Copper concentrate pressure leaching - plant

scale-up from continuous laboratory testing

R.E. Brewer
Manager of concentrate leaching, Phelps Dodge Mining Company, Phoenix, Arizona

Abstract
Phelps Dodge Mining Company (Phelps Dodge) is operating a pressure-leach vessel (PLV) for copper
concentrates at the Bagdad Mine facility in Arizona. This single PLV unit was engineered and constructed
based on continuous laboratory testing, on reaction chemistry and kinetics and on available pressure-vessel
technology. The challenge of designing for optimum process retention time, agitation, oxygen mass transfer,
temperature and pressure are reviewed in this paper. The PLV interior lining, agitation equipment and
compartment configuration chosen for the PLVare also reviewed.
Key words: Copper, Pressure leaching

Scale-up objectives
The primary objective for scaling-up a pressure-leach vessel
(PL V) for Phelps dodge was to provide the means to effec-
tively demonstrate pressure leaching of cha\copyrite concen-
trate at the Bagdad, Arizona, mine site. Successful demon-
stration of this technology would provide Phelps Dodge with
an alternative method of treating copper concentrates to
reduce operating costs and broaden corporate development
opportunities.
In addition, the demonstration plant was built to provide
answers to questions about design details that in the past have
proven to be crucial in optimizing the performance of pressure
oxidation facilities. These design details had to be engineered
from small-scale equipment performance information, theo-
retical reaction chemistry and available pressure vessel tech-
nology. Details from each of these information sources had to
be correlated to provide practical design choices that could be
engineered.
Another important factor motivating the construction of
the Bagdad plant was the need to demonstrate the economics
of capital and operating costs. The capital-cost information
was provided by the construction phase and the operating
costs will be provided by the PL V during the first year of
operation. For this first installation, a conservative design
approach was taken to ensure effective PLY performance. To
date, these measures have produced the projected operating
cost profiles, and it is expected that the long-term economic
targets will be met.
High-temperature pressure leach conditions at 225°C
(437°F) were chosen for the Bagdad project. These condi-
tions ensure that almost all sulfur in the feed is oxidized to
sulfate, thereby maximizing acid production for use in stock-
pile heap leaching. Though the optimization of pressure
leaching certainly brings costs savings to the Bagdad site, the
real economic benefits of implementing the technology lies
with the potential development of Phelps Dodge's projects in
South America and other potential sites. A thorough review
of the strategy and approach of Phelps Dodge's concentrate
leach development has been provided in prior publications
(Marsden,2003).
Design challenges
For pressure leaching at high temperature (225°C), cha\copy-
rite reacts very rapidly and considerable heat is produced from
the exothermic sulfide oxidation. This oxidation reaction is
necessary to free the copper values from the sulfide host so it
can be recovered. Copper sulfate then forms from the abun-
dant copper and sulfate ions produced during oxidation.
Copper can be recovered from this sulfate solution using
standard solution extraction and electrowinning methods. The
flowsheet for the high-temperature concentrate leach plant
constructed at Bagdad is shown in Fig. 1.
The Bagdad project focused on achieving copper recover-
ies equal to or exceeding 98% and meeting design copper
production targets from a concentrate leach plant that utilized
a commercial-scale (full-scale) pressure-leach vessel (PLV).
Though this target is nominally attainable through proper
control of temperature, pressure and retention time in a small
pilot PL V, the challenge is to design and build a commercial-
scale plant that can meet these criteria in a continuous operat-
ing mode.
The operating temperature chosen for the Bagdad PL V
(225°C) ensures that nearly all sulfur in the feed is converted
to sulfate, thereby producing the maximum amount of sulfuric
acid that can be produced from known oxidation reactions.
The acid is, in turn, used by an accompanying stockpile leach

Preprint number 04-041 , presented at the SME Annual Meeting, Feb. 23-25, 2004, Denver, Colorado. Original manuscript
accepted for publication June 2004. Discussion of this peer-reviewed paper is invited and must be submitted to SME
Publications Dep\. prior to May 31,2005. Copyright 2004, SOCiety for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.

NOVEMBER 2004 • VOL 21 NO. 4 202 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING

operation at the Bagdad site. Oxidation of chalcopyrite at
225°C (437°F) occurs very rapidly and is controlled by the
addition of cooling water to the PLY to prevent excessive
temperature and pressure. If the reaction proceeds too quickl y ,
the temperature in the PL V compartments could not be effec-
tively controlled and vessel equipment could be compro-
mised. Conversely, if the reaction proceeds too slowly, insuf-
ficient extraction is achieved for the retention time available.
The challenge is to design a pressure vessel that is optimally
sized to ensure effective oxygen mass transfer and sulfide
oxidation at the desired operating temperature.
The vessel pressure resulting from the chosen operating
temperature must also include sufficient oxygen partial pres-
sure to ensure an effective driving force for oxygen to effec-
tively meet the requirements of the oxidation reactions in the
vessel. Insufficient oxygen partial pressure prevents iron
oxidation to hematite and causes the undesirable formation of
ferrous sulfate precipitate. The challenge is to identify the
nominal oxygen partial pressure and vessel size needed for the
total vessel pressure at the design operating temperature.
Parameters such as oxygen addition rate, vessel tempera-
ture and pressure control dictate the speed of the oxidation
reactions and the vessel retention time required. Most impor-
tantly, compartment temperatures must be stabilized to pre-
vent the oxidation reaction from causing excessive tempera-
tures in the vessel. The challenge is to identify the compart-
ment sizes from the effective retention time needed, when the
oxidation reaction rate must be slowed to permit controlled
vessel operation.
The degree of agitation also directly affects the rate of
oxygen mass transfer to the oxidation reactions. Optimum
agitation is required to give optimum oxygen utilization. If
agitation power input is insufficient, oxygen utilization may
be reduced. Less than optimum utilization will increase oxy-
gen usage and related costs or will cause reduced throughput.
The challenge is to determine the horsepower requirements
and the proper impeller design that would provide sufficient
agitation and oxygen dispersion to meet the needs of the
oxidation reaction for each compartment.
Another aspect requiring consideration was the formation
of hematitic scale and/or ferrous sulfate precipitate on the
PLY and flash vessel interiors. Insufficient oxygen addition
and partial pressure at the chosen PL V temperature increased
the tendency for formation of ferrous suI fate and caused
precipitate buildup that affected vessel operation. Hematite
scale was also increased under these conditions but did not
build up to a significant amount. Planned metallurgical tests
demonstrated the rapid formation of ferrous sulfate when
optimum mass transfer conditions were not met. The chal-
lenge was to optimize oxygen addition, ensure optimum
oxygen mass transfer, minimize the opportunity for hematite
to nucleate on interior vessel surfaces and prevent ferrous
sulfate formation.
Corrosion protection lining was not needed for the pilot
vessel used for testing because the pilot-scale vessel was
constructed of titanium. Though several tested liner options
were available for the full-scale vessel, Phelps Dodge gave
consideration to an optional corrosion-protection liner made
from a copolymer membrane. The liner appeared easier to
install and had a lower material cost. The challenge was to test
the new liner material in a full-scale vessel under high tem-
perature and pressure operating conditions.
The flashing ofPL V discharge solution was not piloted due
to difficulties in building a reliable small-scale continuous
flashing system. Previous industry designs were considered
MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
PLS to SXJEW
Figure 1 - Flow diagram for Concentrate leach plant at
8agdad, Arizona.
for the expected PL V discharge pressure and temperature
used in the full-scale vessel. The use of a single flash vessel
was economically attractive for this flashing service and its
practical use had been demonstrated at other sites. such as
Lihir in Papua. New Guinea. Using a single-stage flash
system, the challenge was to flash off heat from hematite
containing slurry at approximately 3.174 kPa (460 psi) and
22YC (437°F), while reducing particulate carryover to a
minimum so vent gas scrubbing would meet environmental
permitting standards.
Lastly, it was considered that the fine hematite containing
solids formed in the oxidation reaction would form a scale
layer on the metal heat-exchange cooling equipment. Exces-
sive scale buildup in the coolers would prevent long-term
continuous production efforts and increase cooler mainte-
nance. The challenge was to design a reliable cooling system
to produce residue temperatures of 50°C ( 120°F) that would
allow uninterrupted downstream thickening and transfer of
residue to a tailings storage area.
Pressure vessel sizing
With sufficient mixing and oxygen dispersion, sulfide oxida-
tion occurs very rapidly. Heat is generated so quickly that
sufficient cooling water must be added to control the vessel
solution temperature. This aspect must be considered along
with the addition rates of concentrate feed and oxygen be-
cause all three dictate the vessel design sizing. To determine
these rates, a calculated heat balance using heats of reaction
was first completed to determine the reactant weights needed
to balance the expected reactions. With these weights. the
addition of cooling water and oxygen were calculated for the
concentrate feed rate desired. The vessel size and physical
dimensions were calculated for the chosen copper production
rate, the mass of the other reactants and the retention time
required. .
For the high-temperature case, continuous vessel labora-
tory testing indicated that sulfide oxidation was essentially
complete in 30 minutes and would yield a copper extraction of
98% or more. Calculations showed that this would require a
vessel with only three compartments. However, other factors
203 VOL. 21, NO. 4 • NOVEMBER 2004
affecting retention time had to be considered before finalizing
a vessel size and the number of compartments from this simple
approach.
Retention time
A preliminary retention time was calculated from pressure
leach batch testing using a small two-liter vessel suitable for
high temperature pressure testing. A series of batch tests at
various retention times allowed a preview of pressure leach-
ing performance at different test periods with all other vari-
ables held constant.
As previously noted, 30 minutes PL V retention time was
sufficient for 98% copper extraction at 225°C (437°F). How-
ever, when oxidation is pushed to downstream compartments
to slow the reaction and when one considers the effects of
short-circuiting, the retention time and the number of com-
partments must be increased to achieve optimum copper
extraction. For example, when adding extra cooling water in
the first compartment to slow the oxidation rate, the required
retention time in the same compartment would be reduced. In
this situation the retention time and number of compartments
have to be increased to ensure sufficient oxidation before the
residue exits the vessel. Further, the vessel size should be
inflated for total volume throughput at maximum design rate
plus short-circuiting allowances that still produce acceptable
copper extraction.
Inflated vessel sizes can be determined from continuously
operated pilot-vessel oxidation data collected at different
temperatures. The higher temperature case should represent a
rapid oxidation profile and the other temperature case should
represent a slower oxidation profile. The slower profile would
represent the case where lower temperatures are needed to
control the reaction. One can then combine retention time data
from both of the sulfide oxidation profiles obtained at these
different temperatures. The resulting combined oxidation
profile provides a new extended retention time that can be
used to design a full-scale vessel, as long as acceptable copper
extraction is supported by the new oxidation profile.
The number of compartments chosen in the full-scale
vessel depends on the desired sulfide oxidation profile, the
short-circuiting expected from agitation and the throughput
rate. The degree of oxidation required in each of the compart-
ments can be selected based on the reaction rate desired. This
desired rate can be determined from the oxidation expected
from the agitation system selected. The degree of oxidation
achieved in the compartments depends on the ability of the
agitators to disperse oxygen to meet the desired oxidation. The
temperature can be controlled by an increase or decrease of
cooling water and thus will increase or decrease the effective
compartment oxidation rate. The addition of cooling water to
the compartments should allow sufficient reaction tempera-
ture control, a desired oxidation rate and an overall desired
extraction, as long as the overall solution addition to the
compartments correlates to the retention time provided in the
vessel design . Pilot-scale tracer tests can give some indication
of what short-circuiting to expect, but generally the data is for
reference only. For commercial-scale vessels, some short-
circuiting may also occur in slots cut into the bottom of
compartment walls to prevent sanding in each compartment.
Phelps Dodge's initial design allowed excessi ve slot flow, and
compartment levels were too low. Subsequent modifications
reduced the slot size so that two thirds of the slurry could pass
over the top of the compartment wall to the next compartment.
Horizontal pressure vessels with multiple compartments
usually allow for a shared gas volume above the solution level.
NOVEMBER 2004 • VOL. 21 NO. 4
Enough gas volume should be available in both pilot- or
commercial-scale vessels to ensure that any foam or fluidized
solids are kept to a minimum in the gas typically vented from
the top of the vessel. Control of a relatively constant vessel
solution level will ensure a constant gas volume, as well as the
vessel discharge rate. Phelps Dodge selected a distance of
0.75 m (2.5 ft) above the vessel centerline for the vented
compartment solution level.
An additional volume of gas is dispersed into solution
during agitation. This gas is present from oxygen gas injection
and high-temperature vapor formation. Typically, in pilot
testing, excess oxygen is added to the vessel to ensure that
metallurgical performance is maximized. Likewise, agitators
are operated at high speed. For these reasons solution gas
volume or "gas hold-up" cannot be represented in a small
vessel. For the full-scale vessel, the agitator supplier should
be a source of information on the expected gas holdup for a
particular impeller type. For example, gas holdup in the first
compartment could be between 15% and 20% of the solution
volume for a Rushton Turbine. The holdup volume is depen-
dent on the gas injected and the specific power input to the
compartment.
In summary, the oxidation profile, the highest throughput,
the required gas volume and short-circuiting are factors that
can be used to calculate the retention time for a full-scale
vessel that would produce the expected extraction results
observed in pilot-scale metallurgical testing.
Oxygen mass transfer
The chalcopyrite feed rate to a continuously operating pres-
sure vessel is dependent on the retention time available and the
heat generated, as well as cooling water and oxygen addition.
At high temperature the sulfide oxidation reaction calls for
immediate oxygen mass transfer to meet the needs of the
reaction. As a result, optimized oxygen availability at the
reactive mineral surface is required. This is best accomplished
by direct injection of oxygen gas under the mixing agitator, so
that oxygen/vapor bubbles in solution undergo maximum
dispersion and shear as they are pulled into and then expelled
from the rotating agitator impeller blades (Rushton Turbine
case).
Oxygen mass transfer and oxygen utilization rates are
difficult to determine in either batch-testing or continuous-
testing laboratory equipment due to the difficulty in measur-
ing the vented gas as well as the gas injected. Therefore,
laboratory data are generally unreliable in determining these
two key performance indicators. For full-scale vessel design
purposes, the oxygen requirement can be calculated as the
stoichiometric amount of oxygen required to oxidize 99.8% of
the sulfide present in the concentrate feed to sulfate. This
sulfide oxidation target has proven to be sufficient to provide
more than 98 % copper extraction in the vessel. The amount of
oxygen required, however, should be inflated by a selected
oxygen utilization value. For design purposes, Phelps Dodge
determined that this value was around 80% for impeller
selected, that is, 80% of the oxygen added is said to be utilized
by the reactions. Knowing that 99.8% of the sulfide needs to
be oxidized and 80% of the oxygen can perform this function,
the amount of actual oxygen addition can be calculated.
Certainly, the concentrate feed mineralogy dictates the
amount of sulfide available for oxidation and the types of
reactions that occur. One must choose the prominent oxida-
tion reactions based on known reaction kinetics and then the
oxygen consumption needed to take the reactions to comple-
tion can be calculated. Phelps Dodge has chosen the following
204 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
key reactions in calculating oxygen consumption for chal-
copyrite concentrates
2CuFeS 2 + 17/2 02 + 2H 20 ~
(1)
2CuS0 4 + Fe 20 3 + 2H 2S04
2FeS 2 + 15/2 02 + 4Hp ~ Fe 20 3 + 4H 2S0 4 (2)
Providing sufficient oxygen to the reaction in the PL V is
critical in optimizing oxygen utilization. Operating experi-
ence has verified that oxygen partial pressure, oxygen addi-
tion rate and the degree of agitation play key roles in ensuring
optimum oxygen availability to the oxidation reactions in a
high temperature pressure-leaching vessel:
• Metallurgical batch testing or continuous pilot testing at
various oxygen partial pressures can be used to demon-
strate the optimum partial pressure needed in the PL V
for a chosen concentrate.
• As noted above, a design oxygen addition rate can be
calculated from the stoichiometric requirement, ad-
justed for utilization.
• Agitation requirements in commercial-scale pressure
vessels depend on the impeller chosen for the task.
Several types are available. Generally, a full-scale agi-
tator cannot be directly scaled up from pilot testing.
Support from equipment suppliers is advisable.
Temperature and pressure
Effective pressure leaching of chalcopyrite in an acid matrix
can be achieved at temperatures from 115° to 235°C (239° to
455°F). The temperature chosen in this range is usually
motivated by the amount of acid required in the PL V dis-
charge solution. If maximum acid-make is desired, tempera-
tures higher than 200°C (392°F) are typically chosen. If low
acid-make is desired, temperatures lower than 170°C (338°F)
are typically chosen. Fine grinding of the feed may also be
necessary to allow sufficient copper extraction. Pressure
leaching at 160°C (320°F) produces about one third of the acid
that is produced from high temperature leaching. Note that
temperature ranges below 180°C (356°F) require acid addi-
tion to the vessel to ensure an acid matrix for leaching, unless
catalyzers or other reactants are added. The choice of which
temperature range to select depends on the local acid supply
and the pressure leach acid production desired at a specific
site. For the high temperature case, most ofthe sulfide in the
feed oxidizes to sulfate and produces moderately strong acid
in a concentration range of about 45 to 55 g/L.
Phelps Dodge chose to perform metallurgical testing that
would demonstrate the expected copper extraction perfor-
mance at the high-temperature case of 225°C (437°F). Toward
this end, a 35-L cylindrical vessel (titanium pipe) was selected
as the pressure leach vessel for a series of metallurgical test
programs at Hazen Research Inc. The vessel was divided into
four compartments, each with an agitator fitted with an axial
flow impeller. All the necessary instrumentation, cooling
water and related slurry piping was included. This device
provided the following chemical and metallurgical informa-
tion for the design of the demonstration PL V at Bagdad:
• the operating mass balance was validated,
• cooling-water control was demonstrated,
• the scaling potential was identified,
• an extraction profile was demonstrated,
• operating challenges were identified,
MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
• optimum oxygen partial pressure was demomtrated.
• optimum pressure leach retention time was identified
and
• optimum operating parameters were determined.
Temperature control proved to be a challenge during pilot
testing as well as in Bagdad's demonstration plant. At high
temperature, heat from chalcopyrite oxidation is generated at
an exponential rate as temperature increases. In the pilot
vessel case, cooling water and external heating/cooling op-
tions allowed easy control of the vessel temperatures. How-
ever, in full-scale practice, instantaneous control of heat
generation throughout the first compartment was difficult
with normal single-point addition of cooling water, even with
state of the art instrumentation. To compound the problem,
over-addition of cooling water caused reaction temperatures
to fall very rapidly as well. For Bagdad's PLY. oxygen
addition and cooling water control had to be tuned by trial and
error to finally permit effective temperature control.
Ineffective control of oxygen can lead to the inherent risk
of oxygen deprivation for the reactions in the first compart-
ment. Experience has shown that this condition can generate
significant amounts of ferrous sulfate precipitate in the PL V.
Fortunately, feed-rate control, oxygen-injection control, reac-
tion cooling, feed dilution and feed-injection point alterna-
tives can be used to meet this challenge. The three latter
alternatives can lower the oxidation rate in the first compart-
ment, causing the reaction to move downstream to other
compartments in the vessel. If this is preferred, sufficient
cooling water allowances for downstream compartments must
be considered in the vessel design. As noted in previous mass-
balance comments, cooling water can be calculated for any
reaction heat generated. Likewise, oxygen addition rate to
downstream compartments must also be considered.
Compartment temperatures in pilot vessels are usually the
same in every compartment due to the small size of the vessel
and the small amount of reactants in each compartment.
However, a full-scale vessel can produce temperatures that
decline from the first compartment to the last or increase to a
high point in the middle compartment depending on the
temperature profile maintained in the vessel. As noted. this
temperature profile will directly affect sulfide oxidation,
copper extraction and vessel retention time. Considering that
lowering the first compartment temperature is necessary and
that a higher mid-vessel temperature is the expected result.
designing the placement of vent piping and pressure mea-
surements in this area would be most beneficial. Pressure
control in the vessel has proven to be most important in
optimizing extraction performance and stabilizing vessel
slurry level.
For an operating temperature of 22YC (437°F), a proper
full-scale vessel design pressure should be selected to ensure
that anomalous high-temperature excursions would not com-
promise the pressure containment capabilities of the vessel.
Vapor pressure at the maximum leach temperature, maximum
allowed oxygen partial pressure and pressure relief valve
allowances must all be considered in calculating the overall
design vessel pressure. For the nominal operating conditions
noted above, the vapor pressure generated at 22YC is about
2,470 kPa (358 psi). The empirically determined oxygen
partial pressure requirement of 731 kPa ( 106 psi) increases
this to about 3,202 kPa (464 psi). This pressure was selected
as the nominal operating pressure for the Bagdad PL V be-
cause optimum metallurgical performance was obtained un-
der these conditions.
205 VOL. 21, NO. 4 • NOVEMBER 2004
 The vessel design pressure was selected based on 230°C
(446°F) maximum temperature. The resultant vapor pressure
of2,795 kPa (405 psi) plus a selected maximum 897 kPa (130
psi) oxygen partial pressure totaled 3,692 kPa (536 psi). This
pressure was further inflated to 4,140 kPa (600 psi) to account
for a 90% simmer point expected from standard pressure relief
valves. Therefore, Phelps Dodge selected a vessel design
pressure for the PLY at Bagdad to be 4,140 kPa (600 psi) for
the high temperature leaching case.
Agitator equipment
Agitators with axial-flow impellers are typically used in pilot
pressure vessels because the ratio of particle size to vessel and
impeller size demands high impeller speed to ensure sufficient
mixing as well as oxygen dispersion. In a commercial-scale
vessel, however, high impeller speed is not practical and
power input may be critical for effective oxygen dispersion.
For example, solution power input to a Rushton Turbine is
important for optimum oxygen mass-transfer performance.
Factors such as impeller blade area, overall diameter, tip
speed and depth in slurry play important roles in determining
power input. Power draw is the result of transferring sufficient
energy to the solution to permit gas bubble shear, dispersion
and mixing, key factors in optimizing oxygen mass transfer.
Some support from agitator suppliers may be necessary in
selecting the optimum impeller configuration to achieve the
power input necessary for this function.
The agitator shaft diameter chosen for a properly designed
impeller depends on the length of shaft, impeller tip speed and
power input. These factors can be estimated, but it is advisable
to collaborate with agitator suppliers to determine shaft size
and materials of construction. These materials must be care-
fully chosen to avoid premature failure when exposed to
aggressive, corrosive environments typical in pressure oxida-
tion vessels. Nevertheless, as field experience is gained,
design alternatives may prove more cost effective.
The impeller diameter chosen for a specific compartment
volume for a full-scale vessel should be studied carefully.
Fortunately, in a pilot-scale vessel one can simply adjust the
impeller speed and oxygen addition to accomplish optimum
oxygen dispersion. However, in a full-scale vessel for an
impeller with larger blades and a smaller range of available
power input, only a small range of impeller speeds is possible.
Therefore, an impeller size suitable to disperse oxygen for the
given compartment size should be chosen. This aspect is
critically intertwined with the selected compartment size.
The power drawn is dependent on the impeller design and
tip speed. A specific power per cubic meter of solution must
be chosen that can provide the necessary oxygen dispersion
for the impeller design. Once the specific power per cubic
meter has been selected, the agitator power can be calculated
from the volume selected in the compartments. This specific
power choice can be inferred from empirical tests with pilot
agitators, but more practically from experience or correlation
with other industry users.
The compartment size in a full-scale vessel that allows for
an effective oxygen dispersion throughout the compartment
for the available impeller speed may be the best option.
Because the vessel diameter and length can be determined
from the method described above in vessel design, one can
review the selected oxidation profile to calculate compart-
ment dimensions. This design consideration is important
because insufficient dispersion in the compartment can result
in some solution being deprived of oxygen, which could lead
to unwanted ferrous sulfate deposition. If the actual oxygen
NOVEMBER 2004 • VOL. 21 NO. 4
mass transfer does not match the oxygen demand rate of the
reaction, ferrous sulfate will form. This may happen when the
oxygen demand rate exceeds the ability of oxygen to get to the
reaction occurring in remote spaces in the compartment.
Compartment inserts
Once the compartment size has been determined, the configu-
ration of its mixing baffles, injection pipes and nozzle ports
should be considered. In pilot vessels, nozzle ports can be
easily maintained and used for either incoming or outgoing
streams. Also, insertions into the vessel can easily be made.
Larger vessels, however, require thick, high-pressure nozzles
with base and cap flanges fastened with 38.1- to 50.8-mm-
(1.5- to 2-in.-) diameter bolts to prevent gas or liquid leakage
to the atmosphere. In addition, special flange gaskets are
needed to further prevent leakage.
Early in the full-scale vessel design process, the number of
nozzles, their sizes and their placement should be selected to
accommodate incoming or outgoing stream pipe flanges. A
practical design would include a complete review of nozzle
dimensions to ensure that no flange or bolt interferences for
any nozzles exist. This is important when flange removal is
needed for internal vessel access. The flanges can be large
enough to allow for complete agitator impeller removal at one
time, or they can be small enough to allow agitator removal
after the shaft and impeller have been disconnected. This
second option is especially useful if the selected impeller size
demands a nozzle that is too large for the vessel diameter. In
this case, a man-way access nozzle should be included in the
design to allow removal of the impeller (a thermowell nozzle
could also be used). Further disassembly of the impeller and/
or its blades may be needed to provide enough workspace in
the vessel. As well, the hub design must ensure that the
agitator nozzle diameter permits removal of the impeller hub.
Generally, the vessel diameter should dictate the nozzle diam-
eter. One should avoid large nozzle flange diameters because
internal linings can be compromised during normal expansion
and contraction during start-ups and shutdowns.
Placement of the nozzles on the vessel should accommo-
date the best configuration ofthermowell, injection and drain-
age pipes. The arrangement should ensure that pipes do not
come into contact with one another in the vessel to reduce
potential ignition points. If attachment of the vessel penetrat-
ing pipes to the internal vessel walls is required to prevent
contact or movement, strategic location of the pipes on the top
or bottom of the vessel will be very important. Sufficient
nozzle clearance on the outside of the vessel should also be
allowed for all insertion pipe flanges.
Pressure vessel lining
A pilot-scale vessel can easily be made of titanium pipe and
fitted with multiple insertion tubes. Such a vessel does not
require refractory lining for the typical short periods of opera-
tion and the expansion and contraction of the shell is not a
problem. For a full-scale vessel, carbon steel can be used for
the vessel shell but some type oflining is required to protect the
shell from corrosion and erosion. Phelps Dodge chose to use a
carbon steel shell with three layers of refractory brick and a
single layer of corrosion liner (Fig. 2). Stebbins Engineering
and Manufacturing Co. provided the configuration and instal-
lation of the brick and lining. The important elements are:
• three layers of Semco refractory brick provide erosion
protection and insulation from heat and
• a copolymer liner provides corrosion protection.
206 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
 Face course
Middle course
Backing course ---:ill
"'_IlJ!II!I_"",,""
90 mll co-polymer
Figure 2 - PDMC's PL V liner configuration provided by Stebbins.
Phelps Dodge was also careful to provide ample space
between nozzles on the 8agdad vessel so that expansion and
contraction of the interior brick lining could not compromise
the overall brick installation. This type of brick "spalling" can
occur during numerous start-ups and shutdowns if nozzles are
too close together . In this case, brick expansion that cannot be
absorbed by mortar can cause massi ve damage and eventual I y
cause the bricking to move out of position . Thorough review
of the interior vessel design by the prospective brick supplier
and installer would be important in avoiding this type of
premature brick damage.
Several other corrosion protection liners, such as Koch
Engineering's Pyroflex ™ and other generic lead liners, are
also available. Obviously, liner installation cost , risk and
performance should be carefully reviewed before a selection
is made. As well, other options for the vessel material of
construction are available. Titanium or super-duplex steels
can be considered for vessel material of construction. The
benefits of such alternate materials would be the potential for
cost reduction and possibly lower repair and maintenance
costs. Production risks should be carefully understood before
opting for a specialty metal-lined vessel.
Flash vessel sizing
No continuous flashing system was used in pilot testing
because the required orifice to control the small PL V dis-
charge stream was too small, and needle control valves were
not reliable at this scale of operation. Phelps Dodge relied on
an industry-standard angle choke valve, which operates simi-
lar to a dart valve except that the internal materials of con-
struction are usually a type of silicon carbide. Phelps Dodge
also opted to use a double choke design in a single flash vessel .
That is, flashing occurs at the second choke further away from
the flash vessel steam outlet pipe to ensure greater gas/
solution disengagement. As such , this function can be accom-
plished in one flash vessel. The system has been used else-
where in the pressure vessel industry.
The size of the flash vessel was determined by calculating
the amount of steam generated from flashing, selecting an
estimated steam rise velocity from experience, and calculat-
ing the dimensions of the vessel to allow the vented gas
volume to meet the rise velocity desired. The rise velocity was
selected to provide enough time for separation of particulate
and gas so that particulate carryover would be minimized . A
factor in controlling carryover particulate material is the
amount of fluidized solids and liquid that exits the second
choke orifice . Experience has shown that a diverging choke
orifice offers a satisfactory means of reducing the lateral
MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
portion of this stream , which may contribute to particulate
carryover with the gas exiting the vessel. Obviously. the
selected rise velocity is critical in sizing the vessel and the
choke configuration is critical in minimizing fluidized par-
ticulate.
Solidlliquid separation and cooling
Solid/liquid separation during pilot testing was quite simple as
filtration was almost always used. The reason for this approach
was that sufficient information about industrial solid/liquid
separation could be acquired with simple lab tests and recom-
mendations from several consultants experienced in the sci-
ence . Note however, that hematite containing solids in the
residue slurry present a challenge to normal clarification de-
signs . Hematite particle sizes are in the P80 range of 8 to 10 Ilm .
The aspect of cooling the flashed slurry to an acceptable
temperature required a greater understanding of the potential
for scale build-up on the coolers selected for the task. Phelps
Dodge made the choice to use shell and tube heat exchangers
based on experience and mineralogical information indicat-
ing that the residue would not attach to the tubes in such a heat
exchanger. The choice to use a scale inhibitor in the cooling
water prevented calcium build-up on the shell side of the
cooler. Hematitic material precipitates inside the PL V if
sufficient retention time is provided in the vessel rather than
on the stainless steel tubes selected in the coolers. Usually .any
precipitated iron is trying to dissolve rather than precipitate in
the cooler tubes . Slurry velocities were kept at a minimum in
the design to reduce tube wear .
Full-scale vessel performance
Phelps Dodge has utilized all of the advantages suggested
above in designing the 8agdad pressure leach and flash
vessels . To date, all of the original metallurgical and produc-
tion objectives for the demonstration plant have been met.
Plant availability has been betterthan planned forthe first year
of operation at about 85 % vs. 75 % anticipated. All of the
design selections surrounding the PL V and flash vessel have
been validated. Opportunities for further refinements are
under consideration. The following has been learned :
• The designed vessel size was adequate to provide ac-
ceptable copper extra~tion at controlled compartment
temperatures.
• Full-scale vessel information about extraction kinetics.
agitator performance and oxygen utilization is now
known and can be used in designing a larger full-scale
copper production plant.
207 VOL. 21 . NO . 4 • NOVEMBER 2004
 • Difficulty in controlling temperature in the first com-
partment was experienced initially. Adjustment oftem-
perature and oxidation in the vessel compartments has
allowed effective control to be established.
• Varying the oxygen partial pressure in the vessel dem-
onstrated that the design pressure range selected was
sufficient to meet extraction and production targets.
• The agitators, which were selected based on vendor
participation and industry experience, provided ad-
equate oxygen dispersion in the vessel for the retention
time selected.
• Retention time for the chaicopyrite reaction at various
temperature ranges was adequate for optimum copper
extraction. A profile for retention time vs. agitator
speed, oxygen rate, concentrate feed rate and oxidation
rate will be generated.
• The maximum power input from design agitator im-
peller configurations has been determined. Future motor
sizes can now be selected with background informa-
tion.
• Continuous operation for long periods has demon-
strated that hematite scale and ferrous sulfate precipi-
tate is not a continuous problem. The limits of oxygen
deprivation have been determined empirically.
• After seven months of operation, no incidents of shell
corrosion have been identified and all the original
refractory brick is still in place.
• The selected corrosion protection liner has not pro-
duced any catastrophic failures and no "hot spots" have
been detected with thermal imaging of the shell.
• The flash system has proven to be very robust, showing
no wear on any of the interior walls. The double choke
flashing system has performed well with only two
chokes showing damage from high velocity impacts.
Future vessel sizing will depend on choke configura-
tions yet to be tested. Solids carryover may be reduced
by a further expansion of the choke discharge stream. If
NOVEMBER 2004 • VOL 21 NO. 4
the choke expansion is successful, a smaller vessel
diameter may be possible in future designs.
• The shell and tube heat exchangers have encountered no
problematic scaling or plugging. In seven months of
operation, only one tube bundle has been cleaned.
Conclusions and recommendations
The successful performance of the full-scale plant equipment
reviewed above clearly indicates that scale-up of pilot equip-
ment can be accomplished with creative pilot testing, sound
engineering and industrial experience.
Certainly, the aspect of metallurgical testing before at-
tempting any design development cannot be overstated. For
relatively minimum testing costs, many details about operat-
ing parameters and equipment design can be determined
before engineering costs are incurred. One should strive to
learn as much as possible from pilot testing, as the relative
costs associated with such investigations are minimal com-
pared to errors in design that can affect production and
operating costs for a full-scale plant.
Processing companies that intend to use pressure vessel
equipment should become intimately aware of the design
issues surrounding installations of the type discussed herein.
Critical design issues and associated costs can only be prop-
erly addressed by the company intending to operate the
facility. Relying solely on engineering firms for most or all of
the design plans and information would be a serious oversight
and should be avoided. The equipment choice and detailed
designs used in pressure leach processing should be pursued
with direct participation by the owner.
References
Marsden, J.O., 2003, "Copper concentrate leaching developments by Phelps
Dodge Corporation." in Proceedings of the Hydromet Conference 2003,
August 2003, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Marsden, J.O., 2003, "Hydrometallurgical processing of copper concentrates
by Phelps Dodge at the Bagdad Mine in Arizona," in Proceedings of A Ifa
2003 Copper, May 8, 2003, Perth, Australia.
208 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING