CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE

Contents
Topic Page No.
Introduction 02 - 02
Cell components 02 - 03
Plasma Membrane 04 - 04
Phospholipids 04 - 04
Proteins 04 - 09
Ribosomes (Engine of Cell) 10 - 11
Nucleus 12 - 13

Chromosomes 13 - 15

Syllabus
CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE
Cell components, Plasma Membrane, Phospholipids, Proteins, Ribosomes (Engine of
Cell), Nucleus, Chromosomes

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ZOOLOGY
8 - Cell : The Unit of Life
CLASS : XI
 A cell is a membrane bound structural and functional unit of life that contains cytoplasm and organelles. Robert
Hooke was the first to observe cells in a cork but what he saw was actually the cell walls enclosing spaces left by
dead protoplasts. Anton von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described live cells. Robert Brown later discovered the
nucleus. Cell theory was jointly.put forward by Schleiden and Schwann in 1839. In its modern form it includes the
following three principles:
(i) All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(ii) Cells are the smallest living things, the basic units of organisation of all organisms.
(iii) Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.
 On the basis of nuclear organisation, cells can be classified into prokaryotic (without true nucleus) and eukaryotic
(with true nucleus) cells.

Table : Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1 The cell size is usually small (0.1 - 5.0 µm) The cell size is comparatively larger (5-100
with one envelope organisation. µm) with two envelope organisation.
2 An organised nucleus is absent. Instead a An organised nucleus is found. It is
nucleoid is found. differentiated into nuclear envelope,
chromatin, one or more nucleoli, and
nucleoplasm.
3 DNA is naked, that is, without an association Nuclear DNA is associated with histone
with histones. DNA is usually circular. proteins. Nuclear DNA is linear while extra-
nuclear DNA is circular.
4 Additional small circular DNA segments or Plasmids are usually absent.
plasmids may occur.
5 ER, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ER, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
lysosomes and centrioles (centrosome, central lysosomes or their equivalents are present in
apparatus) are absent. all the eukaryotic cells. Centrioles are usually
present in animal cells.

Table : Differences between plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell
1 A plant cell has a rigid cell wall on the outside. A cell wall is absent. Cell is enclosed by plasma membrane.
2 Plastids are found in plant cells. Plastids are usually absent.
3 A mature plant cell contains a large central vacuole. An animal cell often possesses many small vacuoles.
4 Centrioles are usually absent except in lower plants. Centrioles are found in animal cells.
5 Golgi apparatus consists of a number of distinct or Golgi apparatus is either localised or consists of a well
unconnected units called dictyosomes. connected single complex.

Cell components
Cell envelope
 Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells, have a chemically complex cell envelope. The cell envelope
consists of a tightly bound three layered structure i.e., the outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and then
the plasma membrane. Bacterial cell wall is made of peptidoglycan.
 Glycocalyx is a sticky, gelatinous material that collects outside the cell wall to form an additional surface layer.
When this layer is firmly attached to the surface of the cell, it is called a capsule. If it is loosely distributed around
the cell, the glycocalyx is called a slime layer.

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 A special membranous structure the mesosome is present which is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane
into the cell. These extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell wall formation,
DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells. They also help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase
the surface area of the plasma membrane and have enzymatic content.
 Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile. If motile, they have thin filamentous extensions from their cell wall
called flagella. A flagellum has three basic parts – filament, hook and basal body. Pill are longer, fewer and thicker
tubular outgrowths which develop in response to F+ or fertility factor in Gram–ve bacteria. Fimbriae are formed in
large numbers. They help in attaching bacteria to solid surfaces or host tissues.
Cell wall
 Cell wall is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, that provides the cell with
structural support, protection and a filtering mechanism which prevents over-expansion when water enters the
cell. It is found in plants, bacteria, fungi and algae. Animals and most protists do not have cell walls.
 Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan (murein or mucopeptide) while fungal cell wall consists mainly of
fungal cellulose or chitin. Algae typically possess walls constructed of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. The
plant cell wall is composed of a variety of polysaccharides, lipids, proteins and minerals.
 Three layers can be distinguished in the cell wall : middle lamella, primary cell wall and secondary cell wall.
Occasionally a tertiary cell wall may be present. The cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of
growth, which gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall is formed. The middle lamella is a
layer mainly of calcium pectate which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells together. The cell wall and
middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells. Secondary
cell wall is produced in some mature cells.

Primary wall Secondar y wall

(1) Cellulose microfibrils are arranged (1) Microfibrils are parellel to long axis of cell.
in a dispersed manner.
(2) Hemicellulose more (50%) (2) Hemicellulose less (25%)
(3) Primary wall have lipids (5-10%) (3) Protenis and lipids either absent or in
and proteins (5%) little amount.
(4) Forms by Intussusception (4) By both methods.
(5) Primary wall is universal layer (5) Absent in meristem cells

Primary wall
Middle lamella is consist of Ca & Mg pectates (Plant
cement).Amount of Ca is more. Middle lamella
* Fruits become soft and juicy due to dissolve of
Three layered
middle lamella.
secondary wall
* Cellulose is a main constituent of cell wall but Tertiary wall
addition to cellulose – Hemicellulose, cutin, Pectin,
Lignin, Suberin are also presents in cell wall.
* Cell wall worked as frame or protective layer of A few cells showing gross structure of cell wall
cell .
* Cellulose microfibrils and macrofibrils arranged in layers to form skeleton of cell wall. In between these layers other
substances like pectin,hemicellulose may be present. These form matrix of cell wall.
* Network of cellulose fiber forms skeleton of cell wall.
35-100 cellulose chain = 1 micelle.
20 micelle = 1 Microfibril
250 micro fibril = 1 Macrofibril in cell wall.
* Middle lamella is cement material between two adjacent cells in multi cellular plants or outermost layer of cell wall.
(primary wall is consider as outermost layer in a cell)
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Plasma membrane
 The plasma membrane (PM) or plasmalemma forms the outermost boundary of cytoplasm which separates it from
the extracellular environment and controls the entrance and exit of molecules and ions and thus helps to maintain
the difference in ion concentration of the cytoplasm and the surroundings.
 Several types of models have been put forward to explain the structure of a biomembrane.
Fluid mosaic model : By Singer & Nicolson (1973)
* This is latest & most widely accepted model for the structure of plasmalemma.
* According to fluid mosaic model protein are arranged in phospholipid layer as mosaic pattern.
* Thus membrane is termed as "protein icebergh in a sea of phospholipid" or "Gulab Jamun (protein) in a
concenterated solution (phospholipid) of sugar".
(1 ) Phospholipids :
* Phospholipid is the main component of cell membrane because it forms continous structural frame of cell
membrane. Main type of phospholipids are phosphatidyl serine, phosphatidyl choline (Lecithin), P-ethanol amine
(cephalin)
* Phospholipid layer provides fluidity to plasma membrane because phospholipids are rich in unsaturated fatty acid
which are liquid in nature.
* Cholesterol is also present in plasmamembrane. Cholestrol are more rigid than phospholipid. So it helps in stability
of membrane structure.
* Cholesterol is absent in membrane of prokaryote. Thus Hopanoides (Pentacyclic sterol) provides stability to prokaryotic
cell membrane.
(2 ) Proteins :
* Two types of protein are present in plasma membrane.
(a ) Integral or intrinsic protein (70%)
* These protein are tightly binds with phospholipid. Thus not easily released from membrane.
* Some intrinsic protein are confined in lipid bilayer (Stable protein).
* Some integral proteins traverse the complete thickness of membrane. These type of protein are called as
tunnel protein which passage water soluble material across the membrane.
* Some intrinsic protein extending from outside to inside are called as transmembrane protein eg. glycophorin,
porins. Porins founds in outer mitochondrial Membrane and Bacterial Memberane.
(b) Peripheral or extrinsic protein (30%)
* These are superficially arranged on outer side and can be seperate easily. These protein have enzymatic
activity. Extrinsic protein can move freely on membrane structure.
* Some protein like permeases and translocase function as carriers for the transport of materials. Spectrin are
helical type of extrinsic protein founds on cytosolic face of membrane and attached to intrinsic protein.
Spectrins are part of cytoskeleton.
Outside the cell Glycolipid
Glycoprotein
(Oligosaccharides) (Oligosaccharides)

Peripheral protein
Pore formed by
Phospholipids (Extrinsic)
integral protein

Non cytosolic half

of bilayer

Phospholipid bilayer

Cytosolic half of bilayer

Tunnel protein
Cholesterol
Spectrin
Peripheral protein
Inside the cell

Fluid-mosaic model of membrane

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 Cytoplasm is a jelly-like semi-fluid general mass of protoplasm excluding the nucleus but including all other
components-cytoplasmic matrix, cell organelles and cell inclusions.

Table : A summarized account of different cell organelles

Organelles

Features Functions

Endomembrane System
Grouping of some membrane organelles which function in close coordination with one another, viz., endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
They divide intracellular space in two compartments, i.e., luminal RER provides surface for protein synthesis.
(inside ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm). These can extend The proteins in ER lumen are processed and
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

from nuclear envelope to plasma membrane. are packed in membrane bound vesicles for
The endoplasmic reticulum is composed of the following three storage or export, or for further processing in
kinds of structures (i) cisternae which occur in those cells which Golgi apparatus.
have synthetic roles, (ii) tubules which are involved in lipid and Formation of nuclear envelope and plasma
sterol synthesis and (iii) vesicles that are membrane- bound membrane.
vacuolar structures. SER is involved in fat and steroidal hormone
The ER is of two types : (i) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesis.
(SER): Consists mainly of tubules and vesicles and (ii) Rough Detoxification of drugs/xenobiotics using
endoplasmic reticulum : Consists of cisternae. It has ribosomes cytochrome P450.
attached on its cytoplasmic surface.
The Golgi apparatus was discovered by an Italian histologist and Process, package, transport and release of
Nobel laureate Camillo Golgi in 1898. secretory proteins.
Golgi Complex

Golgi complex is in the form.of a parallelly arranged
interconnecting system of a cluster of smooth membranes having a
central stack of flattened sacs or cisternae. It has two distinct
faces i.e., forming face (cis region) and a maturing face (trans
region).
Lysosomes were first reported by Christian de Duve in 1955.
Lysosomes store the hydrolysing enzymes of the cell. They are
also called acid hydrolases because these digestive enzymes
usually function in acidic medium or pH of 4-5. Lysosomes arise
from bud off vesicles of the Golgi complex at the trans face.
Lysosomes
Glycosidation of lipids and glycosylation of
proteins to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.
Golgi apparatus helps in the recycling of
broken plasma membrane during endocytosis.
In injured and dead cells, the lysosome
membrane ruptures spontaneously, releasing
the enzymes that lyre (dissolve) the weakened
cells. Therefore, the lysosomes may be called
"suicide bags" of the cell.

This organelle shows polymorphism and occurs as: (i) primary They are particularly abundant in certain cells
lysosomes (contain inactive enzymes), (ii) secondary lysosomes like white blood corpuscles, macrophages,
or digestive vacuoles (contain the enzymes against the material to Kupffer's cells and in secretory cells.
be digested), (iii) residual bodies (contain only undigested
materials), and (iv) autophagic vacuoles (formed by union of
many primary lysosomes around old or dead organelles).

Vacuoles are non-cytoplasmic areas present inside the cytoplasm Sap vacuoles are responsible for colour of
formed by expansion and pinching off from endoplasmic petals.
reticulum. Contractile vacuoles take part in
Vacuoles

They may be of following types : osmoregulation and excretion.

Sap vacuoles separated from the cytoplasm by tonoplast. Food vacuoles contain digestive enzymes and
Contractile vacuoles take part in osmoregulation and excretion. help in the digestion of nutrients.
Food vacuoles formed by fusion of phagosome and a lysosome.

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Ribosomes were discovered by Robinson and Brown (1953) in The free ribosomes synthesize non-secretory
plant cells and by Palade (1955) in animal cells. Ribosomes are proteins, while ER bound ribosomes
naked ribonucleoprotein protoplasmic particles (RNP). synthesize secretory proteins.
Ribosomes

The cytoplasmic ribosomes of prokaryotes (blue green algae,
bacteria and PPLO) are 70S. They have two subunits of ribosomes
that are 50S and 30S. Ribosomes of mammalian mitochondria
have a sedimentation coefficient of 55S. The cytoplasmic
ribosomes of eukaryotes are 80S type. The two sub- units of 80S
ribosomes are 60S and 40S.
The mitochondria were first observed by Kolliker in 1850.
A mitochondrion has two membranes : The outer membrane
which is smooth and has porin proteins which form channels and
the inner mitochondrial membrane which is semipermeable and
regulates the passage of materials into and out of the
mitochondria. It usually produces numerous infolds called cristae
Mitochondria
During protein synthesis, many ribosomes
form a chain on a common messenger RNA
and form the polyribosomes or polysomes, or
ergasome.
The oxysome, also called F 0 - F 1 complex,
represents adenosine triphosphatase, or
ATPase, or ATP synthetase enzyme and is
thus concerned with ATP formation.

which divide the inner mitochondrial space into many

compartments. The cristae and the inner face of the inner
membrane is studded with F0 - F1 particles or oxysomes.
M itochondria are semi-autonomous organelles
(i) Mitochondria have their own DNA which can replicate independently.
(ii) All three types of RNAs are present in mitochondrial matrix, i.e., mRNA, tRNA and rRNA.
(iii) Mitochondrial matrix possesses its own ribosomes (55S to 70S in nature).
(iv) Mitochondria synthesize some of their own structural proteins.
(v) New mitochondria develop by division of pre-existing mitochondria.
Plastids (chloroplast, leucoplast and chromoplast) are largest cell Chloroplast is the centre of photosynthesis.
organelles. These are involved in the formation and storage of Types of leucoplasts:
soluble organic compounds. Aleuroplasts store proteins, e.g., in maize.
Chloroplasts are greenish plasmids which possess photosynthetic Elaioplasts store lipids or fats, e.g., in e n
pigments. It is bounded by two unit membranes separated by space endosperm cells of castor seeds.
called periplastidial space. Part inner to membrane is divided Amyloplasts store starch, e.g., in potato
into two portions : (i) Grana fraction consists of a membranous or tubers, wheat grains.
lamellar system made up of thylakoids. (ii) Stroma is
proteinaceous complex having proteins, ribosomes, DNA,
Plastids

enzymes and lipid. Chloroplasts are also semi-autonomous

organelles.
Leucoplasts are colourless plastids found in storage organs away
from sunlight. Chromoplasts are non photosynthetic plastids and
are variously coloured (except green). These store carotenoid
pigments.
Chloroplasts and mitochondria: endosymbionts in eukaryotic cells
(i) Both are semi-autonomous organelles. (ii) Both are enveloped by two unit membranes - outer smooth and
permeable and inner infolded and semipermeable. (iii) Both have circular DNA, three types of RNA and 70S type
of ribosomes. (iv) Both are energy transducing organelles and form ATP by a similar mechanism. (v) Both occur
only in eukaryotes and are absent in prokaryotes.
Peroxisomes are spherical, sac-like structures, bounded by a single Animal peroxisomes metabolise a number of
Peroxisome

membrane. These contain 'peroxide'- producing enzymes toxic substances.

(oxidases) and 'peroxide' - destroying enzymes (catalases). Plant peroxisomes perform photo-
respiration.

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The nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown. It is double
membrane bound dense protoplasmic body that controls cellular
metabolism, encloses all the genetic information and is able to
transmit the same to the next generation.
The nucleus can be differentiated into following parts:
(i) Nuclear envelope (consists of 2 unit membranes)
Nucleus
(ii) Nuclear matrix (network of fibrils, function as scaffold for
chromatin)
(iii) Nucleoplasm (clear fluid containing substances for nucleotide
synthesis).
(iv) Nucleolus
(v) Chromatin (hereditary part of the nucleus and is differentiated
into heterochromatin and euchromatin).
Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments are
proteinaceous structures to support the extensive system of
membranes. They collectively form cytoskeleton of the cell.
Cytoskeleton
The microtubules occur in cilia, flagella, centrioles and basal
bodies, mitotic apparatus etc. Prokaryotic cells lack microtubules.
The microfilaments are mainly composed of a globular protein
actin, but have filamentous protein mysoin also. Intermediate
filaments are non-contractile hollow filaments of acidic proteins.
The cilia and flagella are microscopic, contractile and filamentous
Cilia and Flagella
processes of the cytoplasm.
The cilia and flagella have a fibrillar or microtubular composition.
Their core called the axoneme usually has nine doublets of
radially arranged peripheral microtubules, and a pair of centrally
located microtubules. Such an arrangement of axonemal
microtubules is referred to as the 9+2 array.
These are two cylindrical, rod-shaped, microtubular structures
Centrioles
near the nucleus. Centrioles lack limiting membrane and DNA or
RNA and form a spindle of microtubules, the mitotic apparatus
during mitosis or meiosis. They possess 9 + 0 arrangement.
Circular mt. Inner mitochondrial wall
DNA (G.C. Rich)
F1 particle
Matrix
(inner chamber)
Diagrammatic view of the internal structure of a mitochondrion/chondriosome
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Nuclear envelope maintains the shape of the
nucleus and regulates flow of materials.
Nuclear pores are the passage through which
movement of RNA and protein molecules
takes place. Nucleolus synthesises and stores
RNA. Heterochromatin is genetically
inactive and highly condensed region of
chromosome with tightly packed DNA.
Euchromatin is genetically active and rich in
loosely packed DNA. Transcription occurs
here.
Microtubules help in the spindle and astral
ray formation during cell division. These form
the cytoskeleton of cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments are involved in cytoplasmic
streaming and amoeboid movements.
Both are capable of producing a current in
fluid medium for locomotion and passage of
substances, act as sensory organs and perform
many mechanical functions of the cell.
They polymerize microtubules for formation
of spindle fibres and astral rays during mitosis
and meiosis.
They determine the poles during cell division.
Cristae
Outer mitochondrial wall
Ribosome (70s)
Perimitochondrial space
(outer chamber)
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Discharged vesicles Trans or Maturing face

Cisternae

Vesicles
Fusing with cis face
Tubules
Transition vesicles
Cis or Forming face

Golgi Apparatus

Endoplamic
Plasma reticulum Primary lysosome Autophagic
membrane + or Storage granule vacuole Plasma
Golgi membrane
body
Digested
Secondary mitochondrion
lysosome

Food particles
taken in by Phagosome
endocytosis Digestive Residual Defecation or
vacuole body Exocytosis of wastes
Different types of lysosomes and their orgin

Rough E.R. (Granular) Smooth E.R. (Agranular)

(1) 80s ribosomes binds by their larger (1) Ribosomes and Ribophorins absent
subunit, with the help of two glycoproteins
(Ribophorin I and II) on the surface
of Rough E.R.
(2) More Stable structure (2) Less Stable structure
(3) Mainly Composed of cisternae and vesicles (3) Mainly composed of tubules.
(4) Abundantly occurs in cells which are (4) Abundantly occurs in cells concerned
actively engaged in protein synthesis with glycogen and lipid metabolism.
e.g. liver, pancreas, Goblet cells. e.g. Adipose tissue, Interstitial cells,
Muscles,Glycogen storing liver cells,
and adrenal cortex.

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Nucleus Lumen

envelope
Nuclear
Outer membrane
Inner membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum

Cell membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum as seen in section

Cisternae Vesicles Tubules

Parts of Endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes Lumen

Lumen
(A) (B)

(A) : Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(B) : Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

ds-Circular DNA

Outer membrane

Quantasomes Inner membrane

(230 pig. mol.) Stroma or matrix

Granum thylakoid Granum

888
70s Ribosomes
Fret channel or Rubisco (Most abundant enz.)
stroma thylakoid

Chloroplast

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Central pair
Ring of 9
of fibrils
fibril pairs

T.S. of flagellum Whiplash Tinsel

Showing characteristic Types of flagella
9+2 fibrillar organization
Flagellum and cilium

Cilia F lag ella

1. The cilia are small in size (5–10m) 1. Flagella are long (up to 150 m)
2. Number of cilia per cell is very large. 2. Few in number
3. Cilia beat in a coordinated manner 3. Flagella beats independently
(sweeping or pendular move) (Non coordinated manner)
4. They take part in locomotion, attachment, 4. Flagella involved only in locomotion
feeding and sensation.

Triplet microtubule

C-Tuble
B-Tuble
A-Tuble
Primary fibre (Radial spoke)

Y-Thickening
Secondary fibre

X-Thickening

Central hub

Centrioles : (A) A pair of centrioles (Diplosome), (B) T.S. of a centriole

RIBOSOMES (ENGINE OF CELL)

☛ Claude first observed them. Palade (1955) coined the term Ribosome .
☛ In plants Robinson and Brown (1953) first observed them in bean roots.
☛ Except mammalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes. (Both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes)
☛ Ribosomes are smallest cell organelles (150x250 A0 ) Ribosomes are organelle without membranes.
☛ Ribosomes are also called as ‘‘Organelle with in an organelle’’ & "Protein factory of cell".
Type s of Ribosomes :–
(1) Eukaryotic ribosomes :– 80 s - Occur in cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
(2) Prokaryotic ribosomes :– 70 s - Occur in cytoplasm of prokaryotes, and also in mitochondria, and Chloroplast of
eukaryotes. (55 S ribosome present in mitochondria of mammals)
☛ Each ribosome composed of two subunits i.e. larger and smaller subunits. Larger subunit is dome shaped and smaller
unit is ovoid. Smaller subunit has a platform, a cleft, a head and a base. The larger subunit has a protuberance, a
ridge and a stalk. Larger subunit also contains a tunnel which opens in cavity of E.R.
80s = 60s + 40s
70s = 50s + 30s
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☛ Magnesium ion is essential for the binding the ribosome sub units. Mg+2 form ionic bond with phosphate groups of r-
RNA of two subunits. Minimum 0.001 M Mg+2 concentration is required for structural formation of ribosomes. If Mg+2
concentration increased 10 times then ribosome dimer are formed.
80s +80s = 120s (Dimer)
70s + 70s = 100s (Dimer)
Chemical Composition of Ribosomes :
70s – 60% r- RNA + 40% proteins
80s – 40% r-RNA + 60% proteins
60s – r-RNA 28s, 5.8s, 5s
40s – r-RNA 18s
50s – r-RNA 23s,5s
30s – r-RNA 16s
☛ At the time of protein synthesis, several ribosomes become attached to m-RNA with the help of smaller subunits.
This structure is called polyribosome or polysome or Ergosome . Ribosomes move along the m-RNA like beads
on a string, during protein synthesis. Larger subunit contains peptidyl transferase enzyme which helps in the
formation of peptide during protein synthesis. This is an example of Ribozyme.(Noller 1992)
Two sites are found on larger sub units :
(i) A- site  Acceptor site for t-RNA
(ii) P-site  site for growing polypeptide chain
☛ S= Svedberg unit or Sedimentation rate

33 proteins
21 proteins
Cleft
40S Subunit
Head

30S Subunit
290Å Length

300Å Length

30S Subunit
Platform
Base

60S Subunit
Small 50S Subunit
subunit 45 proteins
31 proteins
Central
protuberance
210 Å Width 200-240 Å Width
Stalk
70S Ribosome 80S Ribosome
Valley
70S and 80S Ribosome

Ridge
50s
40S 60S 80S 120S mRNA
Large Mg Mg
subunit
Subunits Ribosome Dimer Polyribosomes
Two parts of Ribosome

MICRO–BODIES
☛ The cells of protozoa, fungi, plants, liver and kidney cells contain certain membrane bounded spherical bodies
of 0.3 to 1.5  diameter, filled with enzymes are called as ‘‘Micro–Bodies’’.
On the basis of functions microbodies are of following types –
(1) Sphaerosome s :–
☛ Hanstein (1880) first observed them in ground nut. Perner (1953) named them sphaerosomes. Sphaerosomes occur
only in plant cells. They are major site of lipid storage and synthesis in plants.
☛ Sphaerosomes also have lysosome like activity so they also termed as plant lysosomes.
(2) Peroxisomes or Uricosomes :–
Discovered by Rhodin and Tolbert. Urate oxidase, Amino acid oxidase, Hydroxy acid Oxidase, Peroxidase (Smallest),
Catalase (Largest) enzymes occurs in it.
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☛ In animal cells peroxis ome s concerned w ith peroxide
(H 2 O 2)metabolism. Urate oxidase,Amino acid oxidase and
peroxidase. Peroxidase induces the oxidation of amino acids to
producing H2O2. Catalase degrade the H2O2into water and oxygen.
☛ In plants, peroxisomes occurs in cells of green tissues and concerned with photorespiration (glycolate pathway).
☛ Peroxisomes may involved in  -oxidation of fatty acids.
(3) Glyoxysomes :– Discovered by, Beever in oil containing seeds, yeast cells, guard cells etc.
☛ Glyoxysomes occurs only in plants especially in fatty seeds (castor seed), guard cells of stomata and unripe fruits.
Glyoxylate cycle is linked with the TCA cycle and used for production of acids in fruit.
☛ Glyoxysomes are considered as a highly specialised peroxisomes. Glyoxylic acid cycle takes place in glyoxysomes.
This cycle convert fats into carbohydrats.
Nucleus -
Karyotheca

Nucleolus

Pore-complex

Heterochromatin

False nucleolus
Perinuclear space
Nucleus

Difference betwen Euchromat in and Heterochromat in.

Euc hromatin Heterochromatin

(i) Consist of thin, extended, light (i) Consist of thick coild, condensed part
stained part of chromatin. of Chromatin and dark stained.
(ii) Genetically more active chromatin (ii) Less active or inert chromatin.
(iii) Lies at centre of nucleus. (iii) Lies near the nuclear membrane.
(iv) Less histone protein (iv) More histone protein
(v) Replicate in early s phase (v) Replicate in late s phase
(vi) DNA  mRNA (vi) DNA  rRNA, tRNA

Note : Nucleolus :- Discovered by Fontana and Term by Bowman.

☛ Nucleolus is naked or membraneless, rounded or slightly irregular structure present in nucleus and usually
attached to chromatin (or chromosomes) of specific site called Nucleolar organiser region/NOR.
☛ Number of nucleolus in a nucleus is one. Onion cell has 4, and in oocytes of amphibian has 2000 nucleoli.
Nucleoli absent in sperm cell, muscle cells etc. Human cell has 5 nucleoli.
☛ Calcium is essential for maintenance of nucleolus. Nucleolus disappears during Prophase and reappears in
telophase.

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☛ Chemistr y of nucleolus :-
Proteins 85%
RNA 10%
DNA 5%
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOLUS :
Ribosome formation is the chief role of nucleolus, thus its called as Ribosme factory of cell, the proteins of
ribosomes are synthesised in cytoplasm but it diffused in to nucleus and reach at nucleolus. Here r-RNA and ribosomal
proteins are assembled to form ribosomes which move to cytoplasm through nuclear pores.
☛ At the some places heterochromatin forms thickned dense granules which are known as karyosomes or chromocentre
or false nucleoli.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS :
(i) Genetic information :- Nucleus contains genetic information in its chromatin. (store house of genetic
material)
(i i) Transmission of genetic information :- Nucleus takes part in transmission of genetical information from
parent cell to daughter cell or the one generation to next.
(ii i) In cell-division :- Division of nucleus is pre-requisite to cell division.
(i v) Control of metabolism :- Nucleus controls metabolism of cell by sending m-RNA in cytosol (Basically
biomolecule DNA controls cellular activities through directing synthsis of enzyme).
(v) Variations :- Variation develops due to change in genetic material of nucleus. (Evolutionary role).
CHROMOSOMES
☛ At the time of cell division the chromatin material get condensed to form chromosomes, thus chromosome is
highly condensed form of the chromatin. Chromosomes are not visible during interphase stage.
☛ First of all, chromosomes was observed by Hofmeister (1818) and Karl Nageli in pollen mother cells (PMC) of Tradescantia.
☛ Strasburger (1875) described chromosome structure appeared in nucleus during cell division. (Credit of discovery of
chromosomes goes to Strasburger)
☛ Term "Chromosome" was proposed by Waldeyer in 1889. (Term 'Chromatin, was suggested by Flemming)
☛ Generally chromosomes are rod-shaped, elongated or dot like in shape with size of 0.5 to 32 (Trillium plant has
longest chromosome)
☛ Chromosomes can be best studied at metaphase stage because size of chromosomes is the shortest during metaphase
due to highly condensation of chromatin threads by gelation, dehydration and coiling.
(Shape of chromosome (V.L.J.I.) is studied at Anaphase stage)
☛ Generally chromosomes in plants are larger than chromosomes of animals, but number of chromosome is high in
animals as compared to plants.
☛ The number of chromosomes has no relation with any specific feature like size, complexity of organism.
☛ 2n = number of chromosome in diploid cell. n = number of chromosome in haploid cell.
☛ The number of chromosome is definate for each species. For example every normal human being has 46 chromosomes
in each body cell.
☛ Gametes of all organisms contain only one of each chromosome. The number of chromosomes in a gamete is called
"Genome" or haploid chromosome. (Human 23) ‘‘A complete set (n) of chromosomes (all genes) inherited as a unit
from one parent is known as genome,,.

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☛ Karyotype  Karyotype is external morphology of all Chromosomes of a cell which is specific for each species of
living organisms. Karyotype can be studied in metaphase of mitosis.
☛ Karyotype includes the number of chromosomes, relative size, position of centromere, length of the arms, secondary
constrictions and banding patterns.
STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME (Parts which appears in metaphase chromosome)
1. Pellicle – This is outermost, thin proteinaceous covering or sheath of chromosome.
2. Matrix – This is a liquid nongenetic achromatic ground substance of chromosome, which has different type of
enzymes, minerals, water, proteins.

3. Chromonema (singular Chromonemata)  Chromonemata

This is an important, genetical, highly coiled thread, throughout the length Centromere

Chromatid
of a chromosome or chromatid. It was called chromonema. Chromonema
Chromonemata Centromere
lie embeded in matrix.
☛ Each chromonemata is consist of a single long thread of DNA associated Pellicle

with histone.
Matrix
☛ Sometimes bead like structure are seen on chromonema fibres, which are (A) Structure of a (B) A mitotic metaphase
chromosome chromosome
called as chromomeres.
☛ Types of coiling in chromonema –

(i) Plectonemic-coiling :- When both the chromonema are

inter twined and can not be seperated easily.

(in mitotic prophase chromosomes)
(ii) Paranemic coiling :- When both chromonema can be
easily seperable. (In meiotic prophase)

Plectonemic Paranemic

4. Centromere/Kinetochore :- (Primary constriction)

☛ Each chromosome (at metaphase) is consist of two half chromosome or two chromatids. Both the chromatids of a
chromosome are joined or connected by a structure called Centromere. At this point or centromere two protein discs
are present which is called Kinetochore.
☛ At the region of centromere the chromosome is comparatively narrower than remaining part of chromosome, thus it
is termed as Primary constriction.
5. Chromatid – At metaphase stage each chromosome is consist of two cylindrical structures - called chromatids. Both
sister chromatids or longitudinal half chromosome are joined together by a common centromere. A chromosome, may
have single chromatid (in Anaphase or Telophase) or two chromatid. (as in metaphase)
6. Secondary constriction : Besides primary constrictions one or two, other constriction may also occurs on some
chromosome, which are known as secondary constriction.
☛ Secondary constriction is also known as NOR (Nucleolar organizer region)(13,14,15,21,22 chromosomes in
human)

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Primary constriction
(Centromere)
Chromonema

Kinetochore Matrix
(Protein dics)

Second constriction II
Pellicle

Chromomere
Telomeric DNA
Secondary constriction (Synth. by Telomerase or RNP)
NOR (r-RNA synthesis)
Telomere
SAT

Satellite (Trabent)

A schematic diagrammatic representation of chromosome

7. Satellite : part of chromosome remains after the NOR is known as chromosomes satellite/ Trabent.
☛ Chromosomes with satellite part are called as SAT chromosome (SAT = Sine Acid Thymonucleinico)
8. Telomere : Chromosomes have polarity and polar ends of chromosomes is known as Telomere.
☛ Telomere prevents fusion of one chromosomes to other chromosome. Telomere rich in Guanine base.
☛ Enzyme Telomerase presents in telomere part of chromosome, which is a Ribonucleoprotein.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF CENTROMERE

(i) Telocentric :- When centromere is terminal or located at the tip of chromosome.

(ii) Acrocentric :- When the centromere is sub-terminal or located near the tip.
(iii) Metacentric :- When the centromere is located at mid of the chromosome.
(iv) Sub metacentric :- When the centromere located near centre or mid point of chromosome.
☛ The ratio of length of the long arm to the short arm of a chromosome is called arm ratio. Arm ratio is maximum
in acrocenteric chromosome.

Telocentric Acrocentric Metacentric Sub-metacentric

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