of Wellcome Library.26
Figure 7 Saw. Randell, reproduced with kind permission of Wellcome Library26 and Morris, reproduced with kind permission
of Elsevier.33
England to become a professional boxer. He found employ-
ment as a circus performer41 and fitness trainer for Scotland
Yard.39 With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, being
German, Pilates was placed in an ‘alien camp,’ initially in
Lancaster where he trained fellow inmates and conceptu-
alized his method of Contrology.41,42 He was later moved
to the Isle of Man where he had duties training the injured
inmates in their wards. It was there that Pilates started to
connect springs to the hospital bed frames modifying them
into effective and comfortable exercise devices which later
evolved to become modern Pilates equipment.43
In 1918 following WWI, Pilates returned to Germany
where he started training dancers and quickly gained
acclaim. However, to avoid Contrology being used by
the German army, Pilates moved to the USA in 1925 and
opened the Pilates Universal Studio in Manhattan.39,42
Pilates swiftly gained prominence with dancers and celebri-
ties, which led to his notoriety as a New York City exercise
personality. In 1932, Pilates taught Contrology exercises
320 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS. 5–6
at the mythological Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival as he
did every summer until 1951.42,43 He claimed that ‘sports
are wonderful … but of little value for correcting whats
wrong with you … corrective exercise is the only way to
build a beautiful, strong, youthful body.’44 He explained
in his 1939 book ‘Your Health’: ‘Practically all human
ailments are directly traceable to wrong habits which can
only be corrected through the immediate adoption of right
(natural, normal) habits’ … ‘the present day efforts of our
so-called health departments are in vain so far as physical
health is concerned’ … ‘this condition will prevail until
such time as marks the recognition of a standard formation
of sound and sane physical culture, based upon the natural
laws of life.’45 In his 1945 book ‘Return to Life Through
Contrology,’ Pilates clearly supported Checkley, Müller,
and Alexander stating that ‘Contrology is not a system
of haphazard exercises designed to produce only bulging
muscles’ … ‘Rather, it was conceived to limber and stretch
muscles and ligaments so that your body will be as supple

Figure 8 Swan variations. Morris, reproduced with kind
permission of Elsevier.33
as that of a cat and not muscular like the body of a brew-
ery-truck horse.’46 In this book, Pilates presented a list of
34 full-body equipment-free exercises, which if performed
regularly at home, were promised to ‘give you suppleness,
natural grace, and skill that will be unmistakably reflected
in the way you walk, in the way you play, and in the way
you work’ … ‘You will find your body development
approaching the ideal, accompanied by renewed mental
vigor and spiritual enhancement’. Pilates famously stated:
‘Physical fitness is the first requisite of happiness.’46 As
with Müller,15 Randell,25,26 Morris,33 and Vaughan,47 Pilates
emphasized breathing techniques, training in sunshine and
fresh air. Pilates also advocated the use of minimal and
light-fitting clothing, recommended cold exposure and the
importance of bathing and treating the skin.45,46
Although there is evidence of Pilates teaching stand-
ing exercises at Jacob’s Pillow,48 he excluded standing
exercises from his 34 exercise Contrology home routine,
in contrast to the documented repertoires of Checkley,9
Müller,15 Randell,25 Vaughan,47 and Morris33 that were
dominated by standing exercises. He explained: ‘Note
that all the exercises are performed while you are in a
sitting or reclining position. This is done to relieve your
heart from undue strain as well as to take advantage of the
more normal (original) visceral organs.’46
At the twilight of his career, despite his personal suc-
cess and loyal group of followers, Pilates was disappointed
his philosophy was not adopted by all. However, a group
of his followers became recognized mind–body educators
in their own right. His dream was realized by them in
the 1980s, when Contrology moved into and has since
 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS.
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
remained within mainstream acceptance and popularity
as ‘Pilates.’39,42
From a historical perspective, Pilates grew up with the
mind–body approaches that were popular in Germany
at the turn of the 20th century. However, he developed
‘Contrology’ as a concept method only after the several
years in which he was free to roam and consolidate his
self-learning process in England between 1912 and 1914.
According to this research, it is likely he was exposed
during these formative years in England to the prominent
mind–body methods of Müller and Randell.
Pilates and his followers stood apart from the other
MMB schools for surviving a turbulent century, for mak-
ing multiple millions of people healthier in mind and body
and for being a major force in reintroducing mind–body
methods to healthcare establishments today. Furthermore,
Pilates deserves credit for inventing his ingenious exercise
equipment, which uniquely blends in harmoniously with
the universal mind–body philosophy.
Margaret Morris (1891–1980)
By 1925, Margaret Morris had already integrated reme-
dial exercises within her newly established dance school,
Margaret Morris Movement (MMM). Her philosophy
claimed that natural dance moves should be healthy
and constructive for the body and mind, rather than the
deleterious moves dancers were expected to practice
and perform at the time. Morris saw the connections
between breathing, stamina, range of motion, posture,
health, vitality, and how these freed the body to dance
and the mind to be creative.49 This philosophy extended
itself to the use of natural dance moves as remedial
exercises and a healthy active lifestyle. During 1925
and 1926, Morris presented her method to doctors and
midwifes in England, France, and Switzerland, among
them the St Thomas team. As a result of this meeting,
Morris enrolled to study physiotherapy under Randell
and graduated in 1933 with distinction.30 Throughout
her decade of collaboration with Randell and the St
Thomas Project, Morris continued to educate and run
MMM with great appreciation from top-tier dancers,
students, and artistic critiques. By 1939, her teachers
developed movement education and dance centers in
10 countries, most still active today (Figures 7–9).30
Later mind–body methods
Indian yoga gurus started arriving to the West at the turn
of the 20th century, however, yoga as it is known today
only evolved as a popular method to ‘stay healthy and
relaxed’ during the second half of the century.50 There was
no contact found between the sporadic early yoga arriv-
als to the West and the MMB pioneers discussed within
this research. However, Eastern mind–body practices
profoundly influenced Randell and Morris, most prob-
ably via Vaughan, who had just returned from years of
obstetric work and eye-opening behavioral observations
5–6 321
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
Figure 9 Rollover and Scissors. Morris, reproduced with kind permission of Elsevier.33
in India prior to the inception of the St Thomas project
in 1912.
Multiple new, yet generally typical MMB meth-
ods originated after 1950, including the Feldenkrais
Method;51 the modern form of Calisthenics;52
Gyrokinesis and Gyrotonic by Horvath;53 Gaga by
Naharin54 and CoreAlign55 and Human Harmony by
Hoffman.56 In recent decades, many allied health pro-
fessionals and therapists have embraced the MMB con-
cepts as an integral part of their practice and detailed in
mainstream scientific literature their research findings
on its effectiveness.57–59
Discussion
MMB pioneers and exercise philosophy
This section outlines the shared characteristics of the six
aforementioned MMB pioneers. They all elaborated in
length on their philosophy and exercises from a personal
perspective, leading to a similar notion that the innate
ability to stand and move harmoniously as a normal
manner provides multiple advantages. These include
physical and mental health, reduced movement-based
symptoms, prevention and optimal injury and sickness
recovery, enhanced physical performance, retention
of the natural human form, and the ability to control
the harmonious body rather than acquired movement
impairments.
The exercises developed by Checkley, Müller, Randell,
Alexander, Pilates, and Morris were secular in nature. The
holistic unity between harmonious movements and beauty,
health, performance and youth, between the body and
mind, and between human and nature were all emphasized
yet these universal concepts were unimpeded by religious,
political, or commercial influences. The exercises were
simply harmonious functional human movements learned
from observations of nature.
322 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS. 5–6
Checkley, Müller, Alexander, and Pilates initiated their
interests from a self-requirement to improve health or
overcome functional loss. They subsequently used their
bodies as a model to demonstrate their method’s effec-
tiveness and encourage others. Despite their turn of the
20th century separation from the gymnasium ‘Physical
Culture’ and new independence, all six MMB pioneers
advocated their exercises as an adjunct to other sports and
regular daily activity; Müller recommended running on
the balls of the feet as an aerobic activity, Pilates worked
with dancers, while Morris, who besides her dedication
to dance and dancers’ health also published ‘Tennis by
Simple Exercises’ in 1937 together with French tennis
mega-star Suzanne Lenglen.60
The daily practice of the mind–body exercises took
only a few minutes, to blend in with modern life rather
than to dominate it. The exercises could be performed
in private with no competitive, commercial, or politi-
cal emphasis or personal ignominy. The MMB pioneers
were against unnatural purpose-made exercise machinery,
which was viewed as unnecessary and even dangerous.
An exception was Pilates and his equipment. However,
the revolutionary devices were designed (and succeeded)
to improve the effect of Contrology exercises and phi-
losophy, and to enhance the method’s natural experience
and acceptance.
Within the MMB philosophical approach, the body’s
nutritional and movement systems were integral. The key
to maintaining a healthy digestive system and reducing fat
percentage lay in regular exercise practice and a balanced
diet. Checkley ridiculed fad diets, claiming they were
unnecessary and irrelevant to a long-term solution.9 Müller
claimed that ‘When your digestive system has been invig-
orated through physical exercise you can safely eat almost
every kind of food’.15 Pilates recommended ‘to eat only
enough food to restore the fuel consumed by the body’.46

The exercises
The practice of the MMB methods is generally empha-
sized in three areas. Firstly, human movement is achieved
with involvement of a centrally controlled dynamic syn-
ergy between the body’s stability and mobility move-
ment elements.61 This ensures all the muscles of the body
concurrently employ or counter movement forces which
results in visible harmonious movements. Secondly,
functionality is required as the MMB is aimed at cor-
rect natural movements that reflect the requirements of
activity and life in the modern world. Consequently,
non-functional movements are unjustified as an MMB
exercise. Thirdly, learning of MMB exercises requires
a cognitive focus on achieving harmonious functional
movements. With practice, the cognitive learning pro-
cess enables an automatic and harmonious physical
performance, making the exercises as well as every-
day tasks easier, safer, and more efficient. The MMB
exercises were intended by their creators to be healthy
and enjoyable, a cultural alternative to the practice of
aggressively overtraining the body and accepting pain
and injury as normal components of sport.
The MMB exercises are not pathology orientated or
sport specific, rather all exercises are recommended for
everybody, whether they are injured, healthy, or a compet-
itive athlete; the ability to perform the exercises represents
the normal. The exercises and sequence do not change,
besides the difficulty levels which are adjusted according
to the individual level of practice. The MMB progressions
occur when the exercises become easier and eventually
autonomous and harmonious, ensuring the short- and
long-term benefits of practice. Harmonious breathing
and relaxation techniques are employed in every exercise
repetition. Furthermore, there is the recommendation to
train daily in relaxed environments, with abundant fresh
air and appropriate sunlight levels and to bath regularly.
Studio training is recommended for beginners, people with
ailments or performing athletes.
Expected effects
All six MMB pioneers expected near magical effects
from the regular non-exhausting practice of their exer-
cise regimes. This promised a lifetime of optimal health,
beauty, and strength for the body and mind. Further,
expected benefits include improved quality and efficacy
of daily activities, looking and feeling good, making life
itself easier and more pleasurable with a disappearance
or reduction of symptoms while improving postures. This
leads to increased self-esteem, reduced health costs, and
the expectation of a longer and high-quality life. It is
interesting to note that all six MMB pioneers enjoyed
long and fruitful lives that reflect this philosophical model
within real life examples: Checkley died in 1925 at 78;
Müller in 1938 at 72; Alexander in 1955 at 86; Randell
in 1974 at 99; Pilates in 1967 at 87; and Morris in 1980
at 89.
 Physical Therapy Reviews  2016  VOL. 20   NOS.
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
Conclusions
This research has revealed a forgotten chapter in recent
history of physical rehabilitation, medicine, and sports.
Independent MMB methods have enjoyed celebrated suc-
cess since 1890 and the exercises have changed the lives of
millions of individuals, from common citizens to athletic
performers, celebrities and Royalty. The MMB methods
have provided immense personal hope and also national
pride, however, to date, they have not been communally
recognized as an official clinical tool or as an independent
sporting category. As the scope of this paper was limited
to readily available published documents, resorting at
times to third-source century-old information, it is hoped
that the publication will instigate further investigations
to the origins of MMB methods and the general history
of movement-harmonizing exercises. As the six MMB
pioneers were presented in this paper as part of a broad
historic movement, it is expected that future research will
expose multiple other like-minded exercise methods that
were developed during the same era and in similar cir-
cumstances. This will provide current MMB educators
and practitioners with a wealth of information and new
angles of approach that remain applicable today. To sup-
port the official healthcare identification of MMB methods
as an independent activity category besides aerobic train-
ing and weightlifting, high quality research through both
prospective randomized and blinded investigations along
with subsequent systematic reviews and meta-analysis will
eventually be required. Standardized baseline measures
and criteria will be needed with external standards includ-
ing functional status outcomes and appropriate statisti-
cal analysis. As an independent category, the communal
value of MMB methods can be validated scientifically and
accepted as evidence-based healthcare.
Notes on contributors
Jonathan Hoffman is a manual physical therapist and devel-
oper of novel exercise methods and devices. His publica-
tions are Expanding Panjabi’s stability model to express
movement: A theoretical model. Medical Hypothesis.
2013; Being Fit, 2014; The Bongo Dogs, 2014.
C. Philip Gabel is the founder and principal physiothera-
pist at Coolum Physiotherapy, Queensland Australia. His
research interests are rehabilitation and exercise, slacklin-
ing, laser therapy, and outcome measures. His publications
are Cross-cultural adaptation, reliability, and validity of
the Spanish version of the lower limb functional index.
Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 2014; Analysis of
arm elevation muscle activity through different movement
planes and speeds during in-water and dry-land exercise.
Journal of Shoulder Elbow Surgery 2014.
ORCID
Jonathan Hoffman http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1354-052X
C. Philip Gabel http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8354-4545
5–6 323
Hoffman and Gabel Western mind–body exercise
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