286 SOlllhA[ricanlownal of Science Vol.

86 lid, - October 1990

Vegetation change in the semi-arid eastern nearly all subsequent accounts have been
based. Generally, publications after 1953
Karoo over the last 200 years: "an expanding and particularly since 1976 either present
swnmaries'26.21 or modifications of exist-
Karoo - fact or fiction? ing theory.4.S.28-30
M.T. Hoffman and R.M. Cowling The initial concern was over the
alleged 'desiccation' of South Africa.
1he effect of overstocking on the hydro-
We present historical and photographic evidence and survey data 10 test current logic cycle was emphasized.16-3)JI.32
tlu!ory of vegetation change in the eastern Karoo and southern Orange £ree State However, De Klert's,n Tidmarsh'j and
(OFS) over tIu! last two hundred years. This theory states that tIu! eastern1coroo has particularly Acocks,3 maps, presenting
beell altered from a perennial grassland to a dwarf shrubland which is invading tIu! changes in vegetation over a century or
solllhern OFS grasslands at a predictable rate. We find little support for this and more, shifted the emphasis from desic-
propose an alternative view of vegetation change ill the region. We suggest that tIu! cation to that of Karoo shrub encroach-
pre-c%nial eastern Koroo may not have been dominated by perennial grasses and ment. Acocts'·,·29.33-3S suggests that the
that seasonal rain/all effects might be responsible for much of the perceived vegeta- continuous selective grazing habit of
tion change in the eastern Karoo and solllhern OFS. domestic stock under most advocated
management systems depletes the 'root
Karoo replaces grassveld: a historical reserves' , particularly of grasses. This
Recent reports of vegetation change in
overview and critique of the hypothesis results in their extinction and the irre-
the world's arid and semi-arid lands have
versible replacement of the grass sward
criticized the notion that they are de- Most publications on vegetation change
by Karoo bushes. Karoo bushes are un-
grading at a predictable annual rate or in the eastem Karoo and southem OFS
even degrading at all. l Studies from appear during or immediately after ex- able to bind the soil as effectively as
North Africa question the evidence used tended droughts, particularly for the grasses and erosion, therefore, increas-
in the much-publicized United Nations period 1875 - 1953. In the Cape Colony, es." Shrubs thus 'hold the veld in a
Enviromnental Programme (UNEP) stat- drought conditions predominated during condition that is inimical to the grasses'"
istics on desertification: 1hey suggest 1872 - 1878.lS Some of the earliest (p. 103). This view of an expanding
that the dynamics of these regi~ are publications on ve~tation change in Karoo remains the prevalent one today.
characterized by natural fluctuations in the eastern Karoo16• 7 appeared during For example, Huntley et al.'J6 state that
productivity which are directly related to this period, The Drought Investigation 'there is little doubt that the general
droUght and high rainfall episodes. Commissiod8 was appointed in 1920 patterns as described by pioneer
after the 1919 drought.19 Kanthac~ and ecologist, John Acocks, 30 years ago are
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

For the semi-arid Karoo in South Af-

rica, the theory of vegetation change sug-
gests that as a result of European agricul-
tural practices, the eastern Karoo (FIg. 1)
has been altered from a perennial grass-
land to a dwarf shrubland.:W The Karoo
is thus considered less productive than it
used to be, in terms of its canying
capacity. Because of poor management
practices, the Karoo is thought to be
expanding its range into the southern
Orange Free State (OFS) grasslands at a
predictable annual rate.2,6-8 1he pre-
dictions from this theory have profoundly
influenced South African agricultural and
research endeavours.9-14 But what
evidence has been used in its creation and
does research uphold its predictions? In
this account we trace the histoxy of the
development of the theory and test some
of its predictions. H the eastern Karoo
was once dominated by perennial grasses
then the traveller's accounts should indi-
cate this. Similarly, if the Karoo is
expanding its range at a predictable rate
then photographs of the eastern Karoo
·landscape, taken at the same site but 70
years apart, should show an increase in
dwarf shrub cover and a decrease in grass
cover. Also, point surveys done 30 years
apart at the same sites in the eastern
Karoo and southern OFS should show an
increase in dwarf shrubs and a decrease
in grasses.
Hall:n published their work at the
end of the very dry 1925/26 - 1932/33
period,lS From 1944/45 to 1952/53, the
whole country was 'exceedingly dry',lS
Seven publications appeared at this
time.2,3.l9.2Z-2S It was from 1947 to 1953
that most of the theory arose upon which
• Bloemfontein
6* - Kimberley 37
Dewetsdorp -
o \
'I1l')ge A 34
'!!Ier Springfontein _
kin 30
Fig. 1. Place names and main topogmpbic
features in the eastem Karoo and southern
Orange Free Stale, South Africa. Numbers
2 - 6 are photograph localities. while num·
bers 18 - 37 show the survey sites.
real' (p. 39).
More recently, the apparent change in
k:arroid shrublands and southern OFS
grasslands has been tenned 'desertifica-
tion'.4.S.37.38 Roux,37 Roux and vorste:f
and Roux and 1'heroraS have outlined five
phases of vegetation change, from AD
1880 to AD 2000+. 1heir model predicts
that with continued mismanagement there
will be an increase in woody shrubs in
the Upper Karoo in the next 30 years,
and a decrease in dwarf shrubs and
perennial grasses. Bosclf' focuses on
changes in palatability along a subject-
35 - Smithfield
ively determined grazing gradient. He
describes a degradation process which
culminates in communities dominated by
dwarf kmoid shrubs.
1he literature on vegetation change in
the eastern Karoo suggests that the direc-
tion of change has been from a perennial
palatable grassveld to a less productive
k:arroid shrubland, largely devoid of
grasses.:W.23,24,33,34,31 Acocts' places this
pristine condition at AD 1400. Tidmarsll
suggests that in 1848 the eastern Karoo
was dominated by grasses. Roux and
Vorstef and Roux and ~ maintain
60 90 120 150
that as recently as 1880 the Upper Karoo
Drs M.T. Hoffman and R.M. Cowling are in
the Botany Department. Univcrsily of Cape,
Town, Rondebosch, 7700 South Africa.
 Suid-Afrilwtm.seTydskrifvir Wetenskap Vol.86
was still dominated by perennial palat-
able grass. They suggest that this corre-
to AD 1400 condition.
is greater agreement on the rate
TidmarsIr suggests a rate of
into the grasslands of 1.5
miles (2.4 kIn) per annum. Pbillip~9 and
Talbot" also· quote this Acoc~
states that, in parts, the Karoo has spread
250 kIn eastwards and that 32 200 kIn2 of
mssveld has been converted into Karoo,
since AD 1400. Downing,!>
and MollS and Preston-
and Tyson15 derive from Acoc~
a rate of between 0.44 and 2.4 km/yr (see
also Huntley;U Cowling'2). Jarman and
suggest, from an analysis of
Landsat imagery, 'that between 1953 and
1973 the boundary of the False Upper
Karoo appeared to have moved in a nor-
therly and westerly direction, a maximum
of 70 kIn and a conservative measure-
ment of 43 kIn invading grassland' (p.
78). (Note that the direction of movement
should probably more accurately be
stated as northerly and easterly, since the
Free State grasslands are north
and east of the Karoo.) Aucamp and
probably use this study
when suggesting that from 1969 to 1989
the Karoo advanced a further 70 kIn in a
north-westerly direction. (See previous
comment concerning direction of move-
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).
Hilton-Taylor and MoUIi use
Jarman and Bosch's42 analysis to derive a
rate of between 2.0 and 3.5 kIn per year.
Downil!lfi' possibly also uses the results
to derive a rate of 2.15 kIn
puts the rate for 1965 -
at 2 - 3 kIn per year.
all references on the rate of
in the MOO refer to
Acoc~ and Jarman and
Jarman and Bosch's42 study is
one of the few independent analyses. In
their boundaries were
drawn from two 1972 Landsat images
and superimposed on Acocks,3 Veld
map to determine any major
that may have OCCUlTed since
1953. Thus the boundaries of the 1953
and 1973 studies were consl:l1lCted using
different methods and by different
Jarman and Bosch42 could
the boundary only 'over a
limited front' and were unable to
'extrapolate over the more extensive
boundary' (p. 78). Palmer"3 also found
in Landsat imagery in the
southeastern Karoo. He con-
cluded that it provided •a poor relation-
ship between the classified map and the
natural on the ground' (p.
167). Because of the problems in the
elq)erime!t1tai design and in the interpreta-
tion of the Landsat images thetltlselves,
we suggest that Jarman and Bosch's42
Julie Oklober 1990 287
flndings be with some that Skea~ does not document the
traveller's record for the eastern Karoo.
of vegelalllon Roox and Vorster4 and Roux and Therons
change accept and use the evidence of De Klerk,n Tid-
view that a pristine eastem Karoo was and Acoc.tcsl to substantiate their
dominated by grasses. How- model of change in the Upper
ever, what evidence is used to substan- Karoo.
tiate this view? TidmarsIr his
maps 'from reconnaissance and The traveUers' records
from accumulated documentary eviderlce. If the eastem Karoo was dominated by
including descriptions of these areas at prior to, and
earlier periods, as well as statements of of European
old inhabitants relative to conditions fifty descriptions of vegeta-
years, or more, ago' (p. 520). The refer- the eastern Karoo, between the
ence to reconnaissance survey probably and Orange River between
applies only to the 1948 vegetation dis- 1777 and 1843. should indicate this. We
tribution map, because no surveys were list references to cover as well as to
undertaken in 1848 or referred to. The the absence grasses and refer to
documentary evidence cited is a letter ..,"'.,......... towns to an approximate
written by Davis in 1864 (in Brownl6 ), location for the observations (Fig. 1).
excerpts from Barrow44 and the evidence travellers used the terms
of Shaw.17 Statements of old inhabitants 'sweet' and 'sour' when describing the
are not quoted or referred to. grasses or of the eastem
Acocks'9 generally rejects the trav- Karoo. It is often impossible to discern
ellers' records as a source of information whether 'sweetveld' refers to
regarding the pre-colonial Karoo. He which remains after manuity
concludes3 that 'one is dependent on a (i.e. in winter for the eastern K.aroo and
study of the veld itself as it is today' southern OFS or to a situa-
(p. 7) to determine ve.ll:etallion change:s. tion where range animals utilize different
Acocks,3, central hYJ>otllesis components of the vegetation in summer
relics of individual _Q.~~J and winter In
be typical of the account below, we
of veld types suoc~,ionall) and int*'!fTI1,p.I~,n the term 'sweet grass-
not in the natural habitat of the veld' in the sense that vegetation des-
invading type at all' (p. 7) the cribed remains palatable after manuity
original flora. The lists of and 'sour in the sense that it loses
he suggests, dominated pre-colonial palatability when mature.
Karoo environmen~·29,.33 are based on On 16 November 1777, Gordon47 was
this hypothesis. Besides being difficult to about 40 45 kIn west of Middelburg
test we suggest that there can be no 'relic and noted that the .... large level plain ... '
patches of formerly over which they rode was ' ... half CarD
types? (p. 7) in the Karoo. The "-.J~"'J and half called "gebroken
of areas suggested as likely localities for veld" ... ' (p. 83). Two later and
fmding these relics, such as railway and about 25 kIn N.W. of Noupoort he noted
roadside enclosures, cemeteries, edges of that 'the vegetation was ... for the most
cultivated fields, town commonages etc.,3 part sweet here and there CarD
have probably only been in existence for and gebroken velt ... ' 87). On 18
the last 100 years. Van der MeIWe45 December 1777, when about IS
shows that substantial numbers of domes- - 20 kIn S.E. of re-
tic stock have been grazing in the eastern cords that the '... ... [was] ...
Karoo since at least 1820. It is probably mostly completely .. : (p. 117).
more likely that these relics are species However, on the same day, but about 25
which have responded to the improved kIn N.E. of he records 'for the
moisture and nutrient conditions, as well but also
as to protection from grazing afforded by (p. 1
these sites. This last point suggests that ;)leynsourg (20 De-
they may currently exist in a very 'un- cember veJgetllUC,n was 'for the
natural' situation since vast herds of wild cruel sour grass, as p.v.>nI·wh.......
ungulates grazed in the eastern Karoo Gordon travel-
prior to European colonization. The relics
are probably more recent to
these unrepresentative and 'unnatural'
habitats.
Roux and Vorster4 point to SkeacJ"6 for
a description of the vegetation by
travellers. It should be noted, season.
 288 SouJh Ajrican Jounun ojScience Vol. 86 July - October 1990

On 5 December 1797, Barrow"4 was

probably just south of an area between
Norvalspont and Venterstad [and, we
suggest, not in 'the country around what
is today Middelburg ... ' as stated by
Tidmarsll (p. 520)]. Barrow remarked
that the flat country over which he travel-
led consisted of 'a strong clayey soil,
well covered with fme grass, but destitute
of wood or bushes .. .' (p. 301).
Describing the region 'from the foot of
Sneeuberge to this [the Orange] river' in
July 1803, Van Reenen48 suggests that
'caroo and grass-veld alternate' (p. 237).
Travelling from the Orange River 'along
the Zeekoe River up to its source', Van
Reenen notes 'all the veld traversed is
Caroo or a reddish clay soil overgrown
with vygebosjes' (p. 241). On 24 July
1803, about 30 Ian west of Noupoort,
Paravicini di Capelli"9 travelled '... over
b
flat country where only little low bushes
grow, for this reason it is called Karoo-
ground' (p. 260).
Travelling outside of the borders of the
colony, about 20 - 30 Ian south of De
Aar on 17 March 1812, Burchellso wrote
' ... it is remarkable that no true grass was
observed in any part of these plains; the
surface being almost everywhere clothed
with this plant [Cyperus usitalUS]
intermingled in various places with low
bushes such as are generally met with in
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

... the '" Karoo' (p. 71). He notes,

however, that the 'elevated mountainous
country' between De Aar and Richmond
Fig. 2 a, Somerset East. June 1917. Pole-Evans CF 1 No. 46. Pen!zia veld b, Somerset
abounded 'in bushes and grass ... ' East. 32°41.5'S, 25"20.5'E. 27 July 1989, 16:30. Hoffman No. 40b. Foreground vegetation
(p. 71). Between Richmond and Hanover dominated by Acacia lcarroo (20 - 30% cover) and Tragus Icoeleroides (10 - 15%). Other
on 18 March 1812, Burchell writes that grasses include: Aristida diffusa (1 - 5%), Digitaria erianJha (1 - 5%), Eragrostis lehmannimra
the plains' '... surface was uniformly (1 - 5%), Themeda triandra (1 - 5%), Danthonia disticha(1 %), Eragrostis obtusa «1 %) and
covered with low bushes ... not higher on Setaria sp. «1%). The dominant sluubs are: Penlzia incana (2%), Eriocephabu ericoides
average than nine inches ... ' (p. 79). (1%), Felicia muricara (1%), F. Jascicuiaris (1%). Other shrubs «1% cover) include:
Campbelts 1 records on 17 May 1813, Chrysocoma ciliata, Helichrysum dregealUlm, Protasparagus mucrOllQlus, P . striaJus, P. SIUJ-
when south-east of Richmond that 'the lIeolens, Solanum sp., Walafrida sQXQIilis and Zygophyllum sp. The sluub in the right
country is covered with heath; only here foreground is Olea europea. 1bree Rhus spp. and one May tenus sp. individuals were observed.
- and there at great distances from each Total cover, 50 - 75%. Much evidence of grazing.
other, is there any grass' (p. 133). Be-
tween Richmond and De Aar on 21 May between Richmond and Middelburg, River and headed back towards Coles-
1813, Campbelts 1 notes that 'we had not Steedm~ records that on the plains berg in January 1837. He wrote that 'not
seen a blade of grass through the fl1St 'low stunted bushes and ant-hills were a blade of grass met the eye from this
day's journey' (p. 133). On 11 September thickly scattered over its extensive momenl' (p. 281).
1820, four days north of Graaff-Reinet surface ... ' (p. 138). Between Noupoort Backho~7 travelled between Middel-
near the Seacow River (probably some- and Colesberg there were '... small plains burg and Colesberg in June 1839 and .
where west of Middelburg), Campbelts2 .. , enclosed by low hillocks of sand noted that 'on some rough hills over
records that '... droves of springboks and covered with short stunted bushes and which we travelled ... there was a little
other game ... were feeding on low
thick grass ... ' (p. 153). Smimss was in grass among the low bushes' (p. 338).
bushes, for not a blade of grass was to be
the Middelburg district on 13 August Between Cradock and the Orange River
seen' (p. 323).
1834 en route to Gordonsfontein (west of via Middelburg and Colesberg he records
Thompson,S3 when probably about 50
- 60 Ian west of Middelburg on 2 June Middelburg) and wrote: 'The country that 'the most common covering of the
1823, notes that 'the arid ground ... is over which we travelled was almost country was half-shrubby plants so far
here quite a Karoo, and miserably destitute of vegetation; only thinly apart that a person might walk between
parched and poor' (p. 51). However, covered by dwarf black bushes of from them in any direction. Many of them
three days later when about 30 Ian N.W. six inches to a foot in height Towards were not a foot high' (p. 347). In October
of Colesberg, he writes that 'the soil the centre of the flats patches of coarse 1839, when about 60 Ian N.N.W. of Pbil-
looked more fertile and was covered with grass and rushes occurred here and there lipstown, he found 'the land stndded with
fme grass .. .' (p. 56). In November 1830, ... ' (p. 61). Harnss' crossed the Orange small bushes ... [and] ... a little grass' (p.
 Suid-AfrikmmseTydskrifvir Welenskap Vol.86 Julie - OkJober 1990 289

477). Fmally, Cununings,S8 on 20

January 1845, described the area between
the Orange River and Colesberg as
'parched and arid, not a blade of grass •.•'
(p. 259).
This short review suggests that the
notion of a pre-<:olonial eastern Karoo
dominated by perennial palatable grasses
may be incorrect. Although there are
some references to a grass-dominated
landscape, even the earliest accounts
suggest that, at least in places, dwarf
karroid shrubs were dominant. It is of
course difficult to know what the
frequently-used phrase 'not a blade of
grass' means. And to what extent would
these travellers have noted the difference
between the presence of shortly-grazed
grass tufts and it full canopy of grass?
However, we suggest that the consistent
reference to the absence of a dominant
grass sward by most of the later travellers
suggests that the scenarios portrayed by
Tidmars~ for 1848 and Roux and
Vorster" for 1880 perhaps do not have
much historical basis. Although Acocks' 3
AD 1400 map is untestable because there
were no records at this time, the evidence
above suggests that it may not apply.
Some of the accounts prior to 1813, for
example, are for areas which probably
did not support large numbers of Euro-
pean, Khoi or Bantu pastoralists4s•s9 yet a
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

mixed grass and shrub physiognomy is

described. Fig. 3. Q, Grassveld below Tarkastad and Queenstown. September 1925. Pole-Evans CF 10

Photographic evidence: the last 60 - 70
years
We present five representative,
matched photograph pairs out of a total
of 13 in our possession, for sites in the
eastern Karoo and northern Cape. The
locality, accuracy of the match and
photographic quality were considered in
their selection. We were unable to locate
any early photographs for the southern
OFS. We do not believe that our selec-
tion represents a bias towards a particular
point of view and attempt rather to
present as wide a geographical spread as
possible. Subjective estimates of the
cover of dominant species are given for
1989. These are based on step-point sur-
veys of 200 - 300 points at each site.
This method involved walking 4 or 5
parallel transects of about 100 m in
length and 10 - 20m apart at each site to
the left and right in front of, and
perpendicular to, the camera position.
Thus only the foreground vegetation was
surveyed. The plant species (or bare
ground) were recorded at the point of
contact between the observer's right boot
tip and the ground. Therefore, for a
single 100-m transect roughly 50 obser-
vations were recorded. The fmal percent-
age cover estimates, described in the
No. 66. b, 29 Icrn from Tarkastad on Queenstown road. 31°54'5, 26"31.5'E. 20 August
1989, 12:30. lIoffman No. 44b. Dominant grasses in foreground are: Eragrostis curvilla (25 -
35%), Aristida congeSla (to - 15%), Digiulria erianlha (5 - 10%) and Cynodon daclylon (5 -
10%). Other grasses (1 - 5% cover) include: Eragrostis lehtnannimul, EragrosJis sp., Tragus
koeleroides and Themeda triandra . (T. triandra occurs in dense patches in places.) lbe
dominant shrub is Pentzia incana (15 - 20%). Other shrubs «1%) are: Aptosimum depressum.
ChrysOC01M dliakJ and Melolobium candicans. Total cover, 75 - 85%.
captions of Figs 2 - 6, reflect the Karroid Broken Veld physiognomy. Fi-
frequency of occurrence of a particular gures 2a and 2b show that there was a
species expressed as a percentage of the greater dominance of dwarf shrubs and
total number of observations made. Sub- Valley Bushveld overstorey species
jectively determined upper and lower (probably Pappea capensis and Aloe
limits are used. Taxonomy follows Gibbs ferox) in 1917 than in 1989. Grasses
Russell el ai.(I)·61 Except for species name appear absent in 1917. Acacia lcarroo and
changes, captions for the early photo- grasses have now become co-dominants.
graphs are presented exactly as they Valley Bushveld and Central Lower
appear in their original text. No details of Karoo elements appear not to be
the management of these sites were ob- spreading.
tained. We discuss these matched photo- Acoc~ maps the vegetation between
graph pairs in the light of Acocks' Veld Tarkastad and Queenstown (Figs 3a and
Type delimitations and predictions for AD 3b) as Dry Cymbopogon-Themeda Veld.
2050 (Map No. 3; see also Map No. 5). He suggests that this is the 'sweet grass
For the Somerset East site (Figs 2a and veld that has so largely been invaded by
2b), a change is predicted from False Karoo to form the False Karoo' (p. 91).
Thornveld of the eastern Cape in 1953 to Acoc~ (Map No. 3) predicts that by AD
Karoo (including Karroid Bushveld). 2050 this will become Karoo (including
Acoc~ suggests that Acacia karroo Karroid Bushveld). Figures 3a and 3b
reduces the grass cover, thus increasing show an obvious increase in cover of
erosion. This facilitates the spread of perennial grasses and Pennia illCana
Valley Bushveld and Central Lower from 1925 to 1989. Besides P. illCana,
Karoo elements which he considers 'alien only three other dwarf shrub species are
to these parts' (p. 50), to form a False present. A transformation to Karoo (in-
 290 SOUlh African Journal of Science Vol. 86 July - OCtober 1990

cover of grasses in 1989 than in the ear-

a lier photographs. Although Pogo1llJTthria
squa"osa is considered a ' ... weed of
frequent occurrence in disturbed areas· 63
(p. 185). the dominance of Eragrostis
lehmanniana and Cenchrus ciliaris
suggests that the grassland is not as
degraded today as Shantz and Tumdl
may have predicted from their 1956 sum-
mary. E. lehmanniana is considered by
Muller64 to be a •... valuable subclimax
grass ... ' (p. 154) in Namibia, while
ChippindalfJ considers C. ciliaris to be
•... valued as a palatable pasture and hay
grass ...• (p. 451). There is no indication
that Karoo shrubs are invading this
landscape.

Vegetation change: 1962 -1989

We re-surveyed 11 eastern Karoo and
southern OFS sites to determine the
changes in floristic and growth form
composition during the last 26 - 28 years
(Table 1). The sites were surveyed by
Rou~ in 1961-63 using the descending-
point method.66 with observations made
1.45 m apart along a series of five 288-m
lines. 14.5 m apart. They were re-survey-
ed in 1989 using the same general ap-
proach but different apparatus. Instead of
using the descending-point appararus66
we employed a knoned rope, with knots
made every 1.45 m. Our observations
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

were made by taking a line perpendicuJar

Fig. 4. a. S.E. of Thebus. between Steynburg and Hofmeyer. September 1925. Pole-Evans CF
10 No. 34. Melianlhus. Mexican poppy and kanoo bush. b, 23 km north of Hofmeyr on
to the knot and. like Roux.65 recording
Steynsburg road. 31"27'S. 25°45'E. 20 August 1989. 17:00. Hoffman No. 46b. Foreground the canopy spread cover (i.e. the ground
vegetation dominated by Eragro.ssis lehmanniana (20 - 30% cover), AriSlida curvala (15 - area occurring under a plant's canopy -
20%). Tragus Icoeleroides (5 - 10%). Pentzia incana (5 - 10%) and Felicia muricaJa (5 - see Roux66 ) of the species intercepted by
10%). Other grasses (1 - 5%) are: Cynodon dactylon and Eragroslis bergiana. Other dwarf that line. Fewer transects were measured
shrubs (1 - 5%) are: Lycium cinereum, Melolobium candiaUls, Nenax microphylla, Rosenia in 1989. Some control of observer bias
humilis and Salsola aphylla. Eriocephalus ericoides has <1 % cover. The larger sluubs around was attempted by including Dr P.W.
the windmill are Lycium sp. Total cover. 65 - 75%. Roux in the sampling process undertaken
eluding Karroid Bushveld) is not ap- AcocJcil predicts that it will become at the first site re-surveyed in 1989. Since
parent. Desert and Succulent Karoo by AD 2050. both surveys recorded canopy spread
The vegetation around Hofmeyr (Figs Except for the increase in Aristida cover with observations made every 1.45
4a and 4b) is listed as False Upper cOflgesta in 1989. there does not appear m, we believe that the data are com-
Karoo.3 Acoc~ regards this vegetation to be any major physiognomic difference parable.
as the one which has converted '... between the vegetation at this site in All sites showed an increase in total
32200 square km of grassveld into 1928 and 1989. percentage canopy spread cover from
eroded Karoo ...• (p. 78). He dismisses Figures 6a, 6b and 6c show a sequence 1961-63 to 1989. attributed chiefly to an
the ' ... sea of Aristida and Eragrostis from 1919 to 1956 to 1989 in a veld type increase in the cover of grasses (Table 1).
which appears after a good rainy season classified by AcocJcil as Kalahari Thorn- The change in forbs appeared site-specif-
to-day' (p. 78) as unrepresentative of the veld invaded by Karoo. AcocJcil predicts ic. Geophytes appeared not to influence
original flora. AcocJcil predicts that it that by AD 2050 the Kimberley district cover values. Cyperaceae and Juncaceae
will become Desert and SuccuJent Karoo will form the boundary between Karoo cover was high only in sites 25 and 28
by AD 2050. The most striking difference (including Karroid Bushveld) and Desert and increased from 1961-63 to 1989.
between Figs 4a and 4b is the increase in vegetation. The matched photographs Shrub cover decreased considerably at
cover. The grasses appear almost absent show that the general physiognomy in the more mesic sites 25, 28, 32 and 36,
in 1925 but are dominant in 1989. There 1989 is much the same as it was in 1919. but did not change much at the other
is little indication that this region is However, the number of overstorey aca- sites. Except for sites 20a and 34, which
becoming a Desert and SuccuJent Karoo. . cias appear to have increased and the showed little difference in the shrub:grass
AcockSl classifies the vegetation grass composition appears to have ratio. all other sites showed a decrease.
around Britstown as Central Upper Karoo changed. Shantz and T~2 suggest
(Figs 5a and 5b). He suggests that the that the changes from 1919 to 1956 General discussion
precolonial vegetation was '... predomi- signify a 'general deterioration of the The title of this paper asks whether or
nantly grassy, but fluctuating towards the grasslands, both as to cover and species' not the Karoo is expanding its range.
Karoo condition during droughts' (p. 78). (p. 43). There appears to be a greater Although this analysis has not provided
 Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Welens!wp Vol. 86 Julie - Olaober 1990 291

an unequivocal answer, it has suggested

that the general thoory of an expanded
and steadily expanding Karoo may be
inadequate. Inadequate because, firstly,
the concept of a pre-colonial grassland in
the eastern Karoo is not well supported
by the historical evidence. The travellers'
records suggest that in the eastern Karoo,
grasses and shrubs co-existed just prior to
and during the early period of European
occupation. Although difficult to quan-
tify, reports of grassiness generally
decrease from In7 to 1845, suggesting
that some physiognomic changes may
have occurred over that period and that
b European pastoralism may have been re-
sponsible for part of this decrease.
Certainly, however, the dates proposed
by Tidmarsh,2 Roux and Vorster4 and
Roux and Theron,5 for a grass-<iominated
eastern Karoo, appear to have little
historical basis. .,
The theory of an expanding Karoo may
be inadequate for another reason. Despite
the fact that more than 100 years have
lapsed since the first scientific publi-
cations on the issue appeared, few pub-
lished data provide unequivocal support
Fig. 5. Q, Near Britstown, Cape. De Aar - Pella OclOber 1928. Pole-Evans CF 11 No. 74. for the thoory. For example, the only
b, 15 kIn east of Britstown on De Aar road. 300 34'S, 23°37'E. 22 August 1989, 10:00. Hoff- published study on vegetation change in
man No. SOb. Foreground vegetation dominated by Aristida congesla (15 - 25%), Rhigozum
tricholOmwn (15 - 25%), Aizoon sp. (10 - 15%) and DrosanJhemwn cf hispidum (5 - 10%).
the eastern Karoo, conducted for more
Species with 1 - 5% cover are: Salsola aphylla, Eragroslis curvula, Eragroslis sp., Galenia sp.
than ten years,67 shows that grass and
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

and Lycium d. cwreum. Other species «1%) are: Chrysocoma ciliala, Prolasparagus shrub cover fluctuate in response to
suaveolens, Salsola sp., Eragroslis lehmanniana, PenJzia ina:uIa, Enneapogon sp., S/ipagrosiis seasonal rainfa11 events. Reports on long-
sp., Pleronia sp., Psilocau1on sp., DrosanJhemum sp., Felicia /i/ifolia . term vegetation change in the Karoo

Table 1. Site details and summary information from II sites in the eastern 1caroo and southern Orange Free Stale surveyed in 1961~ and 1989.

Survey No." 18 20a 21 22a 25 28 32 34 35 36 37

Locality Beestelcuil Town Geelbeks- Compass- Houd- Cypress Groen- HiUside De Draai Town Town
commonage fontein beTg constant grove fontein commOllage commonage
Grid reference 31°14'S 31"28.5'S 31"23.5'S 31°44'S 32°03'S 31°48'S 30"54'S 300 08'S 30"13.5'S 29°45.5'S 29"34.5'S
24"35'E 24°59.5'E 24°07.5'E 24"31.5'E 24°12.5'E 25°19'E 25"09'E 25°44'E 26"23'E 21'02.5'E 26"39.5'E
District Hanover Middelburg Richmond Middelburg Gnaff- Oadock Colesburg Spring- Smithfield Wepener DeweudOlJl
Reinct fontein
Veldty¢ 36 36 36 60 60 36 36 36 36 49 49
Landfornf 2 2 2 I 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
A1tilUde(m) 1372 1219 1500 1850 1400 1050 1450 1500 1500 14SO 1600
Number of points I~ ~I~ ml~ 6OO1~ 6OO1~ SOOI~ 5OO1~1~1~ 6OO1~ 6001~ 6OO1~ 600
Date ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M~M~M~M~
1962 1989 1962 1989 1962 1989 1963 1989 1961 1989 1962 1989 1961 1989 1962 1989 1962 1989 1962 1989 1962 1989

Toeal number of
species 16 30 27 25 29 27 28 33 28 34 45 36 25 26 24 25 21 25 25 23 26 30
Toeal canopy
spread cover (%) 41.9 61.6 52.4 71.7 46.6 65.9 57.0 85.9 68.3 90.0 63.6 92.4 52.4 58.8 64.4 67.7 64.8 93.0 80.0 79.6 69.1 93.9
Growth form canopy
spread cover (%)
Falls 2.4 1.60.5 2. 7 0.8 4.6
2.8 2.1 2.4 11.4 3.0 3.6 2.8 13.5 0.2 0.4 0.4 2.0 0.2 0.6 0.8 2.0
Geophytes 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.6
Grasse, 8.0 32.5 34.8 44.6 9.8 26.7 26.3 61.3 31.1 55.4 17.2 44.6 17.0 32.9 54.1 57.9 SO.5 79.0 65.8 75.3 63.4 87.5
Cyperaceae and
]lIDcaceae 0.4 0.6 0.3 1.0 13.0 15.8 44.4 3.2 0.2 0.2 0.6 3.0 0.2 0.7
Shrubs 31.5 27.5 17.0 24.4 35.6 34.6 27.2 22.2 33.8 10.0 27.5 10.6 29.4 12.2 9.9 9.4 13.8 9.0 13.2 3.0 4.9 4.4
Sbrub : grasualio 1:3.9 0.8 0.5 0.6 3.6 1.3 1.0 0.4 1.1 0.2 \.6 0.2 1.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.04 0.08 O.OS

" FoUow,RDUx6S .
b Alta' Acocks': 36 = False Upper Karoo; 49 = Transitional Cymbopogoo-ThemedaVeld; 60: Karroid MerxmueUera Mountain Veld.
6S
< Landforms: I = Valley head; 2 = coUuvial slope' of wide vaUey; 3 = aUuvial plain of valley bottom (see Roux for more detail).
 292 Soulh A/rican Journai of Science Vol. 86 July - October 1990

generally have not considered these to the shrubs when grass cover increases or do grasses merely occupy space not
fluctuations as an integral part of the in response to summer rain? Do these utilized by shrubs? Which grasses re-
community dynamics. Now that more ob- two growth foons compete for resources spond to which rainfall events? Is the
servations are available which support
this concept,68 greater emphasis has
recently been placed on its ~tential rele-
vance to long-tenn changes ..1:1
Unfortunately, it appears that no long-
term data series are available for the
southern OFS grasslands.69 However, our
photographic evidence and survey data
support the view that fluctuations in grass
cover may be an important characteristic
of eastern Karoo shrubland as well as
southern OFS grassland communities.
Our observations suggest that perennial
grass cover has increased in these
regions. Thus, the concept of a steady
rate of advance of Karoo shrubs into the
southern OFS grasslands of so many
kilometres per annum, favoured by many
commentators on vegetation change in
the Karoo, may not adequately reflect
reality. If anythirig, our data indicate the
opposite trend. Many perennial grasses
appeared in greater abundance in 1989
than they did in the 1920s or early 1960s.
However, we do not infer from this that
grasses are invading the Karoo but
consider these changes as part of a cycle.
Most of the survey sites in the eastern
Karoo and southern OFS experienced
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

more swruner rain than indicated by the

long-tenn summer rainfall mean, espe-
cially for 1985/86 and 1988/89 (data
from Weather Bureau). The increase in
grass cover at these sites has probably
occurred in response to the increased
summer rainfall. We speculate that if
summer drought were to occur for the
next few years then these grasses would
probably decrease in abundance. Except
for a very general understanding, we do
not know what influence grazing has on
these processes.
Fluctuations in grass and shrub cover
characterize the eastern Karoo environ-
ment. But how permanent are these
changes? Roux and Therorr suggest that
they may be temporary or permanent,
depending on grazing treatments and
erosion rates. They do not elaborate.
However, Roux67 and Novellie and Stry-
dom68 suggest that grazing treatment has
little effect on the general response of
grasses and shrubs. Zedler70 suggests that
in semi-arid regions, such fluctuations
may influence community composition
for decades. Because seasonal fluctua-
tions are real events with possible long-
term implication, we recommend that a
more meaningful approach to understand-
ing vegetation change in the Karoo is to
address questions outside of the limita-
tions imposed by the expanding Karoo
hypothesis. For example, what happens
 Suid-AfriJcaanseTydsluifvir Wetens.mp Vol. B6 Julie Olaober 1990 293

increased cover a result of new recruits 4. Roux P.W. and Vont.er M. (1983). V~ 19. KokOl D.P. (l948). All illveqlllion.mto !be
O£ increased tussock size or both? How dimge in the Karoo. Proc, Grassi. &x:. S. AfT. eviclmcc ~ 011 _ t dlmaIic
18.25-29. over IOOIhem Afriea. DqHll1lillem
long do new recruits remain in the 5. Roull P.W. and Theron O.K. (19&7). VegetatiOll
community? Pemaps the most pressU:lg change in !be broo biome. III The K(U'oo 20. Kmlhadc F.E. (1930). The
need is to attempt to uncouple enviton- Biome: a Pl'elimiMT'Y sylillwis. Part 2. Vege. of Sou!b Africa. Gtwgr. I.
mental. (such as rainfall, temperature) /Qti(m tutd N.stfNy, edit. R.M. Cowling and P.W. 21. Hall T D. (1934). South Afri<:aIn
from biotic (such as grazing) detemri- Roux, pp. 50 69. S. Natll.. Sci. Prog. Rep. R~ve and prorpective. S. Afr.
No. 142. CSIR, 59-97.
nants of vegetation Although 6. Downing S.H. (1978). Enviroomental COOle- 22. De KIcdr J.e(1947). Pamm:s of !be 1IOIIthc:m
Raux," Novellie and SttydJ and of agrirullllnl ~ in SooIh O.F.S., II callWy ago IIIlld to-day, Fmg. S. AfT.
Donalc:isoO'l many useful in- 18SO.S·Afr.J.Sci.74,420-422. April, 347 - 354.
no general predictive model incor- 7. Werger MJA (198S). 1'lIe KIII'oo and 1IOIIthc:m 23 Kintwcrtb. H. (1949). Kmoo may become com-
"",..,,,ti...... both environmental and biotic Kalalwi. In HoI Duem tutd Arid SIInIbImt.ds, plele dea1. 1M Fo.-rmu's Wu.tJy, FeI:lorumy 2,
edit. M. Bvanari, I. Noy-Mci:r and W. Goodall, 89 -91.
agents of vegetation has emerged. pp. 283 359. Blsevic:r, AmSlClfdam. 24. AIIoa. (1951). of !be Desert !laC""""'-
Pemapll a first step to acknowledge 8. HiJI.OII·Taylor C. and MoD E.J. (1986). The ment Commiuee. 5911951. Govemmem
that the potentially dynamic seasonal KlII'oo - a neglected biome. VIlld aNI FltJt'a n, Printc:r, Pretoria.
33 -36. 25. Nicholas G.W. (1952). The _ _ !O clellt\l1
response of grasses and shrubs is a vital
9. Aoocks I.P.H. (1966). NOlI-selective ~ent. The Fo.-rmu's Wu.tJy. Iune: 25,
component of any model to ex- a mellllll>or veld reclamlllioo. PI'OC. 14-17.
plain long-term vegetation change in the S. AfT. I, 33 - 39. 26. ~ N. (198S). Enviromnental diqe in
Karoo. To date, this view has been 10. Roux P.W. (1968). Principles of veld manage.. Africa: NlIiI.I1'e of mE. Africa Sc:mitI.v:
largely ignO£ed as the theory of an menl in the Karoo and !be adjaceut dry sweet- CoUccted S, 1 - 12. Cenn for Afiican
grass veld. III 1M Small Stod; iMlutry ill South Town..
expanding Kama attests. Africa, compiler WJ. Hugo. pp. 3111 - 340. 27. Novdlie P. (1988). KIII'oo regm. IllLoRg·
We have beneftted from dillCl.'lssioos with Govemmeot PriIItc:r, Pretoria. t _ lJaIa Seriu Relati4g to SoutMnc Africa's
Karen Es1er, Hilton-Taylor and other II. AIIoa. (19&5). The NatiOMJ Grazillg Strategy. Re~t! NatuI'tU Ruowcu, edit. LA.W.
membeD of the Lab, Botany Depart· Department of Agriculwre and Waler Supply. MaalOIIaid and R.I.M. Crawford, pp. 280 - 289.
ment, University of Town, as well as PmcriII. S. AfT. NtItII.. Sci. Prog. Rep. No. 157. CSIR,
12. Cowling R.M. (1986). A desc:ripCiOll of !be Pre!Oria.
William Bond, George Peter Linder,
Klll'oo Biome Project. S. Afr. Natll.. Sci. Prog. 28. Aocdrs IP.H. (l976). Riverine vegdlllio!l of !be
Mike Meadows and Piet Roox. We thank Rep. No. 122. CSIR, PmcriII. semi-arid IIIlld III'id regiOllS of SooIh'Afiica. J. S.
Adela Romanowski for supplying the Pole· 13. Bosch OJ.H. (1988). VegwwOll dderioodion ill Afl'. bioi. Soc. 17, 21 - 35.
Evans and the Botanical Reseateh soutbc:m A.li'ka: A reaearch and research« 29. Aocdrs I.P.H. (1979). The flora that mlilched.
Institute permission to publish them. We problem.!. Grassi. Soc. S. Afl'. 5, 3 - 4. !be fauna. BodIaJia 11., ({13 - 7C1J.
abo thank Raymond Turner and Charles 14. Aooamp A. and Dudcweru J.E. (1989). GTllZ- 30. McCabe P. (19&7). P'mest !II'eII in !be

Mason for III1pplying the Shantz prints and the iIlg Mt:WJ~: A /tJt' 1M FUIm'e. world hu Ioost its rover. Gmojf-ReiMI
University of Arimna at Tucson for per- /lIJroduclioll.. Depanmeut Agric:ul1lUe &lid Adwni.ru, May 28. 13 - 14.
Wara' Supply. GovcmmentPrillla', PmcriII. 31. Potts G. (1923). The plant sua:eW0II in !be
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

mission to publish them. M.T.H. was fonded

15. Ptest.oo-WhyteRA and PD. (198g). The Onmge Free Stale, Ed !be need for !IIaimaining
by the Foundation for Research Development. II c:overing of vegelallOll.S. AfT. J. Sci. 2t, 196-
Atmosplwre tutd WoMIMr SOUIIwIl Africa.
FinaDy, the comments and criticisms of two Oxford Univcnity Press, Cape ToWli. 201.
lII'IOOymous refen:a considerably strengthen- 16. Brown I.C. (1 &75). Hydrology of SOUlh Africa. 32. Van R.eeaen R.I. (1923). A resume of the
ed this article. King, Londoo. drou&ht problem in the UniOll of Soulb Afiica.
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vegelallOll of South Africa tbrough the intro-
dea1. N_ SciMlisl1Z1, 31 - 32 duction of the Ml'rino sheep. Bol. J. liM. Sec. a cluIDgiq vegwwOll. S. AfT. J. Sci. 52, 101 -
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14, 202 - 208.
34. Aoocks I.P.M. (1964). KIII'OO v~eIAlioa ill rela-
lems of the KIII'oo. Fmg. S. AfT. 23, 519 - 530. 18. AIIoa. (1923). Final rc:pa1 of the DroughlS
tion !O !be devdopnent of descIu. In ~fogit'lll
3. Aca.:b JP.R (1953). Veld types of SooIh Investigation Commission. U .0. 49/l923.
Studiu t{ S~ edit. D.H.S.
Afiica. M-. Bot. SIIT'I. S. AfT. 28, 1 - 128. GovcmmentPrilltc:r, Cape ToWli.
pp.lOO- 112. W.
35. Aocdrs I.p.a (19711. 1'lIe distributioll of
Fig. 6 (opposile). tI, Kimberley. about six and one-half miles west on SchmidlsdriCt Road c:ertain ecologically impcnmt gnwes ill South
(prominenl bee in picture visible from road and is on sooth side near the of two fence Afriea. Mill. Bol. S~. Mi1AchM 10,
linclII). Protected grassland apparmtly domi.nated by Stipagro#u rmiplumis and TIumruJa tritm- 149-16Q.
36. HIIDlley B •• Siegrricd R. ud SlIDla' c. (1989).
btl (information obtained from field nOies takm in 1919). Large tree in right fom is Acacia:
SOWh AfrU:aA E1I'IIir~s iNo 1M 21s1
enoloba as is that in center background. Shrub in left rear is Acacia tortilia subsp. CtWury. H__ a: ROII_ and Tat'c:1berg.
~ha. Note absence of busby forbs. The soil in this area is a deep red sandy loam. Sept.
21, 1919. T-9-1919. Sbantz &: Turner (1958). i, Position exact. Foreground area now about 37. P.W. (19&0). V~ cbarl&e in !be
equally dominated by the clump grasses, Stipagl'ostis uniplumis and Eragrostis KIII'OO region. Karoo Agric. 1(5). 15 - 16.
ltlhmannitma, with Schmidtia pappoplwroidu a common subordinate. Only occasional clumps 38. Bosch OJ.H. (1989). DegradatioII of !be _i-
of TIuuIwJa lTiandra can now be found in the foreground of pidW'e area. Low busbes in mid- arid grllSSllllldl of _!bem Afiica. J. arid
am mostly Clrrysocoma cilitua and small shrubs of Acacia tortiJis &'..,0,.,16, 165 - 175.
hd_~tha. Acacia uioioba Iree8 am in same positions and not to have increased 39. Phillips J. (1956). AspecIS of !be ecoIosY ad
apprnciably in number. Acacia «milia III1bsp. h.eteracamha has for nearly all the new produClivity of lIOI'Ile of !be mom III'id regiOlU of
bee and shrub growth seen in the background area. The grassland is now grazed by cattle. IOOIhem and eIIIUn1 Afiica. Vegdat.io 7, 38 -
MAgor dlange has bem l1l'i increase in small I.l'c:a, shrubs and desert bushes (Clrrysocoma 68.
40. TlllboI. WJ. (1961). Lmd lIliIiDtiOil in !be arid
ciliata) accompanied by a gmeraI deterioration of the gms.Iand. both as to cover and desitablc
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cover). ~ (15 - 25'10), C-*w ciliaria (10 - 20'10), A,iatida conguta (5
17, UNBSOO, PIII'iI.
- lOt.) and ~ triandra (1 - 5%). Shrubs less than 2 m in height with 1 - S'lo cover am: 41. Hlllldey OJ. (1984). ~ of South
FeJica 1fUII'icata. AptosimMm sp. and Acacia 1IU!Uif~a III1bsp. Mtinaa. Shrubs cover) am: Africm bicmes. III EcoIogic:tU EJf«:tt of Fir. ill
Liglujootia NJdosa, Gnidia polycelphaJa. Clrrysocoma ciliata and unidentified Apiaceae. Total SOWh Africmt EcosyslmU, edit. P.deV. Booy_
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 294 South African Journal 0/ Science Vol. 86 July Oclober 1990

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Planning and legal responses to sea-level rise in energy and trap sand.
(ll) Planning responses; for example
South Africa lhe modification of long-term planning
schemes to take account of lhe antici-
M.R Sowman,· l.I. Glazewski, RF. '.,,,,,,,,,1 ... and A.H. Barbour pated hazard and lhe location of new de-
velopments beyond anticipated erosion
lines and floodlines.
This paper examines planning and legal responses which may be appropriate to (iii) Policy and legal initiatives; for
address sea-level problems in South A/rica. It draws on the responses obtained/rom an example. lhe formulation of a national
il'llerview swvey conducted amongst key planning and decision-making authorities policy to deal wilh matters related to sea-
involved in coastal zone ntalltJgement in the sOUlh-westem The results of this level rise and the promulgation of
survey indicale thal, while planning and decision-making authorities are aware of sea- lions prohibiting development in
level rise issues, they are 1101 yet adequcaely prepared to dJ!al with tIu! and prone areas.
impiicaJions Ihal will result. (iv) A combination of lhe above re-
A review of the legal mechanisms that would be appropriaJe to address sea-level rise sponses.
issues reveals thai a wide range o/Iegislative enactmel'lls already exist which could be In several states of the Cana-
harnessed to address the problem. Recommendations regarding actions which could be da 10 and government agen-
taken immedialely 10 address sea-level rise issues are nuzdI!. cies have already responded to the threat
of accelerated sea-level rise
Thermal of lhe oceans and will infrastructure and implementing certain proposals
ice due to global warming could established patterns of land usage. into categories (ii) and (iii) above. But, it
lead to a rise in sea-level of between SO A review of lhe literature suggests tha.t would appear that decision-makers
and 150 em within lhe next century.l.2 in certain countries (most notably lhe world-wide have been reluctant to
Coastal environments and communities USA and Australia) much consideration develop policies and long-term planning
are especially vulnerable to impacts has already been given to re- schemes to deal with issues related to
resulting from sea-level rise: these may sponses to accommodate or mitigale sea-level rise because of the scientific
include inundation and flooding of low- these In lhere are
coastal land, increased shoreline three categories of response lhat
erosion, increased of and might be employed to offset potential Ms M.R. Sowman,* Mr A.H. Damour and
Professor R.F. FuggJ.e are in the Department
damage from storms, groood-water impacts:
of Environmental and Geogmpbic8l Science
tables and salt-water intrusion into (i) EnJtineeriIlg solutions; for example, 81 the Univemily of Cape Town, Rondebosch,
resources. Such impacts the construction of sea walls and dykes to 7700 South Africa. Mr J.I. Glaz.ewsld ill in the
have profoood socio-eoonomic con- protect the shoreline or lhe development Institute of Marine Law, University of
sequences for coastal cormnunities and of and breakwaters to reduce wave Town. *Aulhor for com:spondence.