Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11267-w
RESEARCH
Assessment of ambient air quality in heavy industrial
localities: a case study of Yanbu industrial city
Said Jereis Al Rabadi · Kamel Al‑Zboon ·
Khalideh Albkoor Alrawashdeh ·
La’aly AL‑Samrraie
Received: 10 October 2022 / Accepted: 19 April 2023 / Published online: 17 May 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
Abstract The objective of this study was to pro-
vide an appropriate evaluation of ambient air quality
in industrial localities and the surrounding residen-
tial areas in its vicinity. Therefore, an assessment of
gaseous emissions from industrial sectors was per-
formed. For this purpose, concentrations were meas-
ured for ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2, ­O3, CO, ­PM2.5, and ­PM10
in five spatially diverse monitoring stations (AQMS)
over different temporal intervals (daily, monthly, and
annual) for the years 2015–2020. The impact on the
environment and public health was evaluated through
comparison with the corresponding regional and
international standards. In the case study region, a
substantial spatiotemporal variation was observed in
the gaseous contaminants, due to the predominance
of characterized meteorological parameters interfer-
ing with contributions from existing chemical facili-
ties and anthropogenic activities. The exceedances
for the investigated emissions were routinely vio-
lated the standard concentrations. According to AQI
S. J. Al Rabadi (*)
Chemical Engineering Department, Al-Balqa Applied
University, P.O. Box 50, Huson 21510, Jordan
e-mail: said.alrabadi@bau.edu.jo
K. Al‑Zboon · L. AL‑Samrraie
Environmental Engineering Department, Al-Balqa Applied
University, P.O. Box 50, Huson 21510, Jordan
K. A. Alrawashdeh
Mechanical Engineering Department, Al-Balqa Applied
University, P.O. Box 50, Huson 21510, Jordan
classifications, these violations were assigned to be
within the acceptable limits for the gaseous emis-
sions, moderately polluted for ­PM2.5, and unhealthy
for sensitive groups for PM10. The proper distri-
bution of the AQMSs within the industrial locality
provides enough spatial and temporal observatory
data, such that the exceedances were reduced with
the subsequent years, hence appropriate evalua-
tion of the relevant measurements revealed effective
qualitative policies taken into action by authorities to
maintain less accumulation of the gaseous emissions
into ambient air beyond the harmful limits for public
health and environment.
Keywords Gaseous emissions · Yanbu industrial
locality · Ambient air quality · Public health · Air
pollution
Introduction
Nowadays, ambient air quality suffers a great chal-
lenge, that is, remediation of contaminated effluents
produced from domestic, agricultural, and industrial
activities due to gaseous emissions. To insure a more
suitable outdoor air quality, specifically for industrial
landscapes associated with vicinity residential areas,
air pollution regulatory thresholds were correspond-
ingly published to be regionally as well as interna-
tionally implemented to provide an assessment of
health effects for serious health–harmful pollution
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levels in the industrial sectors. Parametric investiga-
tions were appealed by Aina et al. (2014) to exten-
sively highlight findings on P ­ M2.5 in several KSA
cities within the years 2001–2010 (urbanized and
industrialized) by means of mobile observatory sta-
tions, to highlight the trend of P ­ M2.5 ground obser-
vations with which visualizations were combined for
the purpose of data validation. This approach suffers
from some obstacles especially on cloudy and dusty
days. Meanwhile, Al-Azmi et al. (2009) compared
measured ­NOx and ­SO2 inventories by static meth-
ods with short-term model predictions for 2 years in
Kuwait power plants under current meteorological
conditions, and promising results were only obtained
with hourly measurements, leading to misleading
long-term observations. In a relevant study, Al-Zboon
et al. (2022) studied the prediction of ground levels
of ­SO2, ­NO2, CO, and P ­ M10 emissions from a ther-
mal desalination plant in the western region of KSA
with respect to reference observatory data, where the
AERMOD Dispersion Model was applied to investi-
gate the short-term health impact on an inhibited area
restricted of 50 km by 50 km from the plant. Mean-
while, Alharbi et al. (2014) conducted their investi-
gations on O­ 3, CO, N­ O2, ­SO2, ­H2S, and P­ M10 within
the period 1999–2004, obtained from 5 static AQMSs
in King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology
(KACST) in Riyadh; subsequently, latterly ­ PM10
and smog (metals and ions) were studied by Alharbi
et al. (2015). Their investigations revealed that the
concentration ratios of certain contaminants such as
metalloids could be influential on the transportation
scenarios for outdoor pollutants in residential areas.
Al-Harbi et al. (2020) investigated the temporal varia-
tions for NO, N­ O2, ­SO2, and O
­ 3 by mobile measuring
stations located in Ras Al-Khafji during the year 2013
for three monitoring areas (residential, industrial, and
terminal). Also, a correlation study revealed that the
concentrations of these contaminants clearly vary
during the day and that the pattern and movement of
air pollutants were significantly influenced by mete-
orological conditions. At observatory sites, non-buoy-
ant ground-level sources, including home heating and
traffic pollution, were regarded as the main sources
of emissions. It should be focused on combination of
different meteorological circumstances, within a mas-
sive industrial locality and intensive anthropogenic
patterns on outdoor observations. Another factor to
consider is the presence of a combination of different
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
meteorological circumstances. A related study by Al-
Jeelani (2014) was performed to examine spatiotem-
poral outdoor gaseous NO, ­NO2, ­NOx, ­O3, CO, S ­ O2,
­CH4, TNMHCs (non-methane hydrocarbons), and
other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) obtained
from static observatory sites. However, within the
Yanbu Industrial Complex, no significant varia-
tions were obtained for TNMHCs and C ­ H4 as were
obtained for the other contaminants. Therefore, long-
term management programs were recommended for
maintaining outdoor air quality in the proper condi-
tion for life and work.
For the special annual occasions of al-Fitr and
al-Adha festivals, Ramadan, and the Hajj periods in
KSA, when many cities in KSA are usually crowded
with residents, visitors, and pilgrims for relatively
short term durations of some days to few months,
researchers extensively focused on the occurrence
of outdoor emissions (Butenhoff et al., 2015; Dasari
et al., 2020; Habeebullah, 2013; Hassan et al., 2013;
Pasha & Alharbi, 2015; Shareef et al., 2018; Shareef
et al., 2018). Anthropogenic activities have a particu-
larly significant impact that coincides with seasonal
phenomena like thermal boundary layer mixing on
the widespread gaseous emissions with harmful lim-
its in different KSA communities at a particular time.
For long-term durations such as investigations by
Hassan et al. (2019) and Khalil et al. (2016), it was
revealed that the surface temperature expedited the
photochemical process of ­O3 precursors to produce
secondary emissions. Along with investigations on
suspended particulate matters (Alharbi et al., 2015;
Modaihsh et al., 2015; Pasha & Alharbi, 2015) when
seasonal dusty winds have an influence on the buoy-
ancy of contaminants to upper atmospheric layers as
well as transportation to neighboring regions apart
from emission sources, even more promising findings
were highlighted in this domain for Egypt (Hindy &
Abdelmaksoud, 2016), other sub-regions in the Mid-
dle East (Hariri et al., 2013; Uhkov et al., 2020), and
Spain (Rovira et al., 2021).
In the literature, model data were used to pre-
dict the spatial and temporal variation in air pollut-
ants for various air pollutants with a focus on poten-
tial risk assessment (Aina et al., 2014; Dasari et al.,
2020; Munir et al., 2013; Munir et al., 2016; Uhkov
et al., 2020). As such, studies have implied model
predictions for outdoor contaminations, although
they have shown apparent discrepancies between
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
satellite-derived data and the in situ measurements.
The reasons behind these discrepancies were attrib-
uted, from one side, to the exclusion of metrologi-
cal factors like ground temperature and topography
in changing outdoor gaseous levels, and on the other
side, relative concentrations of relevant O ­ 3 precur-
sors. In the study by Meng and Zhou (2020), refer-
ence air quality data ­(SO2, soot, and other industrial
gas emissions) were acquired from reports by the
National Bureau of Statistics, and a STIRPAT model
was used to predict the air pollution emissions in the
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region/China. In a pertinent
study by Liang and Gong (2020), air pollution was
investigated to evaluate the urban landscape effects
of pollutants and their associations at the county level
in China over the study period (2000–2014), where
the largest urban growth is anticipated to occur. The
annual mean P ­ M2.5 concentration’s trends were deter-
mined using an empirical study and standard numeri-
cal methods, whereas Lee et al. (2014) used surface
observational data of typical air pollutants ­ (PM2.5
and ­SO2) collected from 14 static measuring sites in
two mega-industrial complexes in Ulsan Province,
Korea, which were simulated with the WRF-CAL-
PUFF Model and the meteorological data were gener-
ated by CALMET software, to test the consistency of
observational data with model predictions. In recent
studies by Cichowicz and Dobrzański (2022a, b), the
results of the OPA03 simulation were implemented
to replicate actual field measurements obtained from
sparsely located static and mobile observational sites
near a heat and power plant and a communication
route in Lodz, Poland. 3D maps were created using
ArcGIS for the spatial distribution of the air con-
taminants (H2S, VOC, ­PM10, and ­PM2.5). These stud-
ies revealed that industrial gaseous emissions have
always been critically important in determining shifts
in outdoor emission levels. Generally, the economic
growth in the case study area was suggested to slow
down; this policy contributes to a steady boost in air
quality and comparatively maintains long-term clean
surrounding circumstances, conversely the influential
consequences on the relevant economy. Alternately,
several air dispersion models (like AERMOD, CAL-
PUFF, ADMS, which are applying Gaussian, Lagran-
gian, and Eulerian approaches, respectively) are used
to indirectly estimate the PM of various diameters
based on the researches’ findings that there is a mean-
ingful relation between outdoor air contaminants and
Page 3 of 29 683
PM. The meteorological, geography, effluent physical
and chemical features, and other associated phenom-
ena (co-variables) with air pollution must be consid-
ered by the air dispersion models for reliable repro-
ductivity of observatory air quality measurements.
On the other hand, these commercial air dispersion
models have varying levels of complexity based
on the approaches used, as well as long computa-
tion time intervals; suffer from significant deviation
between their predicted results compared to observa-
tory air quality data; and pose numerical constraints
and fundamental limitation on the receptors’ number
and model validity range.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no com-
prehensive study covers the impact of the Yanbu
industrial city on ambient air quality; there were few
contributions made for the behavioral assimilation of
gaseous emissions in the Yanbu industrial complex
and the surrounding area between 2015 and 2020 for
the deduction of long-term management programs.
The objective of the current investigation was to
delineate the spatiotemporal distribution of outdoor
flaring and air pollutants, namely, ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2,
­O3, CO, ­PM2.5, and ­PM10, within the Yanbu industrial
complex and the associated residential areas. This
could help to boost policies that provide an integra-
tive assessment of relevant scientific information on
gaseous emissions, collected from diverse monitoring
AQMSs within the Yanbu industrial complex. Focus-
ing on the basic criteria for air quality standards (the
in situ concentration indicators, periodic intervals,
and spatial distribution from the emissions source
along with the meteorological circumstances), such
criteria would evaluate the health protection afforded
by the relevant outdoor air standards.
Methodology and materials
Case study area
Yanbu industrial locality, which has a current area
of about 185 ­km2, is located about 350 km north-
west of Jeddah on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Ara-
bia. The remaining land consists of urban and desert
regions, with industrial sectors making up about 18%
of its total area. It contains many heavy industries
and includes the footprints of huge manufacturers
like Saudi Aramco and SABIK. The Yanbu industrial
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complex is also close to the main transportation har-
bor and includes tremendous petrochemical projects
based on crude oil processing (mainly obtained from
oil reservoirs in KSA’s eastern area), besides the third
largest oil refinery in the world (with a production
capacity of more than 140 million tons/ annum), large
technical gases facilities with associated laboratories,
wide container yards, huge goods warehouses, and
two oversized pipelines extending over a distance of
1200 km connecting the Arabian Gulf and the Red
Sea. Additionally, Yanbu’s geography contains sig-
nificant amounts of mineral resources for iron ores,
phosphate, gypsum, and copper (Alharbi et al., 2015;
Al-Jeelani, 2014; Khalil et al., 2016; Shareef et al.,
2018), which are suitable for other light and concrete
industrial campuses. The Yanbu industrial complex
has become the virtue of high-speed industrialization,
and the vicinity residential city is properly served
with wide highways, roads, and sufficient commu-
nity factors that attract many work-powers from other
countries, indicating the vitality of this fast-growing
city. Consequently, Yanbu is also subject to increas-
ing obstacle regarding environment and public health,
and the running industrial activities of the large refin-
ing facilities, transportation harbor, and warehouses
as well as large-scale city construction require a tre-
mendous number of heavy vehicles and machines.
Conversely, residential fills and rubbles due to
densely populated areas and industrial wastes are
sometimes not managed early. Therefore, the under-
ground infrastructure as well the outdoor air quality
needs to be secured and periodically monitored.
Source of data
A thematic strategy for the abatement of air emissions
could be comprehensively evaluated by studying the
spatiotemporal variation of outdoor air emissions,
and this would imply conclusive evidence to enhance
the continuous monitoring of ambient air pollutants
through the long-term availability of in situ meas-
urements. Implementing this approach would assist
regional authorities to abate the consequences of air
pollution. Moreso, regardless of anticipated changes
in outdoor emissions, implementation and evaluation
of control strategies could support sustainable devel-
opment by allowing for reliable assessment of outdoor
air quality, proper public health concerns for nearby
residential areas within industrial infrastructure, and
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
avoiding environmental deterioration (Almetwally
et al., 2020; Kuklinska et al., 2015; Tsilingiridis et al.,
2002; Weng et al., 2014). The Royal Commission at
Yanbu (RCY) was founded as the custodial agency
to plan and boost investments, mentor and man-
age the energy-intensive industries through integra-
tion between customers’ needs, investors’ interests,
and industry with the community’s requirements for
securing public health and a safe environment. In
this context, a network of various AQMSs has been
installed by the RCY and distributed in spatially
diverse sites within the Yanbu industrial complex to
monitor air pollution emissions. These sites are illus-
trated in Fig. 1.
As the custodial agency, the RCY creates detailed
health-related assessments of several air emissions,
including ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2, ­O3, CO, ­PM2.5, and ­PM10,
and these gaseous concentrations in outdoor air were
continuously measured and recorded to essentially
provide evidence regarding the burden of disease
estimates caused by exposures to harmful air quality,
according to regional and international guidelines,
through monitoring and evaluation of gaseous emis-
sions to empower the health sector to tackle outdoor
air pollution. AQMS 1 is located to the south-east
and south of Yanbu vicinity residential, respectively,
while AQMS 4 is located to offshore downwind of
Yanbu vicinity residential. AQMSs 1 and 4 mainly
monitor the gaseous emissions routing from the
Light-Industry campus (containing technical gases,
Gypsum facility). AQMS 3 is located to the offshore
downwind of the Aramco Refinery; in the other direc-
tion, AQMS 5 is located to the west-south direction
of Aramco Refinery, onshore upwind of the power
station and spatially close to Aramco terminals, while
AQMS 2 is located to the east of a concrete indus-
try including handling and production construc-
tion materials and a distance about 6 km south-east
from Aramco Refinery. As summarized in Table 1, it
was observed that the AQMSs were spread out over
vast distances ranging from few kilometers from the
nearby source to few tens of kilometers apart from
each individual AQMS to ensure more comprehen-
sive evaluation of the results. Furthermore, two loca-
tions were selected near the onshore zone, while the
other three were within the offshore zone. The net-
work was designed to ensure effective coverage of
air quality in both the industrial and residential land-
scapes of Yanbu city.
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683 Page 5 of 29 683

Fig. 1  Spatial AQMS’s distribution within the infrastructure of Yanbu industrial complex and vicinity residential

Table 1  Distance between individual AQMSs and nearby sources

Distance (km) AQMS1 AQMS2 AQMS3 AQMS4 AQMS5 Nearby source (distance)

AQMS1 – 15 10.7 5 7 Yanbu vicinity residential (2.6)

AQMS2 15 – 5 16.8 9.5 Coment industry (1.3)
AQMS3 10.7 5 – 11.8 7.2 Aramco Refinery (2.4)
AQMS4 5 16.8 11.8 – 12.3 Light industry (3.8)
AQMS5 7 9.5 7.2 12.3 – Power station and Aramco Terminals (2.0)

Surface measurements for outdoor emissions
including ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2, ­O3, CO, P
­ M2.5, and P
­ M10
were obtained, and the gaseous concentrations in five
outdoor air stations were collected from RCY reports
over the years 2015–2020. In specific, AQMS 1–5 are
capable of measuring and recording the investigated
gaseous emissions; only AQMS 5 oversees CO meas-
urements. Moreso, field ­PM2.5, and ­PM10 observa-
tions were performed in AQMS 1 and 2, respectively.
The instrumentations used for measuring the gaseous
pollutants’ concentrations were in situ close coupled
multi-gas analyzers for real-time and simultaneous
detection of gaseous emissions with integrated sample
drying and data validation. UV fluorescence was used
for detection of ­SO2/H2S analyzer, model AF-21 M,
with maximum measuring figure of 2000 ± 1.0 µg/m3,
where chemiluminescence N ­ O2 analyzer of model
AC-32 M has a maximum measuring domain of up to
2000 ± 0.5 µg/m3. For ­O3 analysis, a UV Photometric
detection of model O­ 3-42 M has maximum measuring
range of 500 ± 0.5 µg/m3. NDIR CO-12 M analyzer
model has CO detection up to 36.0 ± 0.02 g/m3. Beta
Gauge analyzer was used for PM detection of partic-
ulate diameter within the range of 0.01–20 microns,
104
with potential particulate account of 9.5 ± 35 × ­
3 5 3
­PM2.5/cm and 1.7 ± 60 × ­10 ­PM10/cm . For detection

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of the meteorological parameters (wind speed and
direction, temperature, and humidity), a meteorologi-
cal station equipped with model Lastem was put into
service. These instrumentations were delivered by
Environment SA manufacturer (France).
Outdoor air quality standards
Harmful outdoor air pollutants are categorized as gase-
ous sulfur derivatives (like dioxide ­[SO2] and hydride
­[H2S]), nitrogen dioxides ­ ([NO2], Ozone ­ [O3], and
carbon mono-oxide [CO]), and suspended particulate
matters, which contaminate the anthropogenic and
biogenic activities in the industrial regimes associ-
ated with population (Al-Zboon & Forton, 2019; Lou
et al., 2019; Ramli et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2020).
A variety of industrial applications are responsible for
­SO2 and H­ 2S emissions, which mainly originate from
desulfurization of crude oils to immobilize the sulfur
contents from end-fuel derivates to other components
like ­SO2 and ­H2S; therefore, strict precautions must
be met during the design and operation of Amine
Washing units to reduce the emission of S ­ O2, ­NO2,
and CO into outdoor air (Al Rabadi, 2021; Al Rabadi
et al., 2018; Heeres & Rineksa, 2014). High sulfur-
containing fuels produce ­SO2 and H ­ 2S in the indus-
trial applications of energy production from integrated
smokestacks, while N ­ O2 emissions are produced from
denitrification processes of high nitrogen–containing
fuel derivatives, thermal power plants, coal burning,
and other industrial applications. Thus, N ­ O2 could be
produced by the chemical reaction of free atmospheric
oxygen and nitrogen, which is achieved under spe-
cific circumstances during combustion (Munsif et al.,
2021). Furthermore, CO emissions are associated with
fuel-fired boilers and incomplete combustion source in
a steep rate, while exposure to S­ O2, ­H2S, and CO can
play a vital role in asthma, bronchial symptoms, lung
inflammation, and reduced functionality. Conversely,
photochemical reaction produces several secondary
pollutants from ­O3 precursors like ­NO2, ­SO2, and CO
(Hassan et al., 2019; Rovira et al., 2021), and elevated
levels of atmospheric ­O3 have been considered a major
concern in the damage to materials and manufactured
goods or negative drawbacks on crops and vegetation
(Munsif et al., 2021). Exposure to excessive atmos-
pheric ­O3 is a major coincidence for asthma morbid-
ity and mortality. Obviously, ­O3 obstacle is oft expe-
rienced in large cities near industrial sectors (Hassan
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
et al., 2013, 2019; EEA, 2021; WHO, 2021), and
Yanbu is analogous to many other cities in the Arabian
Peninsula and worldwide suffering from urban smog
problems (Alharbi et al., 2015; Weng et al., 2014).
Atmospheric ­O3 may form hydroxyl radicals due to its
radioactive force under specific conditions (Al-Harbi
et al., 2020; Hassan et al., 2019). Meanwhile, ­NO2 and
nitric oxide (­NOx), ­SO2, and CO are usually major O ­3
precursors (Al-Azmi et al., 2009; Al-Jeelani, 2014;
Butenhoff et al., 2015; Hassan et al., 2019; Shareef
et al., 2018). The main parameters that steer O­ 3 forma-
tion are the ratio of the relevant atmospheric precursors
and the intensity of solar radiation. Another related
emission is the particulate matter (PM), which is clas-
sified as a common indicator of outdoor air pollution.
It is produced from a complex mixture of solid and
liquid particulates constituted from organic and inor-
ganic components and suspended in air (atmospheric
aerosols, various oxides, carbonates, sulfate and nitrate
salts, black carbon [CS], metalloids, and Sahara Desert
or the so-called mineral dust) (Hariri et al., 2013).
While particulates with a diameter of 10 microns or
less, ­PM10, can penetrate and precipitate in respira-
tory vessels deep within the lungs, the more significant
health-damaging particulates are those with a diameter
of 2.5 microns or less, ­(PM2.5) (Algarni et al., 2021;
Dasari et al., 2020; Habeebullah, 2013; Modaihsh
et al., 2015; Munir et al., 2013, 2016; Sharma et al.,
2020; Ukhov et al., 2020). As a synopsis, these studies
suggest that particle size is the main factor for deter-
mining the residence time of particles in the atmos-
phere. As an illustration, fine particles with a diameter
of 2.5 microns or less can typically remain in the air
for some days (Aina et al., 2014). The atmospheric
half-life of coarse particles, however, can range from
some minutes to several hours (Munir et al., 2016), due
to the gravitational settling and the temperature inver-
sions between the upper and lower atmospheric lay-
ers. By monitoring air pollution levels in the relevant
industrial sectors to ensure they are within regional
and/or international thresholds, domestic authorities
could contribute, to a great extent, in reducing the bur-
den of diverse cardiovascular and respiratory diseases
as well as cancers (Alharbi et al., 2014, 2015; Al-Harbi
et al., 2020; Almetwally et al., 2020).
Thresholds for outdoor emissions are regulated
by custodial agencies: international bodies such as
World Health Organization (WHO), and the Euro-
pean Environment Agency (EEA), and regional
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683 Page 7 of 29 683

bodies like the Royal Commission for Jubail and (24-h mean) was reported by WHO. For H ­ 2S, some
Yanbu (RCY). Air quality measurements are typically flexibility in the typical values was tabulated by the
reported in terms of mean daily concentrations clas- RCY as follows: 24 µg/m3 (24-h mean) and 200 µg/
sified as exposure times of 1, 8, or 24 h and annual m3 (1-h mean) to be aligned with environmental
mean concentrations. The gaseous accumulations into issues and the investors’ interests in the petrochemi-
atmosphere were attributed to tremendous demand cal industry. According to RCY, ­NO2 guideline val-
for manufactured goods and products without giving ues are 94 μg/m3 (annual mean) and 658 μg/m3 (1-h
any focus to their environmental influence on Yanbu mean), and since ­NO2 is the main source of nitrate
industry locality. As listed in Table 2, air quality aerosols that constitute atmospheric ­O3 and is linked
limitations were summarized according to regional to reduced lung functionality in residentials, strict
guidelines such as the RCY as well as those by inter- limitations of 10 μg/m3 (annual mean) and 25 μg/
national associations, namely, WHO and EEA. Rou- m3 (24-h mean) were set by WHO, while moderate
tine air quality measurements are typically described restrictions of 100 μg/m3 and 188 μg/m3 for annual
in units of micrograms per cubic meter of air volume and 24-h means, respectively, were reported by the
for all the investigated air emissions, except for CO, EEA. For O ­ 3, conventional thresholds are 240 μg/m3
where it is expressed in units of grams per cubic (8-h mean) and a maximum of 160 μg/m3 (1-h mean)
meter of air volume. Reported guideline values for based on peak season, which is defined as an average
­SO2 according to RCY were 80 µg/m3 (annual mean), of daily maximum 1 h of mean ­O3 concentration. In
367 µg/m3 (24-h mean), and a maximum of 734 µg/ this context, these ­O3 thresholds were considered for
m3 (1-h mean), while a lower value of 40 µg/m3 ground-level ­O3 and must not be confused with ­O3
content in the upper atmosphere. Ground-level O ­ 3 is
produced by the photochemical reaction of O ­ 3 precur-
Table 2  Ambient air quality thresholds sors like ­NO2, ­SO2, and CO. Therefore, significantly
Emission RCY​e WHOe EEAe lower levels of ­O3 concentrations of 100 and 70 μg/
m3 (8-h mean) have been established by the WHO
SO2 [µg/m3] Annual mean 80 – –
and EEA, respectively; thus, excessive O ­ 3 in outdoor
24-h ­meana 367 40 –
1-h ­meanc 734 – 200 air may have a marked impact on public health and
H2S [µg/m3] 24-h ­meana 24 – – serious lung diseases for residents in Europe and the
1-h ­meanc 200 – – USA. Furthermore, due to the absence of regional
NO2 [µg/m3] Annual mean 94 10 100 guidelines for CO emissions in the outdoor air, the
24-h ­meana – 25 – international regulations by WHO and EEA were
1-h ­meanc 658 – 188
followed for the current investigations. The WHO
O3 [µg/m3] 8-h ­meand 240 100 70
found CO limitations of 4 g/m3 for 24-h mean, while
1-h ­meanc 160
the EEA found 9 g/m3 and 35 g/m3 for 8-h and 1-h
CO [g/m3] 24-h ­meana – 4 –
8-h ­meand – – 9 means, respectively. ­PM2.5 could be a constitutional
1-h ­meanc – – 35 fraction of ­PM10; therefore, restricted limitations on
PM2.5 [µg/m3] Annual mean 15 5 12 its concentration were tabulated in comparison with
24-h ­meana 65 15 35 coarser ­PM10. In accordance to RCY, ­PM2.5 guide-
PM10 [µg/m3] Annual mean 50 15 30 lines are 15 g/m3 and 65 μg/m3 for annual and 24-h
24-h ­meana 150 45 150b
means, respectively. For WHO, restricted levels are 5
a
Defined as 99th percentile of the daily distribution of 24-h and 15 μg/m3 of annual and 24-h means for a compre-
average concentrations hensive assessment of ­PM2.5 outdoor air quality world
b
Defined as 98th percentile of the daily distribution of 1-h widely. According to the EEA, moderate P ­ M2.5 limits
average concentrations
c
of 12 g/m3 and 35 μg/m3 for annual and 24-h means
Defined as 99th percentile of the daily distribution of 1-h
were reported; meanwhile, P ­M10 guidelines were
average concentrations
d stated by the regional RCY as 50 g/m3 and 150 μg/m3
Defined as daily maximum distributed over 8-h average con-
centration for annual and 24-h means, respectively, and low lev-
e
According to EEA, the time distribution is considered over a els were categorized by WHO as 15 g/m3 and 45 μg/
period of 3 years m3 for annual and 24-h means, respectively, and the

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EEA set levels at 30 g/m3 and 150 μg/m3 for annual
and 24-h means, respectively.
The conversion factors were approximated accord-
ing to the linear equation (EEA, 2021; WHO, 2021):
[ 𝜇g ] [ 𝜇g ] MwtGas
Conc. = Conc. ⋅ (12.187 ⋅
m3 m3 Tabs [K]
Based on the pollution levels related to health con-
sequences, an air quality index (AQI) is used to con-
vey to the public of how healthy or unhealthy the out-
door quality is on a particular day. The AQI is used to
evaluate if the locality’s air quality is better or worse
in vicinities remote from the observation/measuring
location or to relate measured concentrations to prob-
able health implications. For each air pollutant con-
centration, in details, a scale of exceedances’ account
with respect to thresholds would justify the particu-
lar air quality. An AQI between 0 and 50 is deemed
“good,” 51 to 100 is “moderately polluted,” 101 to
150 is “unhealthy for sensitive groups,” 151 and 300
is “unhealthy,” 201–300 is “very unhealthy,” and over
300 is “hazardous.”
Results and discussion
) (1)
Meteorological data
Figure 2 shows the rose diagram depicting meteoro-
logical data from the Yanbu Department of Meteorol-
ogy. It depicts the average wind speed and direction
for the entire period of 12 months and the entire 24-h
period over the year 2015. Accordingly, the variation
in the meteorological parameters has been widely
studied in the Yanbu region and surroundings (Al-
Zboon et al., 2022; Khalil et al., 2016), and based
on the hourly observations, it was stated that wind
speed and direction in Yanbu industrial complex is
largely affected by the climate of the Red sea. Low
wind speed in the Yanbu region alters dispersion
of pollutants, and air pollution lasts long in the city

Fig. 2  Average wind speed

and direction of Yanbu
industrial complex and the
residential area

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vicinity. Analysis of meteorological data revealed
that the average wind speed remains between 2.1 m/s
and 3.0 m/s (3.9–5.8) knots. The wind over the entire
investigated case study area was classified as calm, or
the so-called light breeze, and was unchanged for the
purpose of air quality assessment. Furthermore, the
meteorological data were presumed to be unchanged
for the years 2015–2020, and the net wind direction
was determined to be north within the offshore zone
and north-west within the onshore zone (Red Sea’s
eastern coasts).
Also, analogous findings were highlighted in
related studies (Hariri et al., 2013; Hassan et al.,
2013; Munir et al., 2016). The alternation of weather
conditions on the east coast of the Red Sea has the
following sequence: the spring season begins from
early March till June, while summer term begins from
June to August/September. From March to Septem-
ber, the hot month period is defined by an increase
in temperature and ambient humidity, resulting in ele-
vated coastal conditions (Aina et al., 2014; Al-Jeelani,
2014; Dasari et al., 2020; Habeebullah, 2013; Hariri
et al., 2013; Hassan et al., 2013, 2019; Khalil et al.,
2016). Afterward, the autumn season starts from the
end of September to November when the weather
changes from elevated coastal conditions to mild
status of lower temperature and humidity rates. Due
to the promotion of seawater evaporation, the maxi-
mum ground temperature during the warmest months
could reach average highs around 45 °C with a rela-
tive humidity of more than 60%, while the mild status
of the region is characterized by moderate tempera-
tures of about 30 °C and relative humidity of 30%.
In literature, the key climatic factors that potentially
affect air quality are temperature, atmospheric vis-
ibility related to air humidity and cloud fraction, and
horizontal wind speed and its direction. According to
relevant studies by Al-Jeelani (2014) and Khalil et al.
(2016), the variations in meteorological parameters in
KSA’s coastal areas throughout the year may have a
less pronounced contribution on the concentrations’
alternation of air pollutants than those caused by
existing industrial infrastructures and other associated
anthropogenic activities. According to these findings,
the temporal and spatial fluctuation of air quality pol-
lutants is related to the temperature effect derived
from the temporal alternation of air pollutants’ con-
centrations between day and night as well as among
different seasons.
Page 9 of 29 683
Ambient air quality of gaseous pollutants
The average measurements of air emissions include
the major outdoor air pollutants, ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2, ­O3,
CO, ­PM2.5, and P ­ M10 for the five AQMSs, and the
time intervals of the relevant gaseous emissions were
based on continuous diurnal and night measurements
covering 24 h per day, over the calendar year duration
of 12 months, and through the calendar year period
from 2015 to 2020. These measurements intrinsically
include the variation of day/night periods, with the
influence of the temperature alternation between the
hot and the cold months as well as the spatial distri-
bution among the five foreseen AQMSs.
Daily ­SO2
The average daily ­ SO2 measures for all AQMSs
are illustrated in Fig. 3a–e, respectively, and as
indicated, the detected concentrations S ­O2 were
obtained for all foreseen temporal and spatial inter-
vals. Obviously, a maximum peak in daily S ­ O2 con-
centration profiles of around 35 μg/m3 is obtained
during the midday periods between 09:00 A.M.
and 03:00 P.M. (local Yanbu timing) for all years
and spatial AQMSs, then, approaches lower lim-
its during other day periods for the same relevant
year around below 10.0 μg/m3, which is consist-
ent with the findings by previous studies (Al-Harbi
et al., 2020; Al-Zboon et al., 2022; Dasari et al.,
2020; Hassan et al., 2019; Hindy & Abdelmak-
soud, 2016; Khalil et al., 2016; Munir et al., 2013,
2016). The maximum peak is attributed for process-
ing high sulfur content in fuel derivates, especially
in the heavy fuel oil, and due to the high industrial
activities within Yanbu industrial complex dur-
ing the midday period. Therefore, other maximum
daily ­SO2 concentrations were obtained to reach
the values of 70.0 μg/m3 after the peak period
around 6:00 P.M. (local Yanbu timing) for AQMS
2 in 2015. Principally, these higher S­ O2 measure-
ments could be attributed to extraordinary industrial
activities in the cement industry during that time
interval. To pay more attention on this finding, an
analysis of the field measurements is considered for
the year 2015 and all AQMSs at 10:00 A.M. (local
Yanbu timing) as an instance. Different figures were
attained as 7.5 μg/m3 for AQMS1, 29.0 μg/m3 for
AQMS2, 8.3 μg/m3 for AQMS3, 22.5 μg/m3 for
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Fig. 3  Average daily measurements of S
­ O2 concentrations within the period of 2015–2020: a for AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3,
d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5
AQM4, and 18.1 μg/m3 for AQMS5. This spatial
variation is attributed to the nearby source from the
relevant AQMS. More focus is to be drawn on the
results of AQMS 5, before and after the daily peak
measurements (9:00 AM till 3:00 PM); the lower
limits achieved a high range of daily ­SO2 meas-
urements between 15.0 and 25.0 μg/m3, especially
for the periods of 2016 till 2018. This observation
might be explained by a combination of covari-
ables that could be responsible for such elevated
measurements outside of peak times, since AQMS
5 is in the middle of the Yanbu industrial complex
close to extremely active industrial facilities and a
power plant. Even if the elevated ­SO2 concentration
were obtained, the daily emissions were below the
thresholds (Table 2). The obtained measurements
indicated that ­SO2 is not an important contaminant
of concern in the outdoor air of this specific loca-
tion. Conversely, there is evidence for applying
abatement policies to reduce the gaseous emissions
toward the residential area.
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Monthly ­SO2
The average monthly S ­O2 measurements for all
AQMSs are shown in Fig. 4a–e, respectively. Gener-
ally, it can be deduced from these diagrams that the
temporal variation in ­SO2 mean concentrations dif-
fers between the cold (November to March) and hot
months (April to October). During the hot months,
lower emissions were recorded in the range of 10 to
20 μg/m3, while higher emissions were obtained dur-
ing the cold months of the year in the range of 30 to
45 μg/m, which were even below the allowable limi-
tations. In previous studies, the effect of ground tem-
perature was distinguished from spatial distance for
the emission source and other meteorological param-
eters such as humidity (Aleem, 2013; Munir et al.,
2013; Al-Jeelani, 2014; Khalil et al., 2016; Ukhov
et al., 2020). This temporal variation in monthly S ­ O2
measurements was attributed to extraordinary energy
requirements for heating the industrial and residential
premises during cold months, and current findings
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
Fig. 4  Average monthly measurements of ­SO2 concentrations within the period of 2015–2020: a for AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS
3, d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5
particularly agree with those from the study by Al-
Jeelani (2014). For illustration, the spatial distribu-
tion is deduced by comparing ­SO2 concentrations in
October 2015 for all AQMSs. Figures attained as
following 10.5 μg/m3 for AQMS1, 55.3 μg/m3 for
AQMS2, 13.4 μg/m3 for AQMS3, 23.2 μg/m3 for
AQMS4, and 13.7 μg/m3 for AQMS5. AQMS 2
recorded an elevated S ­ O2 concentration due to huge
demands in cement industry during this period, while
records of AQMS 4 could be contributed to thermal
demands for nearby light industry and Yanbu vicin-
ity residential. According to the thresholds in Table 2,
the salient result generally showed an obvious con-
sistency in the average monthly ­SO2 emissions to be
around the acceptable limits.
Annual ­SO2
Average annual ­ SO2 measurements are summa-
rized for the five monitoring AQMSs in Fig. 5. The
annual trends were based on the continuous measure-
ments using data collected over the entire period of
2015–2020, and the assessment (represented by the
Page 11 of 29 683
statistical criteria of mean and account of exceedances
that ­SO2 measurements violate RCY limitations) was
conducted to determine annual ­SO2 trends. Statistical
data were highlighted to account for the number of
exceedances when the gaseous measurements of air
pollutants studied in current investigations only vio-
late the RCY guidelines, considering the geographical
location of the case study as well as the comprehen-
siveness of the RCY guidelines for all the investigated
air pollutants in comparison to the restrictive WHO
and EEA guidelines that are widely applied in Europe
and over the Pacific regions. Except that average ­SO2
concentrations were obtained, e.g., for AQMS 2 as
28.4 μg/m3 in 2015, 20.2 μg/m3 in 2016, 19.5 μg/
m3 in 2017, 18.9 μg/m3 in 2018, 15.6 μg/m3 in 2019,
and 5.8 μg/m3 in 2020, respectively. The obtained
trend for annual ­SO2 mean concentration for all the
monitoring AQMSs showed that there is a decrease
in the annual ­ SO2 concentration over the investi-
gated periods from 2015 to 2020. Some exceedances
were routinely recorded behind the relevant tabulated
guidelines by the RCY (80 μg/m3). Extensively, few
exceedances were recorded in AQMS 2 such that 8
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Fig. 5  Spatial average
annual ­SO2 measure-
ments for AQMSs during
2015–2020, with account of
exceedances per annum that
­SO2 measurements violate
RCY limitations
violations were recorded in 2015, 7 in 2016 and 2017,
6 in 2018, 3 in 2019, and 2 in 2020. Obviously, a pro-
nounced decrease in annual ­SO2 mean concentration
was generally observed through the period from 2015
to the beginning of the first COVID-19 lockdown in
2020. Generally, reduced accounts were documented
of the annual exceedances for S ­O2 measurements
during the period from 2015 to 2020 for AQMS 2–5,
respectively. By accounting for the number of viola-
tions of annual S ­ O2 concentration for all AQMSs,
which is below 50 on AQI scale, the pollution levels
related to health consequences are deemed as good.
Whereas potential health hazards due to the inhala-
tion of ­SO2 gas could lead to nose and throat infec-
tion, bronchitis, and eyes irritation, high dosages or
prolonged exposure to S ­ O2 might impact a serious
lung malfunction, eventually leading to death. There-
fore, symptoms may vary according to exposure time
and the residential’s sensitivity, and in most cases, the
symptoms appear within short periods of 10–15 min
after exposure. According to EEA (2021), WHO
(2021), and RCY (2022), it has been reported that at
up to a concentration of 100 µg/m3, the bronchi would
be significantly affected, while higher concentrations
of up to 400 µg/m3 reduce lung functionality. Consid-
ering the reduced accounts of the annual exceedances
for ­SO2 measurements in spatially distinct locations,
it was concluded that the Yanbu industrial complex
was subject to lower consequence levels of S ­ O2 accu-
mulation without significant threats to the environ-
ment and public health.
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Daily ­H2S
The trends of ­H2S daily measurements for all AQMSs
are shown in Fig. 6a–e. In general, a peak was
observed for all AQMSs between 8:00 A.M. and 3:00
P.M. (local Yanbu timing), with a maximum ­H2S con-
centration of 12.4 μg/m3, and a minimum ­H2S con-
centration of ≤5.0 μg/m3 was recorded from early
morning to evening for all AQMSs. This trend can
be mainly attributed to anthropogenic and industrial
activities during the day. Nonetheless, the following
exceptions were also observed: a maximum concen-
tration of approximately 122.0 μg/m3 for AQMS 2 in
2017, 40.0 μg/m3 for AQMS 3 in 2015, and 28.0 μg/
m3 in 2016, although this peak was recorded around
8:00 P.M. (local Yanbu timing), which was attributed
to industrial activities during this period. Despite
the maximum concentration obtained for AQMS 2
in 2017, there were no exceedances according to the
RCY limitations of 200 μg/m3 (1 h mean). Addition-
ally, the spatial distribution for all AQMS 2–5 can be
highlighted by analyzing the daily ­ H2S concentra-
tion at 08:00 A.M. (local Yanbu time) for e.g. 2017,
where figures were found as 8.1 μg/m3, 15.7 μg/m3,
3.8 μg/m3, 3.2 μg/m3, and 16.2 μg/m3, respectively,
different concentrations were obviously obtained.
Additionally, the trend for AQMS 5 varied, where a
peak (38.0 μg/m3) was observed between 8:00 A.M.
and 11:00 A.M. (local Yanbu timing), recording some
violations in the daily concentration with respect to
threshold set by RCY (24 μg/m3). However, the daily
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
Fig. 6  Average daily measurements of H
­ 2S concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS 4,
and e AQMS 5
­H2S concentration dropped below the threshold set
by RCY for the rest of the day. This could be attrib-
uted to the geographical location of AQMS 5 that
was located at the center of on-shore, industrial, and
anthropogenic activities. The daily ­H2S concentration
varies within the acceptable limit and emphasized the
efficient policies applied to abate the gaseous emis-
sions from the smokestacks of the manufacturing
facilities neighboring AQMS 5.
Monthly ­H2S
The experimental data for the monthly ­H2S concentra-
tions for all AQMSs are presented in Fig. 7a–e. In situ
­H2S emissions revealed a pattern, where emissions
increased during the spring and then decreased during
the hot months. In contrast, monthly ­H2S concentra-
tions peaked during autumn, and low concentrations
were recorded during the winter season. Even with
pertinent studies carried out in other urban environ-
ments in the Gulf region (Alharbi et al., 2014), the
Mediterranean region in Egypt (Hindy & Abdelmak-
soud, 2016), Spain (Rovira et al., 2021), and Greece
Page 13 of 29 683
(Tsilingiridis et al., 2002), the lowest monthly H ­ 2S
concentrations recorded in winter may be related to
the absence of dusty winds, which were analogous
in other urban Saudi cities such as NEOM (Dasari
et al., 2020). Contrary to the findings of this study, the
buildup in monthly H ­ 2S concentrations was attributed
to increased demands for fuel derivatives for heat-
ing during winters. By comparing the present results
with the thresholds stated by RCY, we concluded
that Yanbu city was subjected to unharmful levels of
­H2S during 2015–2020. Apart from natural phenom-
ena, such as dusty winds in summer, the turbulence
of the boundary layer was less in springs and winters
and trapped the pollutants near the ground because of
fewer temperature inversions between the upper and
lower atmospheric layers. During the summer months,
in contrast, thermal heating at the ground level pro-
moted turbulence and the mixing of atmospheric lay-
ers, which, consequently, enhanced buoyancy and the
migration of outdoor pollutants toward upper atmos-
pheric layers. In addition, this suggested that H ­ 2S
emissions were adequately regulated through proper
distribution of monitoring AQMSs over the Yanbu
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Fig. 7  Average monthly measurements of H

­ 2S concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS
4, and e AQMS 5

industrial complex, considering that ­ H2S emissions Annual ­H2S

were a genuine environmental hazard that degrade the
quality of life and endanger public health in both resi- Average annual ­H2S concentrations are summarized
dential and industrial areas. for the five monitoring AQMSs in Fig. 8. Annual
trends in ­H2S concentration were based on continuous

Fig. 8  Spatial average

annual ­H2S measure-
ments for AQMSs during
2015–2020, with account of
exceedances per annum that
­H2S measurements violate
RCY limitations

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measurements using the data collected during
2015–2020, and the assessment, represented by the
statistical parameters of mean and account of exceed-
ances, indicated that N ­ O2 measurements violated
RCY limitations. The average annual H ­ 2S concentra-
tions decreased from 69.4 μg/m3 in 2015 to 30.1 μg/
m3 in 2020 for AQMS 1, from 6.2 μg/m3 in 2016 to
< 3.0 μg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 2, from 18.4 μg/m3 in
2015 to 1.6 μg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 3, from 2.6 μg/
m3 in 2015 to < 1.2 μg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 4, and
from 12.4 μg/m3 in 2015 to < 8.0 μg·/m3 in 2020 for
AQMS 5. This alternating annual ­H2S trend might be
explained by the differences in the aerosol size in the
source regions. These findings have been verified for
other urban environments in the east coasts’ region
of the Red Sea (Aleem, 2013; Alharbi et al., 2014;
Dasari et al., 2020; Hariri et al., 2013; Khalil et al.,
2016). The main anthropogenic cause of ­H2S emis-
sions over AQMSs 1, 2, and 4 was vehicular traffic
density, as well as light and cement industries. Mean-
while, for AQMS 3 and 5, the trend in annual ­H2S
emissions can be explained by the massive energy
demands of oil processing facilities for manufactur-
ing fuel–based hydrocarbon derivatives. According
to regulations, ­H2S exhibits a wide range of poten-
tial human health impacts, with a gradual increase
observed in the severity of symptoms, which depends
on exposure periods. Exposure to 100 µg/m3 ­H2S for
15–30 min alters breathing and causes drowsiness,
which could be fatal after 48 h, and 200 µg/m3 of
­H2S could cause conjunctivitis and respiratory tract
irritation, with pulmonary edema occurring from pro-
longed exposure, resulting in death within 30–60 min.
Eventually, we observed violations to the RCY guide-
lines in annual H ­ 2S measurements. Additionally,
48 and 28 exceedances were recorded in 2015 and
2020, respectively, for AQMS 1; 43 and 21 exceed-
ances were recorded in 2015 and 2020, respectively,
for AQMS 2; 54 and 27 exceedances were recorded
in 2015 and 2020, respectively, for AQMS 3; 44 and
20 exceedances were recorded in 2015 and 2020,
respectively, for AQMS 4; and 55 and 22 exceed-
ances were recorded in 2015 and 2020, respectively,
for AQMS 5. By accounting for the number of vio-
lations of annual H ­ 2S concentration for all AQMSs,
which is in general below 50 on AQI scale, the pollu-
tion levels related to health consequences are deemed
as good. An exception was noticed where the number
of exceedances was recorded 55 for AQMS 5; hence,
Page 15 of 29 683
AQI was considered as moderately polluted. These
violations were synchronizing the raise in production
capacities in the nearby chemical facilities in 2015. In
this context, a suitable program for limiting the detri-
mental effects of pollution on health during produc-
tion scenarios with maximum capacities in the neigh-
boring facilities could be recommended based on
the current findings. In particular, the RCY received
the results for excessive execution of the air quality
improvement strategy at the industrial and nearby res-
idential areas for this purpose.
Daily ­NO2
The daily profiles of ­ NO2 concentrations for all
AQMSs are shown in Fig. 9a–e. The daily N ­ O2
concentration trend exhibited two peaks; the first
observed around 8:00 A.M. (local Yanbu timing),
reflecting a reduction in ­NO2 concentrations to reach
a minimum around 3:00 P.M. (local Yanbu timing).
After midday, the profiles were reestablished with
a second peak for evenings and a stable concentra-
tion during nights. This trend was symmetric with
the findings of previous studies (Al-Azmi et al.,
2009; Alharbi et al., 2014; Al-Jeelani, 2014; Buten-
hoff et al., 2015; Hassan et al., 2019; Shareef et al.,
2018; Tsilingiridis et al., 2002). These concentrations
highlighted the influence of photochemical processes
favored by solar radiation for O­ 3 formation within the
lower atmospheric layers. The photochemical reac-
tion occurs in the following sequence: N­ O2 in the out-
door air is broken down by sunlight to generate NO
and free oxygen atoms, which then react rapidly with
ambient ­O2 to form O ­ 3. This phase was responsible
for the decrease in daily ­NO2 concentrations during
midday. In contrast, ­O3 decomposition starts with its
reaction with NO to complete the cycle, and hence,
­NO2 is further generated during the rest of the day.
This phase was accountable for the second peak in
the daily profile of N ­ O2 concentration. The lowest
levels were recorded during midday around 3:00 P.M.
(local Yanbu timing), establishing a range of ­NO2
daily concentrations between 5.0 and 10.0 µg/m3 for
AQMS 1; 5.0 and 15.0 µg/m3 for AQMS 2; 28.0 and
30.0 µg/m3 for 2015–2017 and 12.0 and 17.0 µg/m3
for 2018–2020 for AQMS 3; 5.0 and 8.0 µg/m3 for
all years for AQMS 4, except for 2019 that exhibited
a minimum concentration of 15 µg/m3; and 5.0 and
15.0 µg/m3 for AQMS 5. The attained minimum was
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Fig. 9  Average daily N
­ O2 concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5
associated with the consumption of daily N
­ O2 deposi-
tion processes, which brought daily ­NO2 concentra-
tions to acceptable limits. Moreover, the minimum
daily ­NO2 concentration at AQMS 3 ranged between
28.0 and 30.0 µg/m3 for the years 2015–2017, com-
pared to the range of 12.0–17.0 µg/m3 for the years
2018–2020. This ensured low N ­ O2 emissions in
accordance with the RCY and EEA guidelines.
Monthly ­NO2
Figure 10a–e illustrate the monthly variation of ­NO2
concentrations for all AQMSs. Similar to previous
studies (Hariri et al., 2013; Hassan et al., 2013; Has-
san et al., 2019; Al-Jeelani, 2014; Hindi & Abdel-
maksoud, 2016; Khalil et al., 2016; Dasari et al.,
2020), there was a direct association between meteor-
ological conditions, such as ambient temperature, and
in situ ­NO2 concentrations. The low monthly ­NO2
concentrations during midday might be due to intense
dilution conditions under the influence of temperature
inversions. Furthermore, elevated temperatures and
dense solar radiation during midday promoted pho-
tochemical reactions, which enhanced the chemical
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degradation of ­NO2, reducing their in situ accumu-
lation. Nonetheless, the following trend was noticed:
maxima were recorded during winter 2018 for AQMS
1, with concentrations reaching >90 µg/m3; for
AQMS 2 with 35.4 µg/m3; for AQMS 30.5 µg/m3; for
AQMS 4 32.5 µg/m3; and for AQMS 5 60.3 µg/m3.
The trend of monthly N ­ O2 concentrations was attrib-
uted to cross-acting phenomena, such as the alterna-
tion in thermal boundary-layer mixing and anthropo-
genic emissions, in combination with geographical
location from the source regions.
Annual ­NO2
Average annual ­ NO2 measurements for the five
AQMSs are summarized in Fig. 11. The annual ­NO2
trends were based on the continuous measurements
over the entire period of 2015–2020, and the assess-
ment, represented by the statistical parameters of
mean, and account of exceedances that ­NO2 meas-
urements violated the RCY limitations, was used to
determine annual ­ NO2 trends. The findings of the
spatiotemporal analysis for ­NO2 emissions revealed
a general trend, whereby the concentrations fluctuate
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683 Page 17 of 29 683

Fig. 10  Average monthly ­NO2 concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5

Fig. 11  Spatial average

annual ­NO2 measure-
ments for AQMSs during
2015–2020, with account of
exceedances per annum that
­NO2 measurements violate
RCY limitations

with each successive year and are kept below the
thresholds. This trend focused on the effective control
of the anthropogenic and industrial activities in the
Yanbu industrial complex. The basic human sources
for ­NO2 emissions were automotive emissions, in
addition to emissions from smokestacks in chemical
and oil processing facilities. Yanbu is also charac-
terized by the highest number of vehicle proprietor-
ships, due to absence of public transportation such as
buses, trains, and street-trams. In addition, Yanbu’s
sprawling residential areas, apart from the indus-
trial complex, have massively contributed to outdoor

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air emissions through daily driving routes from/
to work. This fact has been highlighted by previous
studies (Alharbi et al., 2014; Al-Jeelani, 2014; Buten-
hoff et al., 2015; Shareef et al., 2018), where it was
noted that N ­ O2 concentrations in populated suburbs
might result from vehicle emissions and urban activi-
ties, whereas industrial emissions might be caused by
hydrocarbon production and processing activities.
Furthermore, the spatiotemporal variability in
­NO2 concentration was combined with the alterna-
tion of in situ measurements of other pollutants,
such as atmospheric O ­ 3, due to photochemical reac-
tions and deposition. Owing to non-linear ­O3 pre-
cursor alliance, a mitigation plan for atmospheric
precursors, such as ­NO2, might not abate ­O3 forma-
tion in the case of abundant solar radiation. Moreo-
ver, a potential increase might occur in O ­ 3 and ­NO2
concentrations in the background, which might be
highly dependent on the surrounding meteorology
and local conditions, as has been stated by sev-
eral studies (Khalil et al., 2016; Munir et al., 2013,
2016; Rovira et al., 2021). For an effective mitiga-
tion plan, a comprehensiveness ­O3–NO2 relation-
ship along with the meteorological measurements
Fig. 12  Average daily O
­ 3 concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5
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is required. Additionally, potential human health
impacts of N
­ O2 exposure must be further addressed;
short-term exposure for a period of 1 h below
200 µg/m3 is associated with adverse health effects
such as bronchi resistance, forced expiratory vol-
ume, and carbachol reactivity. High ­NO2 concen-
trations could cause serious functional issues in
patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary dis-
ease. Additionally, long-term exposure for a period
of 24 h below 40 µg/m3 is associated with respira-
tory symptoms/diseases, hospital admissions, otitis
media, and even mortality. Regularly, exceedances
were accomplished under circumstances that were
acceptable. Although annual in situ ­NO2 measure-
ments were illuminated by sustainable manage-
ment policies, it must be emphasized that exceed-
ances were still attained. Despite this, the AQI was
deemed to be good.
Daily ­O3
Th spatiotemporal variations in daily O
­ 3 concentra-
tions for all AQMSs are described in Fig. 12a–e. The
daily ­O3 measurements (over 24 h) indicated lower
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
concentrations during the night and early morn-
ing. From 9:00A.M. (local Yanbu time) onward, ­O3
concentrations would peak until midday. Afterward,
minimal concentrations were recorded at the end of
day, as well as during evenings and nights. This trend
could be explained by high solar intensity during
midday. As shown in Fig. 9a–e, the daily ­O3 profiles
aligned with the profiles of daily ­ NO2 concentra-
tions, with the first peak synchronously obtained for
­NO2 emissions at the time when low daily ­O3 con-
centrations were recorded. Meanwhile, when daily
­NO2 concentrations were low, we noticed high O ­3
concentration. These findings indicate that the vari-
­ 3 concentrations can be explained
ability in daily O
by a negative linear dependence on O ­ 3 precursor’s
concentrations, which has been addressed in studies
conducted by Tsilingiridis et al. (2002), Habeebullah
(2013), Munir et al. (2013), Munir et al. (2016), Al-
Jeelani (2014), Butenhoff et al. (2015), Shareef et al.
(2018), Hassan et al. (2013), Hassan et al. (2019), and
Al-Harbi et al. (2020). As deduced from these stud-
ies, ­NO2 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
combine in the presence of sunlight to produce the
reactive gas ­O3. There are many different sources that
release these contaminants, such as industrial emis-
sions, automobile exhaust, and more. When there is
intense solar radiation and it is warmer outside, the
­O3 amount in the surrounding air is usually at high-
est level. For illustration, the daily O
­ 3 concentration
for 2019 at midday was recorded as the following
58.2 µg/m3, 33.5 µg/m3, 43.6 µg/m3, 29.8 µg/m3, and
57.8 µg/m3 for AQMS 2–5, respectively. This spatial
variation in the daily ­O3 concentration is attributed
to topographical features, as well as the influence
of meteorological parameters, such as humidity and
thermal boundary layer mixing, on daily O ­ 3 concen-
trations. Evaluation of the outdoor air quality of the
study area according to the regulatory standards of
EEA for the protection of human health of 70.0 µg/
m3 confirmed that only on some occasions, in situ
­O3 levels violated these regulations, but otherwise,
regulated limitations of the RCY and WHO guide-
lines were met. The local authorities may implement
measures to lessen N ­ O2 and VOC emissions during
daily peak periods, such as restricting vehicle use or
cutting back on industrial activity during peak hours.
There are numerous actions people can be taken
in addition to abovementioned ones to lower the
daily ­O3 concentration in Yanbu Industrial City. Use
Page 19 of 29 683
low-VOC products in the house, take public transpor-
tation instead of driving alone, and turn off lights and
devices when not in use to save energy.
Monthly ­O3
Figure 13a–e illustrate average monthly ­O3 measure-
ments for all AQMSs during 2015–2020. The clima-
tological status was considered for the Yanbu indus-
trial complex and the surrounding residential areas,
with the alternation of the cold and warm months
throughout the year. The monthly O ­ 3 concentrations
vary monthly based on several variables, such as cli-
mate, emissions from nearby sources, and seasonal
variations. The monthly concentrations are usually
higher during the summer when there is more sun-
light and temperatures are higher. This is because,
under these circumstances, the chemical reactions
that produce O­ 3 happen more rapidly. However, other
co-variables like wind patterns and the location of
emission sources can also contribute in the alternation
of the monthly O­ 3 concentration. For clarification, the
monthly ­O3 concentrations revealed that there were
slight increase in outdoor ­O3 levels that established
a peak; 105.8 μg/m3 during May 2017 for AQMS 1;
42.5 μg/m3 during June 2015 for AQMS 2; 37.9 μg/
m3 during August 2016 for AQMS 3; 58.2 μg/m3
during July 2015 for AQMS 4; and 54.3 μg/m3 dur-
ing April 2015 for AQMS 5. Due to unreliability of
the experimental data, monthly ­ O3 concentrations
were not considered for AQMS 3 during 2017. From
2015 to 2020, monthly ­O3 concentrations were high-
est during the hot months (March to September). In
contrast, lower O ­ 3 levels were recorded during the
cold months (October to February). These findings
indicated the role of outdoor temperature, a vital
meteorological parameter, in variations in ­O3 con-
centrations in outdoor air because of its influence on
photochemical processes that favored ­O3 formation
and accumulation within the lower atmosphere during
midday. This finding was confirmed by previous stud-
ies (Habeebullah, 2013; Hassan et al., 2013, 2019).
However, few differences in monthly O ­ 3 concentra-
tions were noticed with respect to the general behav-
ior for all AQMSs, except that for AQMS 5, which
could be attributed to the enormous industrial activi-
ties within oil processing facilities and huge exporta-
tion through nearby terminals during the hot months
of the year. Nonetheless, on certain occasions,
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Fig. 13  Average monthly ­O3 concentrations during 2015–2020 for a AQMS 1, b AQMS 2, c AQMS 3, d AQMS 4, and e AQMS 5
exceedances in monthly O ­ 3 concentrations occurred
in accordance with the RCY, WHO, and EEA guide-
lines. Despite the Yanbu industrial complex making
progress in recent years in terms of reducing emis-
sions and improving air quality, there is still work to
be done to guarantee that arrangements are made to
ensure that the monthly ­O3 concentration and other
pollutants remain within acceptable boundaries for
the health and well-being of inhabitants as well as the
environment. Monitoring air quality and taking action
to reduce emissions can help the community progress
toward a healthier and cleaner future.
Annual ­O3
Average annual ­O3 measurements are summarized
for all AQMSs in Fig. 14. Annual ­O3 profiles were
based on continuous measurements collected over
the period 2015–2020, and the assessment, repre-
sented by the statistical parameters of mean, and
account of exceedances that ­O3 measurements vio-
lated the RCY limitations, was used to assess annual
­O3 profiles and examine the outdoor air quality. The
spatiotemporal analysis of O ­ 3 emissions revealed
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
a trend in which these concentrations appeared
to change with each year: 30.3 µg/m3 in 2015 to
12.8 µg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 1; 30.3 µg/m3 in
2015 to 12.8 µg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 2; 31.1 µg/
m3 in 2015 to 27.1 µg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS 3;
43.1 µg/m3 in 2015 to 35 µg/m3 in 2020 for AQMS
4; and 29.3 µg/m3 in 2015 to 37.5 µg/m3 in 2020 for
AQMS 5. This trend could be attributed to effective
regulations on anthropogenic and industrial activi-
ties in the Yanbu complex with residential areas.
According to previous findings (Butenhoff et al.,
2015; Khalil et al., 2016; Shareef et al., 2018),
outdoor temperature, as the dominant meteorologi-
cal parameter, was responsible for ­ O3 formation
and accumulation in the lower atmosphere as it
enhanced photochemical reactions and air convec-
tive currents at the ground level. The study’s find-
ings indicate that Yanbu Industrial City’s yearly
ozone concentration should raise concerns because
it may be harmful to people’s health, particularly
respiratory condition sufferers. For the potential
health impacts, it has been reported up to ­O3 con-
centration of 100 μg/m3, and mortality increases
significantly at an exposure time of 8 h. Low
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683 Page 21 of 29 683

Fig. 14  Spatial average

annual ­O3 measurements for
AQMSs during 2015–2020,
with account of exceed-
ances per annum that O­ 3
measurements violate RCY
limitations

concentrations might lead to irritation in the res-
piratory system, breathing restrictions, and massive
lung malfunction, and eventually, permanent dam-
age to the lungs. Based on current assessment, some
violations of the tabulated guidelines were observed
over the study period, in addition to a trend where
low ­O3 exceedances were recorded with each suc-
cessive year. Most of the in situ measurements
were attained below the threshold of 240 µg/m3
over 8-h exposure periods. During congestion peri-
ods, ­O3 concentrations in the case study area might
reach elevated figures. Because the percentage of
exceedances was under 50, the AQI was regarded as
being good. However, ­O3 concentrations in the case
study area could achieve higher figures during peri-
ods of congestion. Reducing emissions from auto-
mobile exhaust and industrial smokestacks is such
recommendation forwarded to the RCY to over-
come this obstacle.
Daily CO
The average CO daily measurements are diagrammed in
Fig. 15a, b, respectively, through the years 2015–2020 for

Fig. 15  Average daily measurements of CO concentrations in the period 2015–2020: a for AQMS 2 and b AQMS 5

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the investigated AQMSs 2 and 5. While, the experimen-
tal results for the other investigated monitoring AQMSs
1, 3, and 4 were unreliable and were excluded from the
current assessment. As highlighted, CO accumulations
were produced directly from smokestacks because of
the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon derivatives.
Consequently, power plants and refineries were classified
as rich sources of CO emissions according to WHO and
EEA tabulations. According to related studies (Buten-
hoff et al., 2015; Dasari et al., 2020; Habeebullah, 2013;
Munir et al., 2013, 2016), CO directly contributes to pho-
tolysis reaction as an ­O3 precursor, reacting with ambient
­O2 to form O­ 3 and carbon dioxide as a by-product, aided
by dense solar radiation. Conversely, CO participates in
oxidation–reduction reaction for ambient humidity and
reacts with the NO contaminant in lower atmosphere
layers to form ­NO2, which in turn contributes as an ­O3
precursor through a photochemical reaction. Conse-
quently, photolysis and oxidation–reduction reactions
were stimulated at elevated temperatures because they
could occur simultaneously. A maximum level in CO
concentration was recorded with the value of 1.05 g/m3
for AQMS 2 and 0.9 g/m3 for AQMS 5. It was observed
that the daily CO concentrations for AQMS 2 were a lit-
tle erratic, while clear trends were attained in CO con-
centrations for AQMS 5, which obviously peaked around
8:00 A.M. (Yanbu local time). This interval normally
synchronizes with the beginning of an ordinary labor day
in Yanbu, as well as with the peaks in daily ­NO2 con-
centrations. This could be evidence of the occurrence
Fig. 16  Average monthly measurements of CO concentrations within the period 2015–2020: a for AQMS 2 and b AQMS 5
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of oxidation–reduction reaction for ambient humidity.
Furthermore, almost unchanged CO levels in the ambi-
ent were attained for the rest of the day. This finding was
highlighted in previous studies by Munir et al. (2013) and
Munir et al. (2016). Based on their findings, a combina-
tion of co-variables could contribute to almost unchanged
CO levels beyond the peak periods. Climate, traffic pat-
terns, and the manufacturing processes deployed by the
nonstop industrial facilities contribute such covariables
with a footprint on CO emissions. Minimizing your
exposure to CO is crucial for your health, so as to avoid
congested regions during rush hour, maintain the appli-
ances and heating system appropriately, and heed any
local air quality advisories or warnings.
Monthly CO
The monthly variation of CO concentrations is
depicted in Fig. 16a, b for monitoring AQMSs 2 and
5 over the period 2015–2020. The experimental data
for the other AQMSs 1, 3, and 4 were inaccurate and
were not considered in the evaluation. March to the
end of August is considered the period, including the
spring and summer seasons, while September to the
end of February are counted as cold months, includ-
ing autumn and winter terms. In general, the monthly
CO profile approached higher limits in cold months
and lower values in warm months. By AQMS 2, a
minimal CO concentration was recorded at 0.3 g/m3
in May and a peak value of 0.75 g/m3 in February.
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
Hence, by AQMS 5, a minimal CO concentration
was recorded at 0.21 g/m3 in June and a peak value
of 1.3 g/m3 in December. A minimal CO concentra-
tion was recorded at 0.17 g/m3 in June and a peak
value of 0.37 g/m3 in November. This pattern could
be attributed to the most probable photochemical
reaction due to the intense solar radiation, as well as
the stronger vertical boundary layer mixing during
the hot months, which causes reduced CO levels in
the outdoor air. High concentrations were recorded in
the cold months due to additional demands for hydro-
carbon fuels for heating industrial and residential
premises. Equivalent results were shown by previous
studies focused on outdoor emissions for the eastern
coastal region of the Red Sea (Al-Zboon et al., 2022;
Dasari et al., 2020; Hariri et al., 2013; Munir et al.,
2013, 2016). It ought to recognize that for authori-
ties to adopt effective policies for decreasing CO pol-
lution and preserving public health, it is essential to
keep apprised of the spatial and temporal fluctuations
in CO concentrations. By locating sections and peri-
ods that have elevated CO concentrations, targeted
actions can be taken to mitigate emissions and expo-
sure to this hazardous pollutant.
Annual CO
The average CO annual measurements are sum-
marized in Fig. 17 for the monitoring AQMSs of 2
and 5. The evaluation did not take into account the
incorrect experimental data for the other AQMSs
Fig. 17  Spatial average
annual CO measure-
ments for AQMSs during
2015–2020, with account of
exceedances per annum that
CO measurements violate
WHO limitations
Page 23 of 29 683
1, 3, and 4. Annual CO profiles were based on the
continuous measurements using data collected over
the entire period of 2015–2020, and the assessment,
represented by the statistical criteria and account
of exceedances that CO measurements violate the
WHO limitations, was assigned for the assessment
of annual CO profiles. The findings of the spati-
otemporal analysis for CO emissions have shown a
general trend, and these concentrations obviously
decrease with the years: 0.7 g/m3 in 2015 to 0.4 in
2020 for AQMS 2 and 0.8 g/m3 in 2015 to 0.4 in
2020 for AQMS 5. Again, this trend could be attrib-
uted to the effective adjustment in the anthropogenic
and industrial activities in the Yanbu complex. Basi-
cally, the human sources for CO emissions could be
intense traffic and heating demands of residential
premises during the cold months, as also the indus-
trial infrastructure. Potential impacts on public health
are significant over CO exposure periods. Once CO
gas penetrates the bronchi and eventually the lungs,
it is readily absorbed by blood hemoglobin to form
carboxyhemoglobin. Higher concentrations of car-
boxyhemoglobin in the blood channels are associated
with significant health symptoms, such as permanent
headache, dizziness, and nausea, which could cause
coma and eventual death. To maintain safe CO levels,
WHO and EEA restrict CO hazards to 4, 9, and 35 g/
m3 over exposure periods of 24, 8, and 1 h, respec-
tively. It was deduced, by comparing the mean annual
CO concentrations with thresholds, that the account
for exceedances of annual CO in situ measurements
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had decreased over the calendar years 2015 to 2020.
The incomplete combustion of carbonaceous deriva-
tives has a significant impact on CO levels within the
Yanbu industrial complex and the residentials in the
vicinity, and all in situ measurements were obtained
below the reported levels. Despite the recorded vio-
lations in CO, annual profiles that are below 50, the
AQI was judged to be good. Tracking of annual CO
concentrations emphasizes on the identification of
seasonal trends and patterns that can be used to guide
air quality management strategies, thus lessening
environmental deterioration, and protecting public
health in nearby residential areas from the impact of
emissions from industrial infrastructure.
Daily ­PM2.5 and ­PM10
The spatiotemporal alternation of the monthly suspended
particulate concentrations is presented in Fig. 18a, b
for ­PM2.5 and P ­M10 respectively, through the years
2015–2020 for the investigated AQMSs 1 and 2. As
­PM2.5 and ­PM10 concentrations for the other foreseen
AQMSs were subject to unreliability; they were not fur-
ther assessed. Noticeably, the daily profiles for P
­ M2.5
and ­PM10 have indicated a systematic pattern, where
the maximum levels were recorded around the midday
periods for the investigated AQMS, and relatively lower
levels during early morning, evening, and night. Exten-
­ M2.5 maximum of 80.6 µg/m3 was obtained
sively, a P
for AQMS 1, and a P ­ M10 maximum of 165.3 µg/m3 for
Fig. 18  Average daily measurements of P
­ M2.5 and ­PM10 concentrations during 2015–2020: a for AQMS 1 and b AQMS 2
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AQMS 2. The peaks in ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 daily concen-
trations coincided with dust events that commonly occur
during midday in the Yanbu industrial complex as well
as throughout the Arabian Peninsula. In addition, the pat-
tern for ­PM2.5 daily concentrations indicated the accu-
mulation of other gaseous emissions during the midday
period, when ­O3 precursors reached significant levels,
considering the industrial activities as well as the intense
traffic during midday. As P ­M10 daily concentrations
could be extensively coupled with intense dust activity,
a conclusion was highlighted due to the diverse spatiality
in the AQMS’s location (15 km) as well as the assorted
sizes of particulate matter. During midday periods, the
ground temperature begins to rise, leading to the warm-
up of the lower boundary of outdoor air. Hence, con-
vective currents were responsible for mixing the lower
warm layers to be substituted with the cold upper layers.
These findings were revealed by Habeebullah (2013),
Aina et al. (2014), Modaihsh et al. (2015), Munir et al.
(2013); Munir et al. (2016), Dasari et al. (2020), Sharma
et al. (2020), and Algarni et al. (2021). Maximum peaks
in ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 concentrations frequently exceeded
the recommended standards during the investigated daily
intervals.
Monthly ­PM2.5 and ­PM10
Figure 19a and b show the variability of average
monthly ­PM2.5 and P ­ M10 in situ concentrations
for the investigated AQMSs 1 and 2 from 2015 to
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
2020. Measured data for other anticipated AQMSs
were not evaluated due to unreliability. An analog
trend to those of the daily P­ M2.5 and ­PM10 profiles
was attained for the monthly ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 con-
centrations. The maximum levels were established
through the hot months of the year, with relatively
lower concentrations for monthly P ­ M2.5 and P
­ M10
through the cold months in the case study region.
It was observed that a ­ PM2.5 maximum up to
210.0 µg/m3 was obtained for AQMS 1 in August
2015, and P ­ M10 maxima around 215.0 µg/m3 was
reached for AQMS 2 in June 2019; hence, the
monthly ­PM2.5 and P ­ M10 levels were routinely vio-
lated. Especially during the summer months, ther-
mal heating at the ground level and the increase in
turbulence in the mixing layer enhanced buoyancy
and the accumulation of anthropogenic air pollut-
ants. Consequently, high numbers of exceedances
during hot months were attained. Apart from natu-
ral phenomena like summer dusty winds, a local
contribution to the monthly P ­ M2.5 and P­ M10 lev-
els was also foreseen to originate from the indus-
trial activities and traffic-driven re-suspension of
air pollutants, since the little rainfall favors the
accumulation of particulates’ emissions in the hot
months in the Yanbu industrial complex. Further
improvements in emission inventories, especially
due to industrial activities, and source apportion-
ment data are strongly recommended.
Fig. 19  Average monthly measurements of ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 concentrations during 2015–2020: a for AQMS 1 and b AQMS 2
Page 25 of 29 683
Annual ­PM2.5 and ­PM10
A summary of ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 average annual con-
centrations is presented in Fig. 20 for AQMS 1 and
2, respectively. Due to their unreliability, ­PM2.5 and
­PM10 concentrations for other anticipated AQMSs
were not further provided in the current assessment.
The evaluation of the annual ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 concen-
tration was based on continuous measurements col-
lected from 2015 to 2020 and their comparison with
thresholds. The statistical criteria mean and account
of exceedances that annual ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 meas-
urements violate RCY thresholds were assigned for
the assessment of P ­ M2.5 and ­PM10 annual patterns.
Inconclusively, these P ­ M2.5 and ­PM10 measurements
showed unsystematic behavior for the considered
AQMSs. For reviewing the potential impacts on pub-
lic health, reports confirmed the relationship between
several symptoms and the dust levels in the ambient
air. ­PM2.5 and ­PM10 are directly responsible for res-
piratory diseases such as aggravation of asthma, irri-
tation, increase in hospital admissions, and even daily
mortality. Compared to RCY restrictions for annual
­PM2.5 (15 μm/m3) and P ­ M10 (50 μm/m3), assigned
AQMSs within the Yanbu industrial complex had
recorded in situ concentrations exceeding the regu-
lations’ thresholds, which might cause adverse side
effects on public health. Accordingly, the exceed-
ances when P ­ M2.5 and P­ M10 outdoor levels violated
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 683 Page 26 of 29
Fig. 20  Spatial average
annual ­PM2.5 and ­PM10
measurements for AQMSs
during 2015–2020, with
account of exceedances per
annum that ­PM2.5 and ­PM10
measurements violate RCY
limitations
the standards were higher than those for the other
foreseen gaseous emissions; analyzed violations were
found in the range of 51 to 100 and 101 to 151 for
­PM2.5 and ­PM10, respectively. Consequently, the AQI
was deemed as moderately polluted for P ­ M2.5 and
unhealthy for sensitive groups regarding P ­ M10 viola-
tions. On the other hand, the number of the exceed-
ances was observed to be reduced with the subsequent
years. Due to the uncontrolled thermal mixing of
boundary layers, potential ways for reducing ambient
air emissions could be suggested, such as decreasing
the production rates, avoiding dense traffic by shift-
ing to less meteorological activities during nights,
or offering remote offices. Simply put, air pollutants
accumulate to higher levels, which could be regarded
as genuine environmental barriers that degrade the air
quality and endanger public health.
With the association of experimental data for
emissions’ concentrations in the ambient air, strategic
policies and investments supporting cleaner transport,
energy-efficient premises, alternatives for energy sup-
ply-chain to lessen the operability of power genera-
tion facilities, better industrial and municipal waste
management, etc. would establish regional and multi-
sectoral cooperation for the mitigation of air pollution
and other health impacts of the emissions from the
Yanbu industrial complex on the environment, as well
as serving as tools for assessing the health benefits
of such mitigation measures in other analog regimes
worldwide. Moreover, extensive monitoring of the
outdoor air quality for regions containing massive
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Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
industrial infrastructure and populated residential
suburbs is a prerequisite, when local ambient air qual-
ity is to meet the standards. Follow-up and a regular
assessment of the in situ air pollutants, which origi-
nate from diverse industrial complexes associated
with nearby residential areas, through a long term is
recommended to refine the merits of the abatement
policies adopted by the regional authorities to protect
public health.
Conclusion
A detailed assessment was conducted for concentra-
tions of outdoor air pollutants at spatially diverse
AQMSs within the Yanbu industrial complex and its
suburbs from 2015 to 2020, examining major gas-
eous emissions classified as extremely dangerous
at elevated outdoor levels, namely, ­SO2, ­H2S, ­NO2,
­O3, CO, P ­ M2.5, and P
­ M10 pollutants. It was found
that the massive industrial applications and specific
meteorological covariables had influenced the vari-
ation of the spatiotemporal gaseous concentration.
Particularly, high ­SO2, ­H2S, and CO accumulations
in ambient surrounding were obtained during mid-
day periods and the cold months. While maxima in
­NO2 concentrations were attained during the morn-
ing and evening periods of the day as well as through
the cold months. On the contrary, peak figures in
­O3 concentrations were observed during elevated
temperature periods of the day and the hot months,
Environ Monit Assess (2023) 195:683
whereas maxima ­ PM2.5 and ­ PM10 concentrations
were accumulated during midday periods and the hot
months of the year. Although in situ measurements
of the air pollutants routinely exceeded the relevant
national and international regulatory standards, the
analysis of air quality in the case study area revealed
that the exceedances typically decreased between
2015 and 2020, indicating that there is an improve-
ment in air quality with the subsequent years. Tak-
ing into consideration the number of exceedances of
the annual concentrations, the AQI was evaluated as
good for the investigated gaseous emissions, moder-
ately polluted for P
­ M2.5, and unhealthy for sensitive
groups in the case of ­PM10 accumulations in the out-
door environment. In this context, special policies
should be implemented to reduce the hazards posed
by gaseous emissions to the public’s health during
periods associated with high anthropogenic activity,
temperature inversions, and rising production rates
in the relevant industrial facilities.
Acknowledgements Grateful thanks for Royal Commission
at Yanbu for delivering the original data and Al-Balqa Applied
University through the provision of the technical infrastructure
in the conduction of this corporate research.
Author contribution K. Al-Zboon substantially contrib-
uted to basic idea for the current study, acquisition, and inter-
pretation of data. On the other hand, the original data were
processed and analyzed by L. Al Samrraie, and S. Al Rabadi
drafted the manuscript. K. Alrawashdeh critically contributed
to reading and revising the manuscript for important intellec-
tual content.
Data availability The authors ensure that all data and materi-
als are available to support their published claims.
Declarations
Ethical approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate Consent has been obtained from the
responsible authorities at the institute/organization, where the
work has been conducted before its submission for publication.
Consent for publication All the authors have read, under-
stood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on
“Ethical responsibilities of Authors” as found in the Instruc-
tions for Authors and are aware that with minor exceptions, no
changes can be made to authorship once the paper is submitted.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Page 27 of 29 683
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