Mathematics I (Engineering) : Study Guide 1 For Mat1581

MATHEMATICS I
(Engineering)
STUDY GUIDE 1 for MAT1581
L E Greyling
Department of Mathematical Sciences
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

PRETORIA
© UNISA 2016
First edition 2004

Second edition 2005
Third edition 2017
All rights reserved

Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria
MAT1581
Layout done by the Department

CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction iii
STUDY GUIDE 1
MODULE 1 Binomial theorem 1
MODULE 2 Systems of equations and determinants

Learning unit 1 Properties of determinants 15
Learning unit 2 The value of a determinant 23
Learning unit 3 Cramer’s rule 30
Post-test 40
MODULE 3 Partial fractions

Learning unit 1 Introduction 46
Learning unit 2 Proper fractions 52
Learning unit 3 Improper fractions 70
Post-test 82
MODULE 4 Complex numbers

Learning unit 1 Imaginary and complex numbers 90
Learning unit 2 Operations with complex 98
numbers
Learning unit 3 Polar and exponential form 108
Learning unit 4 Operations in polar and 117
exponential form
Post-test 132
MODULE 5 Analytic geometry

Learning unit 1 The straight line 143
Learning unit 2 The parabola 157
Learning unit 3 The hyperbola 166
Learning unit 4 The circle 172
Learning unit 5 The ellipse 177
Learning unit 6 The central hyperbola 187
Post-test 192
(i)
INTRODUCTION:
MATHEMATICS I (Engineering)
Welcome to this module Mathematics I for Engineering. This study guide material
has been compiled to serve the mathematical needs of students engaged in a
first course in engineering. Students from other fields who want to broaden their
mathematical knowledge will also benefit from this course.
Purpose of this module
This module will be useful to students in developing basic skills which can be
applied in the natural and engineering sciences. Students credited with this
module will have an understanding of basic ideas of algebra and calculus in
handling problems related to Cramer’s rule to solve systems of linear equations,
complex number system, binomial theorem, basic differentiation and integration.
The focus is on building strong algebraic skills that will support the development
of analytical skills that are crucial in problem solving in more advanced
mathematics and related subjects.
This module will support you in your studies in the field of engineering and the
physical sciences as part of a diploma.
You must have mastered all mathematical operations with exponential,

logarithmic and trigonometric functions before starting this module. You will find
revision material on these topics and other basic mathematical concepts on the
myUnisa page for MAT1581.
The style of the study guide makes it suitable for self-study. To achieve success
requires discipline and hard work.
You require a framework for effective studying. The next section assists you with
this framework.
Where do you start?
Learn the following off by heart:

 your student number
 the module (subject) code: MAT1581
Do the following on the internet:

 Log on to https://my.unisa.ac.za
 Register on myUnisa and claim your myLife e-mail address.
 Log on weekly to check for any new announcements. You must register as
the lecturer posts announcements and you are alerted via e-mail to read
them.
(ii)
Organise your workspace. You need
 a place to write
 paper and a pen to try examples and do activities and exercises
 a non-programmable scientific calculator as used for high school
mathematics, for example a Sharp EL-531 LH or a Casio fx-82L
 ordinary tools for drawing
 the tutorial letter for MAT1581
Consult your tutorial letter to obtain information on

 assignments
 how to obtain a year mark
 examinations
 due dates
 prescribed and recommended books
 contact details of your lecturer or tutor
Set up a study plan

 Identify your goals.
 Make a weekly timetable.
 Indicate work and family responsibilities on your timetable.
 Remember to allow time for rest and relaxation.
 Evaluate the time available for studying.
Before you can complete your plan, we must explain the format of the study
material.
Format of study material
 Modules
The work is divided into modules. Each module deals with a major subject area
and is divided into learning units. The end of each unit provides a natural break.
This enables you to plan your time. You will find a complete list of modules and
units in the table of contents. Your tutorial letter will give guidance as to the
importance of each module.
 Learning units
Each learning unit starts with OUTCOMES. These outcomes list what you should
be able to do after you have mastered the content of the unit. To explain the
content you will find examples. An example gives both the question and the
answer. To develop your understanding you also will find activities. The activities
give a list of questions that you should attempt immediately. The answers to
activities are given at the end of each unit. When you have completed the
activity, check your answer.
An average student should be able to study a unit in an evening. Contact the

lecturer/tutor the next day by telephone or e-mail if necessary to clarify any
points. Contact details are given in the tutorial letter and on the myUnisa page for
your lecturer or tutor.
(iii)
 Post-test
At the end of each module you need to assess your progress. The post-test
should be used for self-assessment. These questions include questions from
past papers and questions similar to what you can expect in future examination
papers. The solutions to all the questions are given and should be used to mark
your own work. An average student should be able to complete the test in an
evening.
Try to do the test without referring to your study notes. Warning: Do not look at
the answers before attempting a solution!
When answering a question your writing should be clear and legible. That is, the
marker or any other person reading your answer must be able to follow your
reasoning. In mathematics we are not only interested in the correct answer, but
also in the method you used to obtain the answer. Pay attention to the correct
use of symbols. You will lose marks if your writing is not mathematically correct.
Mathematics is a language in which we use symbols in a specific way to
communicate.
 Use of computer software

We do not mention any specific programs in the notes for two reasons: The first
is the rapid development in this field, which results in any reference becoming
outdated very quickly. The second is that this is an entry-level course and we
would like as many students as possible to have the opportunity to study
mathematics at this level.
However, we would encourage its use and hope to introduce such programs at
second- or third-year level.
 Study success
The study of mathematics, as you well know, requires you to understand the
various units. In most cases the work is sequential and you need to master a
particular unit before you can move on to a more advanced unit. Studying
mathematics requires you to engage with the material, make notes and practise
many examples. You need to continuously evaluate your work as well as reflect
to consider your thought processes and logic.
With the required planning, dedication and hard work, you should be successful
in your studies.
For your exam preparation, refer to the tutorial letters, assignments and myUnisa.
This is a blended module which means you have to log on to myUnisa for
additional information regarding the module.
You must have worked through all the learning units and engaged with all the
examples and activities as well as the post-tests. Work through the assignments
as well as past examination papers (which are available on myUnisa).
(iv)
You need to pace your studies for this module, which is a 12-credit module, and
this means you need to spend at least 120 notional hours of actively engaging
with the study material. Manage your time as set out in your study plan as much
as possible to ensure study success.
We wish you all the very best in studying this interesting module.
USEFUL INFORMATION
MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
+ plus
 minus
 plus or minus
 multiply by
 multiply by
 divide by
= is equal to
 is identically equal to
 is approximately equal to
 is not equal to
 is greater than
 is greater than or equal to
 is less than
 is less than or equal to
n! factorial n = 1  2  3  ….. n
k modulus of k, that is the size of k
irrespective of the sign
 is a member of set
 set of natural numbers
 set of integers
 set of real numbers
 set of rational numbers
 therefore
 infinity
e base of natural logarithms (2,718…)
ln natural logarithm
log logarithm to base 10
 sum of terms
lim limiting value as n  
n
 integral
dy
dx
derivative of y with respect to x
(v)
GREEK ALPHABET
Greek letter Greek name

  Alpha
  Beta
  Gamma
  Delta
  Epsilon
  Zeta
  Eta
  Theta
  Iota
  Kappa
  Lambda
  Mu
  Nu
  Xi
  Omicron
  Pi
  Rho
  Sigma
  Tau
  Upsilon
  Phi
  Chi
  Psi
  Omega
Formula sheets
The following pages contain the information sheets and table of integrals that will
be included with the examination paper.
(vi)
INFORMATION SHEET
ALGEBRA
Laws of indices Factors
1. a m  a n  a m n 
a 3  b 3  a  b  a 2  ab  b 2 
 a  b a 
m
2.
a
 a mn a b3 3 2
 ab  b 2
n
a
3. a m n
 
 a mn  a n
m
Partial fractions
m
 n am f x 
n
4. a A B C
  
5. a n  n
1
and
1
a n  n  x  a  x  b x  c  x  a   x  b   x  c 
a a
a 1
0
f x 
6.
A B C D
ab  a b    
7.
x  a  x  b
3
x  a  x  a  x  a  x  b 
2 3
n
a an
8.    n
b b f x  Ax  B C
 
Logarithms
  
ax  bx  c  x  d  ax  bx  c  x  d 
2 2

Quadratic formula
Definitions
If y  a x then x  log a y If ax 2  bx  c  0
If y  e x then x  n y
 b  b 2  4ac
then x
Laws 2a
1. log  A  B   log A  log B
 A
2. log    log A  log B
B
3. log An  n log A
logb A
4. log a A 
logb a
5. a log a f
 f  e n f  f
DETERMINANTS
a11 a12 a13
a a 23 a a 23 a a 22
a 21 a 22 a 23  a11 22  a12 21  a13 21
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
a 31 a 32 a 33
 a11 a 22 a 33  a 32 a 23   a12 a 21 a 33  a 31 a 23   a13 a 21 a 32  a 31 a 22 
(vii)
SERIES
Binomial theorem
a  b n  a n  na n 1b  nn  1 a n  2 b 2  nn  1n  2 a n 3 b 3  ....
2! 3!
and b  a
1  x n  1  nx  nn  1 x 2  nn  1n  2 x 3  ...

2! 3!
and  1  x  1
Maclaurin’s theorem
f 0  f 0  2 f 0  3 f n 1 0  n 1
f  x   f 0   x x  x  x 
1! 2! 3! n  1!
Taylor’s theorem
f a 
x  a   f a   x  a 2  f a   x  a 3    f a   x  a n1  
  n 1
f  x   f a  
1! 2! 3! n  1!
h2 h n1 n1
f a  h   f a   f a   f a     f a   
h
1! 2! n  1!
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. z  a  bj  r cos  j sin    r   re j , 7. De Moivre's theorem

 r   r n n  r n  cos n  j sin n 
n
where j 2  1
Modulus : r z  a 2
 b2  8.
1
zn has n distinct roots:
b
Argument :   arg z  arc tan 1 1
  k 360
a zn  rn with k  0, 1, 2,  , n  1
n
2. Addition :
a  jb   c  jd   a  c   j b  d  9. re j  r  cos   j sin  
3. Subtraction :    
  re j  r cos  and  re j  r sin 
a  jb   c  jd   a  c   j b  d 
10. ea  jb  e a  cos b  j sin b 
4. If m  jn  p  jq, then m  p and n  q
11. n re j  n r  j
5. Multiplication : z1 z 2  r1r2 1   2 
 1   2 
z1 r1
6. Division :
z 2 r2
(viii)
GEOMETRY MENSURATION
1. Straight line 1. Circle: (  in radians)

y  mx  c
Area   r 2
y  y1  m x  x1 
Circumference  2 r
1
Perpendiculars, then m1  Arc length   r
m2
1 2 1
2. Angle between two lines r   r
Sector area 
2 2
m  m2
tan   1 1
1  m1 m 2 Segment area  r 2   sin  
2
3. Circle
2. Ellipse
x2  y2  r 2 Area  ab
x  h 2
 y  k   r
2 2
Circumference   a  b 
4. Parabola 3. Cylinder
y  ax 2  bx  c Volume  r 2 h
b Surface area  2rh  2r 2
axis at x 
2a 4. Pyramid
1
5. Ellipse Volume  area base  height
x2 y2 3
 1 5. Cone
a2 b2
1
6. Hyperbola Volume  r 2 h
3
xy  k
Curved surface  r
x2 y2
  1 round x - axis  6. Sphere
a2 b2 A  4r 2
x2 y2
 2  2  1 round y - axis  4
V  r 3
a b 3
7. Trapezoidal rule
1 b  a 
 f  x0   2 f  x1     2 f  xn1   f  xn  
2  n  
8. Simpson’s rule
1 ba 
[ f  x0   4 f  x1   2 f  x2   4 f  x3  
3  n 
2 f  x4     2 f  xn  2   4 f  xn 1   f  xn ]
9. Prismoidal rule
b  a 
 n   f  m1   f  m2     f  mn 1   f  mn  
 
(ix)
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS TRIGONOMETRY
Definitions Compound angle addition and subtraction

e x  ex formulae
sinh x  sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
2
sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
e  e x
x
cosh 
x cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
2 cos(A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
e  e x
x
tan A  tan B
tanh x  x tan  A  B  
e  ex 1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
Identities tan  A  B  
1  tan A tan B
cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 Double angles
1  tanh x  sech x
2 2 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2A – sin2A
coth 2 x  1  cosech 2 x = 2cos2A - 1
sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x  1
1 = 1 - 2sin2A
2 sin2 A = ½(1 - cos 2A)
cos2 A = ½(1 + cos 2A)
cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  1
1
2 tan A
2 tan 2 A 
sinh 2 x  2 sinh x cosh x 1  tan 2 A
cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x Products of sines and cosines into sums or
 2 cosh x  1
2
differences
sin A cos B = ½(sin (A + B) + sin (A - B))
 1  2 sinh 2 x
cos A sin B = ½(sin (A + B) - sin (A - B))
TRIGONOMETRY
cos A cos B = ½(cos (A + B) + cos (A - B))
sin A sin B = -½(cos (A + B) - cos (A - B))
Identities
sin 2   cos 2   1 Sums or differences of sines and cosines
1 + tan  = sec 
2 2
into products
cot 2  + 1 = cosec 2   x  y   x y 
sin x  sin y  2 sin  cos 
sin(-) = - sin  2   2 
cos (-) =  cos  x  y   x y 
sin x  sin y  2 cos sin  
tan (-) = - tan  2   2 
sin x  y  x y 
tan  cos x  cos y  2 cos  cos 
cos  2   2 
 x  y   x y 
cos x  cos y  2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
(x)
DIFFERENTIATION
dy f  x  h  f  x d
sin 1 f ( x) 
f '( x)
1.  lim 10.
dx
1   f ( x)
dx h 0 h 2
d  f '( x)
2. k 0 11.
d
cos 1 f ( x ) 
dx dx
1   f ( x) 
2
d n
3. ax  anx n 1
tan 1 f ( x) 
dx d f '( x)
12.
d dx 1   f ( x) 2
4. f .g  f .g ' g . f '
dx  f '( x)
cot 1 f ( x ) 
d
13.
d f g . f ' f .g ' dx 1   f ( x) 2
5. 
dx g g2
sec1 f ( x ) 
d f '( x)
d 14.
 f ( x)  n  f ( x) . f '( x)
n n 1
dx
6.
dx
f  x  f ( x)2  1
 f '( x)
cosec1 f ( x) 
dy dy du dv d
7.  . . 15.
dx
dx du dv dx f  x  f ( x)2  1
8. Parametric equations
sinh 1 f ( x) 
d f '( x)
dy 16.
dx
dy
 dt  f ( x)2  1
dx dx
cosh 1 f ( x) 
d f '( x)
dt 17.
dx
d  dy   f ( x)2  1
d y dt  dx 
2
18.
d
tanh 1 f ( x) 
f '( x)

1   f ( x)
dx 2
dx 2 dx
coth 1 f ( x ) 
dt d f '( x)
19.
9. Maximum/minimum
For turning points: f '(x) = 0
dx  f ( x)2  1
 f '( x)
sech 1 f ( x) 
Let x = a be a solution for the above d
20.
dx
f  x  1   f ( x) 
If f '(a) > 0, then a minimum 2
If f '(a) < 0, then a maximum
 f '( x)
cosech 1 f ( x ) 
For points of inflection: f " (x) = 0 d
21.
dx
Let x = b be a solution for the above f  x  f ( x)2  1
Test for inflection: f (b  h) and f(b + h) z z z
Change sign or f '"(b) if f '"(b) exists 22. Increments: z . x  . y  . w
x  y w
23. Rate of change:
dz  z dx  z dy  z dw
 .  .  .
dt  x dt  y dt  w dt
INTEGRATION
b
1. By parts :  udv  uv-  vdu 2.  a
f(x)dx  F(b)  F(a)
1 b 1 b 2
b-a  a b-a  a
3. Mean value = y dx 4. (R.M.S.) 2  y dx
(xi)
TABLE OF INTEGRALS
a x(n 1 )
   c, n  1
n
1. ax dx
n 1
 f(x)n1  c, n  1
2.   f(x) .f '(x) dx
n

n 1
f ' (x)
3.  f(x)
dx  n f(x)  c
4.  f ' (x).e f(x) dx  e f(x)  c
a f(x)
5.  f ' (x).a f(x) dx 
n a
c
6.  f ' (x).sin f(x) dx   cos f(x)  c
7.  f ' (x).cos f(x) dx  sin f(x)  c
8.  f ' (x). tan f(x) dx  n sec f(x)  c
9.  f ' (x).cot f(x) dx  n sin f(x)  c
10.  f ' (x).sec f(x) dx  n sec f(x)  tan f(x)  c
11.  f ' (x).cosec f(x) dx  n  cosec f(x)  cot f(x)  c
12.  f ' (x).sec2 f(x) dx  tan f(x)  c
13.  f ' (x).cosec 2 f(x) dx   cot f(x)  c
14.  f ' (x).sec f(x). tan f(x) dx  sec f(x)  c
15.  f ' (x).cosec f(x).cot f(x)dx  cosec f(x)  c
(xii)
M
O
MODULE 1: BINOMIAL THEOREM D
U
CONTENTS L
E
PAGE
LEARNING UNIT 1 BINOMIAL THEOREM 2
12
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 3
2. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A POSITIVE INTEGER ........................ 4
3. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A NEGATIVE INTEGER ...................... 6
4. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A FRACTION ........................................ 7
5. THE rth TERM OF A BINOMIAL SERIES .......................................................... 8
4. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES.............................................................................. 9
4.1 Activity 1 ................................................................................................................. 9
4.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................... 10
4.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................... 10
POST-TEST: BINOMIAL THEOREM 12
POST-TEST SOLUTIONS 13
MAT1581 1
Mathematics 1 (Engineering)
MODULE 1 BINOMIAL THEOREM
LEARNING UNIT 1
OUTCOMES
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to

 write down a binomial expansion using the binomial theorem
 determine any term in a binomial expansion
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 3
2. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A POSITIVE INTEGER ........................ 4
3. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A NEGATIVE INTEGER ...................... 6
4. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A FRACTION ........................................ 7
5. THE rth TERM OF A BINOMIAL SERIES .......................................................... 8
6. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES.............................................................................. 9
6.1 Activity 1 ................................................................................................................. 9
6.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 10
6.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................... 10
6.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................... 10
MAT1581 2
Module 1 Learning unit 1
BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. INTRODUCTION
A mathematical expression which consists of only two terms, say a + b, is called a

binomial (“bi” means two). In this module we are investigating the powers of a binomial,
that is (a + b)n. The binomial theorem gives us a quick way to raise an expression
comprising two terms to any given power.
This theorem is used to work out annuity formulae in financial management and
differential formulae in this course. Your pocket calculator uses this theorem in its
calculations, for example to extract roots.
If n in (a + b)n is small, we can easily use multiplication to expand the series, but if n
becomes bigger, say (a + b)20, multiplication becomes tedious.
Examine the following expansions:

 a  b 2   a  b  a  b   a 2  2ab  b 2
 a  b 3   a  b  a  b  a  b   a3  3a 2 b  3ab 2  b3
a  b   a  b  a  b  a  b  a  b   a 4  4a 3 b  6a 2 b 2  4ab3  b 4
4
We can conclude that

 a  b 5 would begin with a5 and end with b5
 a  b 20 would begin with a20 and end with b20
 a  b n would begin with an and end with bn
Note this:
 a  b 2 expands to three terms
 a  b 3 expands to four terms
a  b
4
expands to five terms
We can conclude that
 a  b 5 would expand to six terms
 a  b 20 would expand to twenty-one terms
 a  b n would expand to (n + 1) terms
We notice that
 the coefficients read the same backwards as forwards
 the first coefficient (and the last one) is 1
 in all the expansions the powers of a are descending and the powers of b are
ascending
 the sum of the indices of a and b is n
MAT1581 3
BINOMIAL THEOREM
We will now state the binomial theorem without proof. The theorem is on your formula
sheets under series.
The binomial theorem

n  n  1 n  n  1 n  2 
 a  b n  a n  na n1b  a n2 b2  a n3b3  .... and b  a
2! 3!
The special case with a = 1 is also given:
n  n  1 n  n  1 n  2 
1  x n  1  nx  x2  x3  ... and 1  x  1 .
2! 3!
Remember, n! stands for factorial n and per definition n! = n(n  1)(n  2)(n  3)...1
Thus 2!  2.1  2 and
3!  3.2.1  6
2. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A POSITIVE INTEGER
Example 1
Expand  a  b  .
8
The value of n is 8; thus there will be nine terms in the expansion.

The easiest way to write down the expansion is to break the theorem on your information
sheet into separate terms and substitute n.
T1  a n  a8
T2  na n 1b  8a 7 b
n  n  1 8.7 6 2
T3  a n2 b 2  a b  28a 6 b 2
2! 2.1
n  n  1 n  2  8.7.6 5 3
T4  a n 3 b 3  a b  56a 5 b3
3! 3.2.1
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 8.7.6.5 4 4
T5  a n4 b4  a b  70a 4 b 4
4! 4.2.3.1
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 (n  4) 8.7.6.5.4 3 5
T6  a n 5 b 5 
a b  56a 3 b5
5! 5.4.2.3.1
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 (n  4)(n  5) n6 6 8.7.6.5.4.3 2 6
T7  a b  a b  28a 2 b6
6! 6.5.4.2.3.1
n  n  1 n  2 n  3 (n  4)(n  5)  n  6 n7 7 8.7.6.5.4.3.2 7
T8  a b  ab  8ab7
7! 7.6.5.4.2.3.1
4 MAT1581
BINOMIAL THEOREM
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 ( n  4)( n  5)  n  6  n  7  n 8 8 8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1 0 8

T9  a b  a b  b8
8! 8.7.6.5.4.2.3.1
Thus
 a  b 8  a 8  8a 7b  28a 6b2  56a 5b3  70a 4b4  56a 3b5  28a 2b6  8ab7  b8
Note: If we try to continue the series beyond term 9, the next and all succeeding terms
will be 0. To save time, you may use some of the observations that were made in the
introduction. For example, the coefficients read the same backwards and forwards, so
after term 5 you can reverse the coefficients. Also, the powers of a are descending, while
the powers of b are ascending.
Example 2
Expand  a  b  and  a  b 
4 4
The value of n is 4, thus there will be five terms in the expansion.

T1  a n  a 4
T2  na n 1b  4a 3b
n  n  1 4.3 2 2
T3  a n2 b 2  a b  6a 2 b 2
2! 2.1
n  n  1 n  2  4.3.2
T4  a n 3 b 3  a b3  4a b 3
3! 3.2.1
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 4.3.2.1 4
T5  a n4 b 4  b  b4
4! 4.2.3.1
Thus
 a  b
4
 a 4  4a 3 b  6a 2 b 2  4ab3  b 4
To find  a  b  notice that  a  b    a  ( b)  . We obtain the answer by replacing b

4 4 4
with – b in the expansion for  a  b  .

4
Thus
 a  b   a  ( b)   a 4  4a 3  b   6a 2  b   4a  b    b 
4 4 2 3 4
 a 4  4a 3b  6a 2b2  4ab3  b4
Example 3
5
 x3 1 
Write down the first three terms in the expansion of   2 
 3 x 
MAT1581 5
BINOMIAL THEOREM
Substitute a  x3
3
, b   x12 and n  5 into the binomial theorem.
5
 x3  x15
T1  a    
n
 3  243
4
n 1  x3   1   x12   1  5 x10
T2  na b  5     2   5   2   
 3   x   81   x  81
n  n  1
3
5.4  x 3   1   x9   1
2
 10 x
5
n2 2
T3  a b        10   4 
2! 2.1  3   x 2   27   x  27
Thus
5
 x3 1  x15 5 x10 10 x5
  2    ...
 3 x  243 81 27
ACTIVITY 1
1. Write expansions of  x  2  and  x  2  .
4 4
2. Write down the first four terms in the expansion of  x  3 y  .

10
Remember to check the response on page 9.
3. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A NEGATIVE INTEGER
If n is a negative integer, the expansion is infinite.
Example 4
1
Expand to three terms
 x  2x 
2
  x  2x 
1 2
Rewrite the given expression to expand:
x   2 2
x
Substitute a  x, b   2x and n  2 into the binomial theorem.

1
T1  a n  x 2 
x2
 2 4
T2  na n 1b  2 x 3     4 x 4  4
 x x
n  n  1 2.  3. 4  2 
2
 4  12
T3  a n2 b 2  x     3 x 4  2 6
  12 x  6
2! 2.1  x x  x
Thus
  x  2x 
1 2 1 4 12
  4  6  ...
x   2 2 2
x x x
x
6 MAT1581
BINOMIAL THEOREM
ACTIVITY 2
Expand to four terms  x  3a  .
3
4. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A FRACTION
If n is a fraction, the expansion is infinite.
Example 5
2
Expand to four terms x2 
x4
1
2
2  2 2 
Rewrite the given expression x2  x  4 
x4  x 
2
Substitute a  x 2 , b   4
and n  1
2
into the binomial theorem.
x
1
 
2
T1  a n  x 2 x
1

x   2
2
n 1
T2  na b  1
2
2
 4 
 x 
  x 1 ( x 4 )
1

x5
n  n  1 n 2 2
T3  a b
2!
 2   2 
3
 2
x   2
1 1 2
 2
 4 
2.1  x 
1 1  4
  1
    x 3  8    11
2 4 x  2x
MAT1581 7
BINOMIAL THEOREM
n  n  1 n  2  n 3 3
T4  a b
3!
 1   12    23 
5
 3
x   2
2
 2 2
 4 
3.2.1  x 
1  3
 
 8 
   x 5   12 
68  x 
3 x 5 1
 12
  17
6x 2x
Thus
1
2
2  2 2  1 1 1
x2    x  4   x  5  11  17  ...
 x 
4
x x 2x 2x
ACTIVITY 3
3
Expand to four terms 1  x  .

4
5. THE rth TERM OF A BINOMIAL SERIES
If we write the binomial series as

n  n  1 n 2 2 n  n  1 n  2  n3 3
 a  b n  a n  na n1b  a b  a b  ...
2! 3!
Then the rth term of this expansion is given by
n  n  1 n  2  ....(n  r  2) n r 1 r 1
a b
(r  1)!
Example 6
 
11
Calculate the sixth term in the expansion of x 2  y 2
a  x 2 , b  ( y 2 ), n  11, r  6,
Now r 1  5
n  r  2  11  6  2  7
n  r  1  11  6  1  6
n  n  1 n  2  ....(n  r  2)
Tr  a n r 1b r 1
(r  1)!
11.10.9.8.7 2
   y 
6 2 5
Thus T6  x  462 x12 y10
5.4.3.2.1
8 MAT1581
BINOMIAL THEOREM
ACTIVITY 4
Find the middle term in the expansion of  x  y  .
10
4. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES
4.1 Activity 1
1. The value of n is 4, thus there will be five terms in the expansion.

In the binomial theorem substitute a = x, b = 2 and n = 4.
T1  a n  x 4
T2  na n1b  4 x3  2   8 x3
n  n  1 4.3 2
a n2 b 2  x  2   6 x 2  4   24 x 2
2
T3 
2! 2.1
n  n  1 n  2  4.3.2
a n 3 b 3 x  2   4 x  8  32 x
3
T4 
3! 3.2.1
n  n  1 n  2  n  3 n  4 4 4.3.2.1 4
T5  a b   2   16
4! 4.2.3.1
Thus
 x  2 4  x 4  8 x3  24 x 2  32 x  16
and
 x  2 4  x 4  8 x3  24 x 2  32 x  16
2. In the binomial theorem substitute a = x, b = 3y and n = 10

T1  a n  x10
T2  na n 1b  10 x 9  3 y   30 x 9 y
n  n  1
T3 
2!
a n2 b 2 
10.9 8
2.1
2
 
x  3 y   45 x8 9 y 2  405 x8 y 2
n  n  1 n  2 
T4 
3!
a n 3 b 3 
10.9.8 7
3.2.1
3
 
x  3 y   120 x 7 27 y 3  3240 x 7 y 3
Thus
 x  3y
10
 x10  30 x9 y  405 x8 y 2  3240 x 7 y 3  ...
MAT1581 9
BINOMIAL THEOREM
4.2 Activity 2
Substitute a  x, b  3a and n  3 into the binomial theorem.

1
T1  a n  x 3  3
x
9a
T2  na n1b  3x 4 (3a)  9ax 4  
x4
n  n  1 3.  4 5
T3 
2!
a n2 b2 
2.1
54a 2
x (3a) 2  6 x 5 9a 2  5
x
 
n  n  1 n  2  n 3 3 3.  4.  5 6
T4 
3!
a b 
3.2.1
x (3a )3  10 x 6 27 a 3  
270a 3
x6
 
Thus
1 9a 54a 2 270a 3
 x  3a 
3
   5   ...
x3 x 4 x x6
4.3 Activity 3
Substitute a  1, b  x and n  34 .
Instead of using the general binomial theorem, we can use the special case. From the
information sheet:
n  n  1 2 n  n  1 n  2  3
1  x n  1  nx  x  x  ... and 1  x  1
2! 3!
T1  1
T2  nx  43 x
T3 
n  n  1 2
x 
3
4   14  x 2  1 .  3  x 2   3x 2
 
2! 2.1 2  16  32
T4 
n  n  1 n  2  3
x 
3
4   14    45  x 3  1  15  x 3  15x 3  5x 3
 
3! 3.2.1 6  64  384 128
Thus
3
3x 2 5 x 3
1  x 
4
 1  43 x    ...
32 128
4.4 Activity 4
The value of n is 10, thus there will be eleven terms in the expansion. The term in the
middle would be the sixth term.
10 MAT1581
BINOMIAL THEOREM
a  x, b  y, n  10, r  6,
Now r 1  5
n  r  2  10  6  2  6
n  r  1  10  6  1  5
n  n  1 n  2  ....(n  r  2)
Tr  a n r 1b r 1
(r  1)!
10.9.8.7.6 5
Thus T6   x   y 5  252 x5 y 5
5.4.3.2.1
MAT1581 11
BINOMIAL THEOREM
POST-TEST: BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. Expand using the binomial theorem:

 3x  y 
5
a)
b) x 2
 2
y 3
x 
1 1 4
c) 2
 2y3
2. Expand to four terms:

a)  x  3a 3
 2 x  1x 
1
b)
 
 23
c) 1  x3
3 1
3y2
d)
x
 
11
3. Calculate the fourth term of x 2  y 2
12 MAT1581
BINOMIAL THEOREM
POST-TEST SOLUTIONS
1. a)  3x  y 5  243x5  405 x 4 y  270 x3 y 2  90 x 2 y 3  15 xy 4  y 5

b) x 2
 2
y 3
 x 6  32 x 4 y  34 x 2 y 2  18 y 3
 
1 1 4 3 1 2 1 4
c) x2  2y3  x 2  8 x 2 y 3  24 xy 3  32 x 2 y  16 y 3
1 9a 54a 2 270a 3
2. a)  x  3a  3
   5   ...
x3 x 4 x x6
 2 x  1x  1 1 1 1
1
b)   3 5   ...
2x 4x 8 x 16 x 7
 
 23
c) 1  x3  1  32 x3  95 x 6  40
81
x9  ...
1
3y2  3y2  y2 y4 5 y6
3
3 1  1 
d)   1  2  3  ...
x  x  x x 3x
3. Fourth term T4  165 x16 y 6
You have now completed learning unit 1: Binomial theorem.

You should be able to
 write down a binomial expansion using the binomial theorem
 determine any term in a binomial expansion
We now move on to module 2: Systems of equations and determinants. Learning unit 1

deals with the properties of determinants.
MAT1581 13
M
O
D MODULE 2: SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND
U DETERMINANTS
L
E CONTENTS
PAGE
2 LEARNING UNIT 1 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS 15
1. WHAT IS A DETERMINANT? ........................................................................... 16

2. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS ................................................................. 18
3. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES............................................................................ 20
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 21
LEARNING UNIT 2 THE VALUE OF AN n  n DETERMINANT 23
1. MINORS................................................................................................................ 24
2. COFACTORS........................................................................................................ 24
3. EVALUATING A DETERMINANT ................................................................... 25
4.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 28
LEARNING UNIT 3 CRAMER’S RULE 30
1. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS ................................ 31

2. CRAMER’S RULE FOR SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS.. 33
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 39
POST-TEST: SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS 40
MAT5181 14
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
MODULE 2 AND DETERMINANTS
LEARNING UNIT 1 Properties of determinants
OUTCOMES

 find the value of a 2  2 and a 3  3 determinant
 use the properties of determinants to evaluate a determinant
 identify an element according to its position in a determinant
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. WHAT IS A DETERMINANT? ........................................................................... 16
2. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS ................................................................. 18
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 21
MAT5181 15
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS: Properties of determinants
Whenever you have to solve more than two equations in two variables, the substitution
and the addition methods you have used till now become very long and difficult. There
are other methods that are easier. This unit gives the background material for one of the
easier methods.
1. WHAT IS A DETERMINANT?
a b
If a, b, c and d are any four real numbers, then the symbol is called a 2  2 (read
c d
2 by 2) determinant or determinant of the second order. Each determinant has a
numerical value.
Evaluating a 2  2 determinant
a b
If a, b, c and d are any four real numbers, then  ad  cb
c d
a b
As a memory aid you can draw the diagonals of the determinant  ad  cb
c d
Example 1
2 5
Evaluate the determinant
3 2
2 5
Solution:   2  2    3 5   4  15  19
3 2
A 3  3 determinant or determinant of the order 3 can be represented by the symbol

a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 where a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 , c1 , c2 and c3 are any real numbers.
c1 c2 c3
The horizontal lines are called rows and the vertical lines columns. The rows are
numbered from top to bottom and the columns from left to right.
Evaluating a 3  3 determinant
Rewrite the first two columns on the right of the determinant as follows:
a1 a2 a3 a1 a2
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2

(1) Form the products of the elements in each of the three diagonals shown which run
down from left to right, and precede each of these three terms with a positive sign.
(2) Form the products of the elements in each of the three diagonals shown which run
down from right to left, and precede each of these three terms with a negative
sign.
16 MAT1581
(3) The algebraic sum of the six products of (1) and (2) is the required expansion of
the determinant.
The main or principal diagonal of a determinant is the diagonal from upper left to lower
right.
a b c
For example, in e f g the entries on the main diagonal are a, f and j.
h i j
A determinant is in triangular form if all the entries above or below the main diagonal are
0.
a b c a 0 0
For example, 0 f g and e f 0
0 0 j h i j
Example 2
3 2 2
Evaluate the determinant: 6 1 1
2  3 2
Solution: Rewrite first two columns:
3 2 2 3 2
6 1 1 6 1
2 3 2 2 3
Draw diagonals to help.

Construct the sum of the six products. Group the positive and the negative products
together:
  (3)(1)(2)  (-2)(-1)(-2)  (2)(6)(-3)   (2)(1)(-2) + (3)(-1)(-3) +(-2)(6)(2)
  6  4  36   4  9  24
  34   19
 34  19
 15
In general a square arrangement of real numbers can be called a determinant. Element aij
denotes a typical element of a matrix. The first subscript (i) always refers to the row in
which the element occurs and the second subscript (j) always refers to the column. Thus
a determinant of order n  n can be written as
a11  a1n
  
an1  ann
We will discuss a method to determine the value of any determinant in the next unit.
MAT1581 17
ACTIVITY 1
1. Evaluate the following determinants:
3 1 1 1
a) b)
2 0.4 1 1
5 6 7
1 2
c) d) 8 9 0
3 4
3 4 2
1 3 1
e) 3 4 1
1 6 2
4 3 9
2. Use the determinant 1 2 3 and write down the element in the
1 2 1
indicated position:
a) a13
b) a21
c) a32
2. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
The properties are stated without proof. An example of each property is given.
1. Interchanging corresponding rows and columns of a determinant does not

change the value of the determinant. Thus any theorem proved true for rows
holds for columns, and conversely.
Example:
7 9 7 8
 42  72  30 and  42  72  30
8 6 9 6
2. If each element in a row (or column) is 0, the value of the determinant is 0.
Examples:
1 3 4
1 0
 0 or 0 0 0
8 0
4 1 2
3. Interchanging any two rows (or columns) reverses the sign of the determinant.
Examples:
18 MAT1581
2 3 1 9
If  15 then  15 , because the first and second rows were
1 9 2 3
2 3 1 9
swapped. Thus 
1 9 2 3
3 1 5 5 1 3
If 2 0 2  14 then 2 0 2  14 , because the first and third
5 1 4 4  1 5
columns were swapped.
4. If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the
determinant is 0.
Examples:
2 3 1
9 8 7  0 , because rows 1 and 3 are the same.
2 3 1
6 9 9
1 3 3  0 , because columns 2 and 3 are the same.
7 4 4
5. If each of the elements in a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by

the same number p, the value of the determinant is multiplied by p.
Example:
2 3
If you multiply each entry in the second column of the determinant  15 by
1 9
2 15
5, you get  75 , and 75  5  15 .
1 45
If you combine property 4 and 5, you can see that if any row (or column) is a multiple of
any other row (or column), then the value of the determinant is 0.
6. If to each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is added m times the

corresponding element of any other row (or column), the value of the
determinant is not changed.
Example:
7 3
In the determinant , if you multiply each number in the first row by 4 and
5 1
7 3 7 3
add these new numbers to the second row, then 
28  5 12  1 23 13
We see that the value of the determinant is unchanged because
7 3
 91  69  22
23 13
MAT1581 19
7. If a determinant is in triangular form, its value is the product of the main

diagonal.
Example:
9 3 1 2
0 4 2 7
 9  4    13   1  12
0 0  13 17
0 0 0 1
ACTIVITY 2
Evaluate each determinant using the properties of determinants:
2 5 8
a) 16 4 3
2 5 8
1 2 5
b) 1 2 3
3 6 15
9 18 -1
c) 0 -7 5
0 0 2
1 -3 -1 -1 -3 1
d) If 3 4 1  3 find the value of 1 4 3
1 6 2 2 6 1
3.1 Activity 1
1.
3 1
a)   3 0.4    2 1  1.2  2  0.8
2 0.4
1 1
b)  11   1 1  1  1  0
1 1
1 2
c)  1 4    3 2   4  6  2
3 4
20 MAT1581
5 6 7 5 6
d) 8 9 0 8 9
3 4 2 3 4
   5 9  2    6  0  3   7  8 4     7  9  3   5 0  4    6  8 2  
  90  0  224  189  0  96

  314   93
 221
1  3 1 1 3
e) 3 4 1 3 4
1 6 2 1 6
  (1)(4)(2)  ( 3)(1)(1)  ( 1)(3)(6)   ( 1)(4)(1)  (1)(1)(6)  ( 3)(3)(2) 
 8  3  18   4  6  18
  13   16
 13  16
3
2. a) a13 = 9
b) a21 = 1
c) a32 = 2
3.2 Activity 2
2 5 8
a) 16 4 3  0, because rows 1 and 3 are the same.
2 5 8
1 2 5
b) 1 2 3  0, because row 3 is a multiple of row 1 (or column 2 is a multiple of column 1).
3 6 15
9 18 1
c) 0 7 5  (9)( 7)(2)  126
0 0 2
1 3 1
d) 1 4 3  3, because the first and third columns are swapped.
2 6 1
MAT1581 21
You have now completed learning unit 1: Properties of determinants.

 find the value of a determinant
 use the properties of determinants to evaluate a determinant
 identify an element according to its position in a determinant
We now move on to learning unit 2: The value of a determinant.
22 MAT1581
MODULE 2 SYSTEMS OF
LEARNING UNIT 2 EQUATIONS AND
DETERMINANTS
The value of an n  n
determinant
OUTCOMES

 find the minor and cofactor of an element in a determinant
 use cofactors to find the value of an n  n determinant
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. MINORS................................................................................................................ 24
2. COFACTORS........................................................................................................ 24
3. EVALUATING A DETERMINANT ................................................................... 25
4.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 28
MAT5181 23
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS: The value of an n x n determinant
The methods discussed in learning unit 1 of this module to evaluate determinants are
specific to second- and third-order determinants. In this unit we will develop a general
method suitable to evaluate any determinant.
1. MINORS
Each element in a determinant has a minor associated with it. The minor of a given
element is the determinant that is formed by deleting the row and column in which the
element lies.
Example 1
2 4 4
Consider the determinant 5 6 7
1 2 4
a) The minor of the first element, 2, is found by crossing out the first row and first
2 4 4
column 5 6 7
1 2 4
6 7
The minor of 2 is  24  14  10 .
2 4
b) The minor of 7 is found by crossing out the second row and third column
2 4 4
5 6 7
1 2 4
2 4
The minor of 7 is  4  4  0.
1 2
c) The minor of 1 is found by crossing out the third row and the first column
2 4 4
5 6 7
1 2 4
4 4
The minor of 1 is  28  (24)  52 .
6 7
2. COFACTORS
Each element also has a cofactor. The value of the cofactor is determined by first adding
the number of the row and the number of the column where the element is located. If this
sum is even, the value of the cofactor is equal to the value of the minor for that element.
If the sum is odd, the value of the cofactor is then –1 times the value of the minor for that
element.
Example 2
Consider the same determinant as in example 1.
24 MAT1581
a) The cofactor of 2 is 10. Element 2 is in row 1 column 1. Since 1 + 1 is an even

number, the value of the cofactor is the same as that of the minor.
b) The cofactor of 7 is 0.
c) The cofactor of 1 is 52. Element 1 is in row 3 column 1. Since 1 + 3 is an even
number, the value of the cofactor is the same as that of the minor.
d) Find the element, minor and cofactor in the position: row 2 column 1.
Element = 5
4 4
Minor =  16   8   24
2 4
Cofactor = 24. Since 2 + 1 = 3 is an odd number, the cofactor is –1 times the
value of the minor.
ACTIVITY 1
4 2 1
Use the determinant 3 7 4 and for the indicated position find (a) the
2 1 1
element in that position, (b) the minor of that element and (c) the cofactor of
that element.
1. Row 1 column 2
2. Row 2 column 1
3. Row 3 column 2
4. Row 2 column 3
3. EVALUATING A DETERMINANT
Steps to evaluate any determinant:

1. Select any row or column of the determinant.
2. Multiply each element of that row or column by its cofactor.
3. Add the results.
To illustrate that this method is valid for all determinants we will start with examples of
2  2 and 3  3 determinants before moving to higher order determinants.
Example 3
1 2
a) Find the value of
3 4
Develop the determinant along the second column.

The minor of element 2 is 3 and the cofactor is (-1)(3).
The minor of 4 is 1 and the cofactor is 1.
1 2
Therefore  2(1)  3  4 1  6  4  2
3 4
This is the same answer as previously obtained in learning unit 1, activity 1(c),
page 20.
MAT1581 25
The method in learning unit 1 for second-order determinants is easier to use, so

we prefer to use that method.
5 6 7
b) Find the value of 8 9 0
3 4 2
Develop along the second row.

Instead of first finding the minors and cofactors of each element in row 2, we will
write down the sum immediately and then simplify.
5 6 7
6 7 5 7
8 9 0  8(1)  (9) 0
4 2 3 2
3 4 2
Note: The third term becomes 0 as that element is 0 and 0 multiplied by any
number is 0.
Since we can select any row or column, you should always try to select the
row or column with the most zeros.
To develop the 2  2 determinants we will use the method in unit 1.
5 6 7
6 7 5 7
8 9 0  8(1)  (9) 0
4 2 3 2
3 4 2
 8  12  28  9  10  (21) 
 8  40  9 11
 320  99
 221
This is the same answer as previously obtained in unit 1, activity 1(d) page 138.
For third-order determinants choose the method that will be the easiest.
2 1 5 2
1 0 4 5
c) Evaluate
7 2 1 0
5 0 3 2
The second column of this determinant has two zeros, so we will develop along
column 2.
2 1 5 2
1 4 5 2 5 2
1 0 4 5
 1(1) 7 1 0  0  2(1) 1 4 5  0
7 2 1 0
5 3 2 5 3 2
5 0 3 2
Now we need to evaluate each of the 3  3 determinants.
Develop the first determinant along column 3.
26 MAT1581
1 4 5
7 1 1 4
7 1 0 5 02
5 3 7 1
5 3 2
 5  21  5  2 1  28
 5  26  2  27 
 130  54
 184
Develop the other determinant along row 1.
2 5 2
4 5 1 5 1 4
1 4 5 2  (5)(1)  (2)
3 2 5 2 5 3
5 3 2
 2 8  (15)   5  2  25  2  3  20
 2  23  5  23  2  23
 46  115  46
 23
So, the value of the original determinant is
2 1 5 2
1 4 5 2 5 2
1 0 4 5
 1(1) 7 1 0  0  2(1) 1 4 5
7 2 1 0
5 3 2 5 3 2
5 0 3 2
 1(184)  2(23)
 184  46
 230
ACTIVITY 2
Evaluate the following determinants:
4 2 1
a) 3 0 4
3 1 1
1 0 0  12
 12 1
2 0 0
b)
0  12 1  12
0 1 0 1
MAT1581 27
4.1 Activity 1
1. a) 2
3 4
b)  3  8  5
2 1
c) Since 1 + 2 = 3 is odd, the cofactor is the negative of the minor or –( 5) = 5.
2. a) 3
2 1
b)  2  (1)  3
1 1
c) Since 1 + 2 = 3 is odd, the cofactor is the negative of the minor, or –3.
3. a) 1
4 1
b)  16  (3)  13
3 4
c) Since 3 + 2 is odd, the cofactor is – (–13) = 13.
4. a) – 4
4 2
b)  44 8
2 1
c) 2+3 is odd, so the cofactor is  8.
4.2 Activity 2
4 2 1
a) 3 0 4 Develop along second column.
-3 1 1
3 4 4 1
 2(1)  0  1(1)
3 1 3 4
 2 3   12    1 16   3 
 2 15  19
  49
28 MAT1581
1 0 0  12
 12 1
2
0 0
b) Develop along third column.
0  12 1  12
0 1 0 1
1 0  12
 0  0  1  12 1
2
0 0
0 1 1
1 0  1
2
  12 1
2
0 Develop along third row.
0 1 1
1  12 1 0
= 0  1 1 1 1
 12 0 2 1
2
 0  14    12  0 
  14  12
 1
4
You have now completed learning unit 2: The value of an n x n determinant.

 find the minor and cofactor of an element in a determinant
 use cofactors to find the value of an n  n determinant
We now move on to learning unit 3: Cramer’s rule.
MAT1581 29
MODULE 2 SYSTEMS OF
LEARNING UNIT 3 EQUATIONS AND
DETERMINANTS
Cramer’s rule
OUTCOME
At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to solve a system of simultaneous
equations using Cramer’s rule.
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS ................................ 31

2. CRAMER’S RULE FOR SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS.. 33
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 39
MAT5181 30
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS: Cramer’s rule
Determinants can be applied to solving a system of n linear equations in n unknowns.

This method is very useful as it enables us to solve for one unknown without having to
solve for the others. Remember, if you are asked to solve the system, you must find the
value of all the unknowns.
1. SOLVING A SYSTEM OF TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS
Consider a system of two linear equations with two unknowns:

ax  by  h
cx  dy  k
If we multiply the first equation by d and the second equation by b, we get
adx  bdy  hd
cbx  bdy  bk
We can eliminate the y terms if we subtract the second equation from the first equation,
thus
adx  cbx  hd  bk
x  ad  cb   hd  bk
hd  bk
x
ad  cb
If we use the definition of a second-order determinant on the solution for x, we get
h b
hd  bk k d
x 
ad  cb a b
c d
a b
provided that 0
c d
a h
ak  ch c k
Similarly, we can show that y  
ad  cb a b
c d
These last two equations are cumbersome, so we will abbreviate the determinants by
a b
 , where the elements of the determinant are the coefficients of x and y
c d
h b
x  , where the column of x-values is replaced by the constants
k d
a h
y  , where the column of y-values is replaced by the constants
b k
We can now state Cramer’s rule for solving two linear equations in two variables.
MAT1581 31
Cramer’s rule for solving a 2  2 linear system
 a1 x  b1 y  k1
The unique solution to the linear system  is
 a2 x  b2 y  k 2
k1 b1 a1 k1
 k b2 y a k2
x x  2 and y   2
 a1 b1  a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2
a1 b1
provided that    0 and k1 , k2  0
a2 b2
If k1 , k2  0 we have a homogeneous system and Cramer’s rule cannot be applied as the

determinants become 0. If   0 , the equations in the system are either inconsistent or
dependent.
Example 1
 2 x  y  5  0
Solve the following system: 
 3y  x  6
Rewrite the system in the appropriate form: variables in the same order on the left-hand
side and constants on the right-hand side:
 2 x  y  5

 x  3 y  6
2 1
The determinant of the coefficient matrix is    6 1  5
1 3
Since   0 , a unique solution exists.
5 1
6 3 (15  6) 21
Solving for x, we have x   
5 5 5
2 5
1 6 (12  (5)) 17
Solving for y, we have y   
5 5 5
21 17
Thus the solution is x  and y 
5 5
(Check the answer by substituting the values in the original system of equations.)
32 MAT1581
ACTIVITY 1
Solve the following systems of equations:
 2 x  y  7
a) 
3 x  2 y   7
3 x  3  y
b) 
 2 x  13  3 y
 2, 5 x  3,8 y  9, 3
c) 
 0, 5 x  0, 76 y  2, 44
2. CRAMER’S RULE FOR SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
The rule can be extended to a system of n equations in n unknowns.
Cramer’s rule
Let a system of n linear equations in n unknowns be given by
 a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  k1

 a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  k2

   

 an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  kn
a11  a1n
If the determinant of the coefficients      is not equal to 0, the system has
a21  ann
a unique solution.
 x1  x2  xn
The solution is x1  , x2  , xn 
  
where  xm , the numerator of xm , is the determinant obtained by replacing the mth
column of  by the column of constants k1  kn .
We will usually work with 3 equations and 3 unknowns.
Example 2
 x  2 y  z  3

a) Solve the system 3 x  y  z  4

 x  y  2z  6
MAT1581 33
1 2 1
 3 1 1
1 1 2
Rewrite the first two columns:
1 2 1 1 2
3 1 1 3 1
1 1 2 1 1
  11 2    2 11   1 3 1    111  11 1   2  3 2  
  2  2  3   1  1  12
 7  10
 3
3 2 1
x  4 1 1
6 1 2
3 2 1 3 2
4 1 1 4 1
6 1 2 6 1
  31 2    2 1 6    1 4  1    11 6    31 1   2  4  2  
  6  12  4   6  3  16
 10  13
 3
 x 3
x  1
 3
1 3 1
y  3 4 1
1 6 2
1 3 1 1 3
3 4 1 3 4
1 6 2 1 6
34 MAT1581
 1 4  2    3 11   1 3 6     1 4 1  11 6    3 3  2  
 8  3  18   4  6  18
 13  ( 16)
3
y 3
y   1
 3
1 2 3
z  3 1 4
1 1 6
1 2 3 1 2
3 1 4 3 1
1 1 6 1 1
 11 6    2  4 1   3 3 1    311  1 4  1   2  3 6  
  6  8  9   3  4  36
 23  29
 6
 z 6
z  2
 3
 x y  5w  6

 x  2y  z 4
b) Solve the following system for z only 
 2y  z  w  6

3 x  4w  2
1 1 0 5
1 2 1 0

0 2 1 1
3 0 0 4
Develop along the third column:
1 1 5 1 1 5
=0+1(-1) 0 2 1 1 1 2 0 0
3 0 4 3 0 4
Develop the first determinant along the second row:
MAT1581 35
1 1 5
1 5 1 1
0 2 1 02  1(1)
3 4 3 0
3 0 4
 2  4  15  1 0  3
 38  3
 35
Develop the second determinant along the second row:
1 1 5
1 5 1 5
1 2 0  1(1) 2
0 4 3 4
3 0 4
 1 4  0  2  4  15
 4  2(19)
 34
1 1 5 1 1 5
 =0+1(-1) 0 2 1 1 1 2 0 0
3 0 4 3 0 4
  (1)(35)  1(34)
 35  34
1
1 1 6 5
1 2 4 0
z 
0 2 6 1
3 0 2 4
Develop along the first column
2 4 0 1 6 5 1 6 5
 z =1 2 6 1  1(1) 2 6 1  0  3(1) 2 4 0
0 2 -4 0 2 4 2 6 1
Develop the first determinant along the first column:.
2 4 0
6 1 4 0
2 6 1 2  2(1) 0
2 4 2 4
0 2 -4
 2  24  2  2  16  0
 2  26  32
 20
36 MAT1581
Develop the second determinant along the first column:

1 6 5
6 1 6 5
2 6 1 1  2(1) 0
2 4 2 4
0 2 4
  24  2  2  24  10
 26  2(34)
 26  68
 42
Develop the last determinant along the second row:
1 6 5
6 5 1 5
2 4 0  2(1) 4
6 1 2 1
2 6 1
 2  6  30  4 1  10
 48  36
 12
Now
2 4 0 1 6 5 1 6 5
 z =1 2 6 1  1(1) 2 6 1  0  3(1) 2 4 0
0 2 -4 0 2 4 2 6 1
 20  1(42)  3(12)
 20  42  36
 98
 z 98
z   98
 1
ACTIVITY 2
Solve the following systems of equations:
x  3y  z  7

a) 5 x  7 y  z  3

2 x  y  2 z  0
5 x  3 y  2 z  5

b) 3x  4 y  3z  13

 x  6 y  4 z  8
MAT1581 37
3.1 Activity 1
2 1
a)   (4  3)  7
3 2
7 1
x   (14  (7))  14  7  7
7 2
 x 7
x  1
 7
2 7
y   (14  21)  35
3 7
y 35
y  5
 7
The solution is x = 1 and y = 5.
b) Rewrite the system in the appropriate form.

3 x  y  3

 2 x  3 y  13
3 1
  (9  2)  11
2 3
3 1
x   (9  13)  22
13 3
 x 22
x  2
 11
3 3
y   (39  6)  33
2 13
y 33
y  3
 11
Thus the solution is x = 2 and y = -3.
2,5 3,8
c)   (1,9  1,9)  0
0,5 0, 76
Since   0 , the system is inconsistent or dependent and no solution exists.
38 MAT1581
4.2 Activity 2
a)
x  3y  z  7

5 x  7 y  z  3

2 x  y  2 z  0
1 3 1
  5 7 1  42
2 1 2
7 3 1 1 7 1 1 3 7
 x  3 7 1  126,  y  5 3 1  84,  z  5 7 3  84
0 1 2 2 0 2 2 1 0
 x 126 y 84  z 84
x  3 y  2 z  2
 42  42  42
b)
5 x  3 y  2 z  5

3 x  4 y  3z  13

 x  6 y  4 z  8
5 3 2
  3 4 3  9
1 6 4
5 3 2 5 5 2 5 3 5
 x  13 4 3  18,  y  3 13 3  9,  z  3 4 13  9
8 6 4 1 8 4 1 6 8
18 9 9
x 2 y  1 z 1
9 9 9
MAT1581 39
POST-TEST: SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS
1. Evaluate the following determinants:

3 2 2
3 2
a) b) 1 4 5
1 4
6 1 4
x y z
2x 1 x 1
c) 2 3 1 d)
x2 x2
4 1 2
k 3 1 2
2. a) For what value of k does 3 2 1  0?
k 3 3
2x  1 2x  1
b) Find the values of x for which 0
x 1 4x  2
3. Use Cramer’s rule to do the following:

a) Solve for x and y:
4 x  2 y  5 

3 x  4 y  1 
b) Solve for x, y and z:
3x  y  2 z  1 

2x  3y  z  2 

x  2 y  2 z  10 
c) Solve for x and y:
3 6 1
 
x y 6
2 3 1
 
x y 2
3 2 4
4. If A  2 1 5 write down the minors of the elements of the second row.
1 5 2
40 MAT1581
POST-TEST SOLUTIONS
3 2
1. a)
1 4
  3 4   1 2  (Cross multiply.)
 10
3 2 2
b) 1 4 5
6 1 4
Expand along the first column.
 3  4  4    1 5    1  2  4    1 2    6  2  5    4  2  
 63  6  108
 39
x y z
c) 2 3 1
4 1 2
Expand along the first row.
 x  6  1  y  4  4   z  2  12 
 5 x  8 y  14 z
2x 1 x  1
d)
x2 x2
  2 x  1 x  2    x  2  x  1  Cross multiply.

 2 x 2  5 x  2  x 2  3x  2 
 x2  8x
MAT1581 41
Module 2
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND DETERMINANTS: Post-test solutions
k  3 1 2
2. a  3 2 1  0
 k 3 3
Evaluate determinant by expanding along the first row.
 k  3 6  3  1 9  k   2  9  2k   0
 3k  9  9  k  18  4k  0
00
The equation is valid for all values of k , where k  .
2x  1 2x  1
b 0
x 1 4x  2
 2 x  1 4 x  2    x  1 2 x  1  0
8 x 2  2  2 x 2  3x  1  0
6 x 2  3x  3  0
2x2  x  1  0
 2 x  1 x  1  0
1
x   of/or x  1
2
3. a  4x  2 y  5
3x  4 y  1
4 2
  22
3 4
5 2
1 4 22
x  1
 22
4 5
3 1 11 1
y  
 22 2
42 MAT1581
Mathematics 1(Engineering)
Module 2
b 3x  y  2 z  1
2x  3y  z  2
x  2 y  2 z  10
All the deterninants below are calculated by expanding along the first row.
3 1 2
 2 3 1  3  4   1 5   2  7   21
1 2 2
1 1 2
2 3 1
x
10 2 2

1 4   1 6   2  26   42  2
 21 21
3 1 2
2 2 1
1 10 2 3  6   1 5   2  22  21
y   1
 21 21
3 1 1
2 3 2
1 2 10 3  26   1 22   1 7  63
z    3
 21 21
3 6 1
c  
x y 6
2 3 1
 
x y 2
3 6
  21
2 3
1
6
6
1
1 3 3 12 1
 2
 
x  21 6
x  6
1
3 6
1 7
1 2 1
 2
 6

y  21 18
 y  18
MAT1581 43
Module 2
3 2 4
4. A 2 1 5
1 5 2
The minor for the element in :
2 4
row 2, column 1 is  4  20  16
5 2
3 4
row 2, column 2 is  6  4  10
1 2
3 2
row 2, column 3 is  15  (2)  17
1 5
You have now completed learning unit 3: Cramer’s rule.

You should be able to solve a system of simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule.
We now move on to module 3: Partial fractions. Learning unit 1 is the introduction to this
module.
44 MAT1581
Mathematics 1(Engineering)
M
O
MODULE 3: PARTIAL FRACTIONS D
U
CONTENTS L
E
PAGE
3
LEARNING UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION 46
1. ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS ............................................................................ 47

2. PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTIONS...................................................... 47 3
3. SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY CANCELLING COMMON FACTORS .. 48
3.1 Dividing by a monomial ................................................................................ 48
3.2 Factorising numerator and denominator ....................................................... 48
4. SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY FINDING PARTIAL FRACTIONS. ........ 49
5. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES ................................................................... 50
5.1 Activity 1 ....................................................................................................... 50
5.2 Activity 2 ....................................................................................................... 50
5.3 Activity 3 ....................................................................................................... 50
LEARNING UNIT 2 PROPER FRACTIONS 52
1. LINEAR FACTORS ......................................................................................... 54

2. REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS ................................................................... 57
3. QUADRATIC FACTORS ................................................................................ 60
4. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES ....................................................................... 63
4.1 Activity 1 ....................................................................................................... 63
4.2 Activity 2 ....................................................................................................... 63
4.3 Activity 3 ....................................................................................................... 65
4.4 Activity 4 ....................................................................................................... 67
LEARNING UNIT 3 IMPROPER FRACTIONS 70
1. FIND PROPER FRACTION BY LONG DIVISION ....................................... 71

2. INCLUDE EXTRA TERMS ............................................................................ 73
3. SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 75
4. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES ....................................................................... 76
4.1 Activity 1 ....................................................................................................... 76
4.2 Activity 2 ....................................................................................................... 80
POST-TEST: PARTIAL FRACTIONS ...................................................................... 82

MAT1581 45
MODULE 3 PARTIAL FRACTIONS
LEARNING UNIT 1 Introduction
OUTCOMES
 distinguish between a proper and an improper algebraic fraction
 use an example to describe the term "partial fractions"
 use factorisation to simplify fractions
CONTENTS PAGE
1. ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS ................................................................................ 47

2. PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTIONS.......................................................... 47
3. SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY CANCELLING COMMON FACTORS ...... 48
3.1 Dividing by a monomial ....................................................................................... 48
3.2 Factorising numerator and denominator ............................................................... 48
4 SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY FINDING PARTIAL FRACTIONS. ............ 49
5. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES ........................................................................... 50

5.1 Activity 1 .............................................................................................................. 50
5.2 Activity 2 .............................................................................................................. 50
5.3 Activity 3 .............................................................................................................. 50
46 MAT1581
Partial fractions: Introduction
1. ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Algebraic fractions are expressions in the form of a ratio or quotient of two polynomials:
polynomial expression numerator
algebraic fraction = 
polynomial expression denominator
x  x  2
2
42  19 x
For example 2 or 3
x 4 x  4x2  x  4
2. PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTIONS

The degree of a polynomial is the highest power to which the variable is raised in the
expression.
Thus, the degree of 4 x 7  9 x 2  2 x  1 is 7.

Thus, the degree of ax5  bx 4  cx 3  dx 2  ex  f is 5.
When presented with a fraction, we can note the degree of the numerator with, say, n and
that of the denominator with d.
A fraction is proper if the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the
numerator, that is, d > n. A fraction is improper if the numerator is of the same degree as,
or higher degree than, the denominator, that is, d  n .
ACTIVITY 1
Classify the following fractions as either proper or improper. In each case state
the degree of both numerator and denominator.
42  19 x
a)
x  4x2  x  4
3
x3
b)
 x  1 x  2 
x2  x  2
c)
x2  4
x2  x  5
d)
x2 1
5x2  2
e)
x  x 2  3 x  1
3x 2  7
f)
 x  1
4
MAT1581 47
3. SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY CANCELLING COMMON FACTORS
3.1 Dividing by a monomial

Divide each term of the numerator by the denominator.
Example 1
15 x 2  9 x 15 x 2 9 x
 
6x 6x 6x
5x 3
 
2 2
Example 2
6 xy  4 xy 2  9 x 2 y  12 x 2 y 2 6 xy 4 xy 2 9 x 2 y 12 x 2 y 2
   
3 xy 3 xy 3 xy 3 xy 3 xy
4y
 2  3 x  4 xy
3
Be careful! A typical error here is cancelling non-common factors. Do not make either of
the following mistakes:
xy
 1 y
x
y 4
 y 1
4
ACTIVITY 2
Simplify the following:
96a 2 xy 3
a)
16axy 2
4 x4  x2
b)
x2
7a 2b  7ab 2
c)
ab
3.2 Factorising numerator and denominator
Example 1
x3  2 x 2 x2  x  2

x2  4  x  2  x  2 
x2
 provided x  2
 x  2
48 MAT1581
Remember that the one operation we cannot perform is division by 0.

Consequently, cancelling the common factor (x + 2) cannot be performed if x takes
on the value -2 because that makes the common factor equal to 0.
Example 2
x 2  8 x  12  x  2  x  6 

3 x 2  x  10  x  2  3 x  5 
x6
 provided x  2
3x  5
ACTIVITY 3
x2  2x  8
a)
x2  5x  4
x4  a4
b)
x2  a2
4. SIMPLIFYING FRACTIONS BY FINDING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
What are partial fractions?

In elementary Algebra we learnt how to add and subtract fractions to get a single equivalent
fraction.
2 x  11 2 42  19 x
Thus, 2  can easily be converted to 3
x 1 x  4 x  4x2  x  4
It is often easier to deal with a few relatively easy fractions than with one complicated
fraction. We go the opposite way and reduce a given fraction into its components. These
components are called partial fractions. You might find that you want to return to units 2
and 3 of this module to find partial fractions when dealing with limits, integration and
Laplace transforms.
For example
x3 4 5
To reduce the fraction we need to find the components 
 x  1 x  2  x 1 x  2
The denominators of the partial fractions are the factors of the original denominator
polynomial.
The rules for finding partial fractions depend on the form of the denominator. The
denominator of an algebraic fraction can be factorised into a product of linear and quadratic
factors. Linear factors are those of the form ax  b, for example, x  4, 2 x  3 and 7 x  2 .
Quadratic factors are those of the form ax2  bx  c, for example 3x 2  x  7 . Quadratic
factors are those that cannot be factorised into linear factors.
MAT1581 49
In learning unit 2 we will find partial fractions of proper fractions and in learning unit 3 of
improper fractions.
5.1 Activity 1
a) The degree of the numerator n is 1. The degree of the denominator d is 3. The

fraction is proper since d > n.
b) Expanding  x  1 x  2  produces x 2  3 x  2. The fraction is proper because
n = 1 and d = 2.
c) Expanding the numerator produces x3  2 x 2 . The fraction is improper because n
= 3, d = 2, so d < n.
d) The fraction is improper because n = 2, d = 2, so d = n.
e) The fraction is proper because n = 2, d = 3, so d > n.
f) The fraction is proper because n = 2, d = 4, so d > n.
5.2 Activity 2
96a 2 xy 3
a)  6ay a  0, x  0, y  0
16axy 2
4 x4  x2 4 x4 x2
b)  2  2  4x2 1 x  0
x2 x x
7 a b  7ab
2 2
7 a b 7 ab 2
2
c)    7a  7b a  0, b  0
ab ab ab
5.3 Activity 3
x2  2 x  8
a)
x2  5x  4
 x  4  x  2 

 x  4  x  1
x2
 ,x4  0
x 1
x4  a4
b)
x2  a2

 x 2  a 2  x 2  a 2 
x2  a2
 x2  a2 , x2  a2  0
50 MAT1581
You have now completed learning unit 1, which is an introduction to partial fractions.
 distinguish between a proper and an improper algebraic fraction

 use an example to describe the term "partial fractions"
 use factorisation to simplify fractions
We next engage with learning unit 2: Partial fractions – proper fractions.
MAT1581 51
MODULE 3
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
LEARNING UNIT 2 Proper fractions
OUTCOMES
 factorise the denominator into prime factors
 recognise linear, repeated linear and quadratic factors in the denominator
 express an algebraic fraction in partial fractions
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. LINEAR FACTORS ............................................................................................. 54
2. REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS ....................................................................... 57
3. QUADRATIC FACTORS .................................................................................... 60
4.1 Activity 1 .............................................................................................................. 63
4.2 Activity 2 .............................................................................................................. 63
4.3 Activity 3 .............................................................................................................. 65
4.4 Activity 4 .............................................................................................................. 67
MAT5181 52
PARTIAL FRACTIONS: Proper fractions
In this unit we will deal with proper fractions, that is, the degree of the numerator
must be less than the degree of the denominator.
The first step towards finding partial fractions is to factorise the denominator into
prime factors. The denominator can contain the following types of factors:
1. Linear factors ax  b
2. Repeated linear factors  ax  b 
n
3. Quadratic factors ax 2  bx  c
A linear factor that occurs more than once is called a repeated linear factor.
The quadratic factor is a quadratic expression that does not factorise without
containing surds or imaginary terms.
Example 1
3x  8 3x  8

x  12 x  35 ( x  7)( x  5)
2
The denominator contains two linear factors.
Example 2
3x  2 3x  2 3x  2
 
x  2 x  1 ( x  1)( x  1)  x  1 2
2
The denominator contains a repeated linear factor.
Example 3
5 5

x  8  x  2  x2  2 x  4
3
The denominator contains a linear and a quadratic factor.

Hint: See the information sheet to factorise the sum of two third powers.
To call attention to the fact that we are dealing with identities, we write three lines
   instead of two (=), which is the symbol for equality.
An identity requires that the two sides be equal for all values of x.
ACTIVITY 1
Factorise the denominator of the following fractions and describe the form
of the factors:
3x  8
a)
x  2 x  35
2
MAT1581 53
3x  19
b)
15 x 2  8 x  63
3x 2  1
c)
x3  1
5x2  2
d)
 x3  3x 2  x 
3x 2  7
e)
 x  1
4
1. LINEAR FACTORS
These are the steps to calculate partial fractions if the denominator is a product of
linear factors:
1. Factorise the denominator.
2. Each factor of the denominator produces a partial fraction. A factor of the
A
form ax  b produces a fraction of the form , where A is an unknown
(ax  b)
constant.
3. Evaluate the unknown constants:
3.1 Add the partial fractions together to form a single algebraic fraction.
The numerator contains the unknown constants and the denominator is
identical to that of the original expression.
3.2 Equate the numerator so obtained with the numerator of the original
algebraic fraction.
3.3 Substitute appropriate values of x to determine the values of the
unknowns.
Example 1
3x  8
Resolve 2 into partial fractions.
x  2 x  35
The first step is to factorise the denominator.

3x  8 3x  8

x  2 x  35  x  7  x  5 
2
A
(x + 7) is a linear factor, so produces a partial fraction of the form
x7
B
(x  5) is a linear factor, so produces a partial fraction of the form
x5
54 MAT1581
3x  8 A B
Therefore  
 x  7  x  5  x  7 x  5
Writing the right-hand side using a common denominator we have
3x  8 A B A( x  5)  B( x  7)
  
 x  7  x  5 x  7 x  5  x  7  x  5
Equating numerators gives

3x  8  A( x  5)  B ( x  7)
By appropiate choice of x we can eliminate one of the unknowns:
Let x  7, then the term that contain B vanishes:
3( 7)  8  A( 7  5)
21  8  A( 12)
 13  12 A
13
A 
12
Let x  5, then 3(5)  8  B (5  7)
23  12 B
23
B 
12
3x  8 13 23
Hence  12
 12
x  2 x  35
2
x7 x5
13 23
 
12  x  7  12  x  5 
You should test the result. Combining the partial fractions should give the
original expression. You can also choose a value for x and show that the two
sides are equal.
Example 2
3x  19
Find partial fractions for
15 x 2  8 x  63
Factorise the denominator:

3 x  19 3 x  19

15 x  8 x  63  5 x  9  3 x  7 
2
We have two linear factors, so we assume that the expression can be separated
into partial fractions of the form:
3 x  19 3 x  19 A B
  
15 x  8 x  63  5 x  9  3 x  7  5 x  9 3 x  7
2
MAT1581 55
Writing the right-hand side using a common denominator we have

3 x  19 A B A(3 x  7)  B (5 x  9)
  
 5 x  9  3 x  7  5 x  9 3 x  7  5 x  9  3x  7 

3 x  19  A(3 x  7)  B (5 x  9)

7
Let x  , then the term that contain A vanishes:
3
 7    7  
3    19  B  5    9 
 3    3  
 35  27 
7  19  B  
 3 
 62 
12  B 
 3 
36 18
B  
62 31
9 9  9 
Let x  , then 3    19  B  3    7 
5 5   5 
27  95  27  35 
 B 
5  5 
122  A(62)
122 61
B  
62 31
3x  19 61 18
Hence  31
 31
15 x 2  8 x  63 5 x  9 3x  7
61 18
 
31  5 x  9  31  3 x  7 
ACTIVITY 2
11  3 x
a)
x  2x  3
2
2 x 2  9 x  35
b)
 x  1 x  2  x  3
56 MAT1581
2. REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS
If a factor occurs twice, this will generate two partial fractions; if it occurs three times,
it will generate three partial fractions and so on. The factors  ax  b  in a
2
A B
denominator generate partial fractions of the form  . The rest of the
ax  b  ax  b  2
method is the same as for linear factors.
Instead of substituting values for x to solve for the unknowns, we can also use the
following principle:
If two algebraic functions are identically equal, then the coefficients of like powers of
x must be equal.
If ax 3  bx 2  cx  d  Kx 2  Mx  P
 0 x 3  Kx 2  Mx  P
then a  0;  b  K ; c  M and d   P.
Example 1
3x 2  7
Resolve in partial fractions:
 x  1
4
The factor (x  1) is repeated four times, thus generating four partial fractions:
Let x  1, then  4  D
Thus 3x 2  7  A  x  1  B  x  1  C ( x  1)  4
3 2
To find the values of A, B and C we have a choice of methods.
Method 1:
Choosing other values of x will lead to a system of simultaneous equations
with three unknowns A, B and C.
We can choose any values of x as we have an identity.
Let x  0, then  7   A  B  C  4 (a )
Let x  2, then 5  A B C 4 (b)
Let x  1, then  4  8 A  4 B  2C  4 (c )
These can then be solved with any of the methods for solving simultaneous equations.
Add equations (a) and (b) : 2  2 B  8
6  2B
B  3
MAT1581 57
3x 2  7 A B C D
   
 x  1 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1 4
4 2 3
Adding the right-hand side using a common denominator we have

A  x  1  B  x  1  C ( x  1)  D
3 2
3x 2  7

 x  1  x  1
4 4

3x 2  7  A  x  1  B  x  1  C ( x  1)  D
3 2
Now equation (b) becomes: 5  A  3  C  4

that is, 6  AC (d )
and equation (c) becomes:  4  8 A  4(3)  2C  4
 12  8 A  2C
that is, 6  4A  C ( e)
Subtract equations (d ) and (e) : 0  3 A
A 0
Substitute in (d ) : C6
3x 2  7 3 6 4
Hence   
 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1
4 2 3 4
Method 2:
Expand the right-hand side of equation (*)
 A  x  1  B  x  1  C ( x  1)  4
3 2
(*)
 A  x  1  x 2  2 x  1  B( x 2  2 x  1)  Cx  C  4
 Ax3  2 Ax 2  Ax  Ax 2  2 Ax  A  Bx 2  2 Bx  B  Cx  C  4
and rearrange terms so that we can compare coefficients
0 x3  3x 2  0 x  7  Ax3  x 2  3 A  B   x  3 A  2 B  C   ( A  B  C  4)
Comparing terms in x3 gives: A  0
Comparing terms in x 2 gives: 3  3 A  B
3 0 B
B3
Comparing constant terms gives:  7   A  B  C  4
3  3  C
C 6
3x  7
2
3 6 4
Hence   
 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1
4 2 3 4
58 MAT1581
Example 2
3x  2
x  x  1
2
A
The linear factor x generates a partial fraction of the form
x
The linear factor  x  1 is repeated twice, thus generating
B C
two partial fractions and .
x 1  x  1
2
3x  2 A B C
Thus   
x  x  1 x x  1  x  1 2
2
Combine the right-hand side:

A  x  1  Bx  x  1  Cx
2
3x  2

x  x  1 x  x  1
2 2
Equating numerators gives:

3x  2  A  x  1  Bx  x  1  Cx
2
 A  x 2  2 x  1  Bx 2  Bx  Cx
 Ax 2  2 Ax  A  Bx 2  Bx  Cx
0 x 2  3 x  2  ( A  B) x 2  (2 A  B  C ) x  A
Comparing constant terms gives A  2
Comparing terms in x 2 gives: 0  A  B
0  2  B
B2
Comparing terms in x gives: 3  2 A  B  C
3  2(2)  2  C
3  2  C
C 5
3x  2 2 2 5
Hence   
x  x  1 x x  1  x  1 2
2
ACTIVITY 3
3x  2
a)
 x  1
2
3x
b)
 x  2   x  1
2
MAT1581 59
3. QUADRATIC FACTORS
Sometimes a denominator is factorised producing quadratic factors that cannot be


factorised any further. For example, for x3  3x 2  x  x x 2  3x  1 , the quadratic 
 
expression x  3x  1 cannot be factorised any further.
2
In general a quadratic factor of the form ax 2  bx  c produces a partial factor of the

Ax  B
form 2
ax  bx  c
Example 1
3x 2  1
Resolve in partial fractions.
x3  1
First factorise the denominator:

3x 2  1 3x 2  1
 [Use information sheet to factorise]
x3  1  x  1  x 2  x  1
A
The linear factor (x  1) generates a partial fraction of the form
x 1
The quadratic factor  x 2  x  1 generates a partial factor
Bx  C
of the form
x 2
 x  1
3x 2  1 3x 2  1 A Bx  C
Thus    2
x  1  x  1  x  x  1 x  1 x  x  1
3 2

3x 2  1 A  x 2  x  1   Bx  C  x  1

 x  1  x 2  x  1  x  1  x 2  x  1
3 x 2  1  A  x 2  x  1   Bx  C  x  1 (*)
Let x  1, then 2 = A  3
2
 A
3
60 MAT1581
Expanding equation (*) gives

3 x 2  1  Ax 2  Ax  A  Bx 2  Bx  Cx  C
3x 2  0 x  1  ( A  B) x 2  ( A  B  C ) x  ( A  C )
Now 3 x 2  0 x  1  ( 23  B) x 2  ( 23  B  C ) x  ( 23  C )
Comparing constant terms gives 2
3  C  1
  C  1  23
5
 C 
3
Comparing terms in x 2 gives: 3  23  B
B  3  23
7

3
3x 2  1 3 x 3
2 7 5
Hence  3

x3  1 x  1 x 2  x  1
2 7x  5
 
3  x  1 3  x 2  x  1
Example 2
5x2  2
x  x 2  3x  1
A
The linear factor x generates a partial fraction of the form
x
The quadratic factor  x 2  3 x  1 generates a partial factor
Bx  C
of the form
x 2
 3 x  1
5x2  2 A Bx  C
Thus   2
x  x  3 x  1
2
x x  3x  1
5x2  2 A  x 2  3 x  1   Bx  C  x

x  x 2  3 x  1 x  x 2  3 x  1
MAT1581 61

5 x 2  2  A  x 2  3 x  1   Bx  C  x (*)
Let x  0, then  2  A
5 x 2  2  2  x 2  3x  1   Bx  C  x
 2 x 2  6 x  2  Bx 2  Cx
5 x 2  0 x  2  (2  B) x 2  (6  C ) x  2
Comparing terms in x 2 gives: 5  2  B

B  7
Comparing terms in x gives: 0  6  C
C  6
5x2  2 2 7x  6
Hence   2
x  x  3x  1
2
x x  3x  1
ACTIVITY 4
5
a)
x 8
3
5 x 2  3x  2
b)
 2 x 2  1  x  3
62 MAT1581
4.1 Activity 1
3x  8 3x  8
a)  Two linear factors
x  2 x  35  x  7  x  5 
2
3x  19 3x  19
b)  Two linear factors
15 x  8 x  63  5 x  9  3 x  7 
2
3x 2  1 3x 2  1
c)  One linear and one quadratic factor
x3  1  x  1  x 2  x  1
5x2  2 5x2  2
d).  One linear and one quadratic factor
 x3  3x2  x  x  x 2  3x  1
3x 2  7
e) Repeated linear factor
 x  1
4
4.2 Activity 2
11  3x
a)
x  2x  3
2
11  3x 11  3x
Factorise the deniminator: 
x  2 x  3  x  1 x  3
2
A
x 1
B
The linear factor  x  3 generates a partial fraction of the form
x3
11  3x 11  3x A B
Thus   
x  2 x  3  x  1 x  3 x  1 x  3
2

11  3x 11  3x A  x  3  B  x  1
 
x  2 x  3  x  1 x  3
2
 x  1 x  3
11  3 x  A  x  3  B  x  1)
Let x  1, then 8  A(4)
A 2
Let x  3, then 20  B(4)
B  5
11  3x 11  3 x 2 5
Hence   
x  2 x  3  x  1 x  3 x  1 ( x  3)
2
MAT1581 63
2 x 2  9 x  35
c)
 x  1 x  2  x  3
A
The linear factor (x  1) generates a partial fraction of the form
x 1
B
The linear factor  x  2  generates a partial fraction of the form
x2
C
The linear factor  x  3 generates a partial fraction of the form
x3
2 x 2  9 x  35 A B C
Thus   
 x  1 x  2  x  3 x  1 x  2 x  3
2 x 2  9 x  35 A  x  2  x  3  B  x  1 x  3  C  x  1 x  2 

 x  1 x  2  x  3  x  1 x  2  x  3
2 x 2  9 x  35  A  x  2  x  3  B  x  1 x  3  C  x  1 x  2 
Let x  1, then -24  A(3)  2 
24
A 4
6
Let x  2, then  45  B(3)  5 
45
B   3
15
Let x  3, then 10  C (2)  5 
10
C  1
10
2 x 2  9 x  35 4 3 1
Hence   
 x  1 x  2  x  3 x  1 x  2 x  3
64 MAT1581
4.3 Activity 3
3x  2
a)
 x  1
2
The linear factor  x  1 is repeated twice, thus generating

A B
x 1  x  1
2
3x  2 A B
Thus  
 x  1 x  1  x  12
2

3x  2 A  x  1  B

 x  1  x  1
2 2

3 x  2  A  x  1  B
 Ax  A  B
and compare coefficients
3 x  2  Ax  A  B
Comparing terms in x gives: 3  A
Comparing terms in constants gives:
2  A  B
2  3  B
B  5
3x  2 3 5
Hence  
 x  1 x  1  x  12
2
MAT1581 65
3x
c)
 x  2   x  1
2
A
x 1
The linear factor  x  2  is repeated twice, thus generating
B C
x2  x  2
2
3x A B C
Thus   
 x  2   x  1 x  1 x  2 ( x  2) 2
2

A  x  2   B  x  2  x  1  C ( x  1)
2
3x

 x  2   x  1  x  2   x  1
2 2

 A  x  2   B  x  2  x  1  C ( x  1)
2
3x
 A  x 2  4 x  4   B( x 2  x  2)  Cx  C
 Ax 2  4 Ax  4 A  Bx 2  Bx  2 B  Cx  C
0 x 2  3 x  0  ( A  B) x 2  (4 A  B  C ) x  (4 A  2 B  C )
Comparing constant terms gives 0  4 A  2 B  C (a)
Comparing terms in x gives: 0  A  B
2
(b)
Comparing terms in x gives: 3  4 A  B  C (c )
Add equations  a  and (c) : 3  8 A  B (e )

Add equations  b  and (e) : 3  9 A
3 1
 A (f)
9 3
1
Substitute A in  b  : 0  B
3
1
B  
3
1 1
Substitute A and B in (c): 3  4     C
3 3
3  1 C
C  2
3x 1 1 2
Hence   
 x  2   x  1 3( x  1) 3( x  2) ( x  2)2
2
66 MAT1581
4.4 Activity 4
5 5 5
 3  [Use information sheet to factorise]
x  8 x   2
3 3
 x  2  x2  2 x  4
A
x2
The quadratic factor  x 2  2 x  4  generates a partial factor
Bx  C
of the form
x 2
 2x  4
5 5 A Bx  C
Thus    2
x  8  x  2  x  2 x  4 x  2  x  2 x  4
3 2

5 A  x 2  2 x  4    Bx  C  x  2 

 x  2  x2  2 x  4  x  2  x2  2x  4
5  A  x 2  2 x  4    Bx  C  x  2  (*)
Let x  2, then 5 = A  (-2) 2  2(2)  4 
 5  A(12)
5
 A 
12
5  Ax 2  2 Ax  4 A  Bx 2  Cx  2 Bx  2C
0 x 2  0 x  5  ( A  B) x 2  (2 A  2 B  C ) x  (4 A  2C )
Now 0 x 2  0 x  5  ( 125  B ) x 2  (2  125   2 B  C ) x  (4  125   2C )
Comparing constant terms gives 5  4  125   2C
  2C  53  5
10
  2C 
3
10 5
 C  
6 3
5
B  
12
5 5 5
 125 x  53
Hence   12

x3  8  x  2   x 2  2 x  4  x  2  x 2  2 x  4 
5 5 x  20
 
12  x  2  12  x 2  2 x  4 
MAT1581 67
5 x 2  3x  2
b)
 2 x 2  1  x  3
A
x3
The quadratic factor  2 x 2  1 generates a partial factor
Bx  C
of the form
 2 x 2  1
5 x 2  3x  2 A Bx  C
Thus  
 2 x  1  x  3 x  3  2 x 2  1
2

5 x 2  3x  2 A  2 x 2  1   Bx  C  x  3

 2 x 2  1  x  3  2 x 2  1  x  3
5 x 2  3x  2  A  2 x 2  1   Bx  C  x  3(*)
Let x  3,

then 5(-3)2  3  3  2  A 2  3  1
2

38  19 A
 A 2

5 x 2  3x  2  2  2 x 2  1   Bx  C  x  3
 4 x 2  2  Bx 2  Cx  3Bx  3C
5 x 2  3x  2  (4  B ) x 2  (C  3B ) x  (2  3C )
B  1
Comparing terms in x gives: 3  C  3(1)
C  0
5 x 2  3x  2 2 x
Hence  
 2 x  1  x  3 x  3  2 x  1
2 2
68 MAT1581
You have now completed learning unit 2: Partial fractions – proper fractions.
 factorise the denominator into prime factors
 recognise linear, repeated linear and quadratic factors in the denominator
 express an algebraic fraction in partial fractions
Now that you have completed learning unit 2, we will move on to learning unit 3:
Partial fractions - improper fractions.
MAT1581 69
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
MODULE 3 Improper fractions
LEARNING UNIT 3
OUTCOMES
 use long division to simplify improper fractions
 add an extra term to the partial fractions to find partial fractions of
improper fractions
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. FIND PROPER FRACTION BY LONG DIVISION ........................................... 71
2. INCLUDE EXTRA TERMS ................................................................................ 73
3. SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 75
4.1 Activity 1 .............................................................................................................. 76
4.2 Activity 2 .............................................................................................................. 80
MAT1581 70
Partial fractions: Improper fractions
When calculating partial fractions of improper fractions we can use long division to
first simplify the fraction or we can add appropriate terms to find the correct form of
the partial fraction.
1. FIND PROPER FRACTION BY LONG DIVISION
3x 2  2 x  7
Let’s consider
x  2  3x
2  
, that is, (3x 2  2 x  7)  x2  2  3x .
The result of this division is called the quotient of the two expressions. Write both
expressions in decreasing order of powers. If there are any missing terms in the
dividend (numerator), write them with a coefficient of 0.
We set up the division as for the long division of numbers:
x 2  3x  2 3x 2  2 x  7
To make 3x2, x2 must be multiplied by 3, so we insert
this as the first term in the quotient.
3
x  3x  2 3x 2  2 x  7
2
Multiply the divisor ( x 2  3x  2 ) by 3 and subtract the

answer from the dividend.
3
x 2  3x  2 3x 2  2 x  7
3x 2  9 x  6
7 x  1
The degree of the answer is less than that of the divisor.
We cannot go any further.
Thus we can write
3x 2  2 x  7 7x  1
 3 2
x  2  3x
2
x  3x  2
The fraction is proper and can be resolved in partial fractions using the methods
discussed in unit 2.
Example
x2  1
Resolve into partial fractions.
x 2  3x  2
The denominator is of the same degree as the numerator. The fraction is

improper and therefore we must divide first:
MAT1581 71
PARTIAL FRACTIONS: Improper fractions
1
x2  3x  2 x2  0 x  1 Because there is no term in x we need to insert 0x
x 2  3x  2
 3x  1 Be careful doing the subtraction.
x2  1 3x  1 3x  1
Therefore 2  1 2  1
x  3x  2 x  3x  2  x  1 x  2 
The proper fraction can now be resolved into partial fractions.
3x  1 A B A( x  2)  B  x  1
Let   
 x  1 x  2   x  1 ( x  2)  x  1 x  2 
3x  1  A( x  2)  B  x  1
Let x  1. Then 2   A
A  2
Let x  2. Then 5  B
3x  1 2 5
Therefore  
 x  1 x  2   x  1 ( x  2)
x2  1 3x  1
and  1 2
x  3x  2
2
x  3x  2
3x  1
 1
 x  1 x  2 
2 5
 1 
 x  1 ( x  2)
ACTIVITY 1
Resolve into partial fractions:
3x 2  8
a)
x2  4
3x 2  2 x  5
b)
6 x2  5x  1
x3  2 x 2  4 x  4
c)
x2  x  2
x2  x  1
d)
 x  1 x  2 
72 MAT1581
2. INCLUDE EXTRA TERMS
The extra term is a polynomial of degree n - d, where n is the degree of the numerator
and d is the degree of the denominator. Recall that a polynomial of degree 0 is a
constant, a polynomial of degree 1 has the form Ax  B , a polynomial of degree 2 has
the form Ax 2  Bx  C , and so on.
For example, if the numerator has degree 3 and the denominator has degree 2, the
partial fractions will include a polynomial of degree 1, that is, of the form Ax  B .
Example 1
3x 2  2 x
Express as partial fractions
x 1
The degree of the numerator, n is 2 and the degree of the denominator d is 1. Thus the
fraction is improper. The partial fractions will include a polynomial of degree 1
because n - d = 1, that is, Ax  B .
3x 2  2 x C
Hence  Ax  B 
x 1 x 1
Ax( x  1)  B ( x  1)  C

x 1
3x 2  2 x  Ax( x  1)  B ( x  1)  C
Let x  1, then 3  2  C

 C 1
Now 3x 2  2 x  Ax( x  1)  B ( x  1)  1 [because C  1]

 Ax 2  Ax  Bx  B  1
 Ax 2  ( A  B ) x  ( B  1)
Comparing coefficients in x 2 gives

3 A
Comparing the constant term gives
0  B 1
B  1
3x 2  2 x 1
Therefore  3x  1 
x 1 x 1
Note: This method saves us the long division step but finding the values of A, B or C
may be more difficult.
MAT1581 73
Example 2
4 x3  12 x 2  13x  7
Resolve in partial fractions
4x2  4x  1
The fraction is improper, with n - d = 1. The denominator has repeated linear factors
of  2 x  1 .
4 x 3  12 x 2  13x  7 4 x3  12 x 2  13 x  7
Hence 
4x2  4x  1  2 x  1
2
C D
 Ax  B  
2 x  1  2 x  1 2
Ax(2 x  1) 2  B(2 x  1) 2  C  2 x  1  D

 2 x  1
2

4 x 3  12 x 2  13x  7  Ax(2 x  1) 2  B(2 x  1) 2  C  2 x  1  D
4   12  +12   12  +13   12  +7  D
3 2
Let x   12 , then
 3 D
Now 4 x 3  12 x 2  13 x  7  Ax(2 x  1) 2  B(2 x  1) 2  C  2 x  1  3

 Ax  4 x 2  4 x  1  B  4 x 2  4 x  1  2Cx  C  3
 4 Ax3  4 Ax 2  Ax  4 Bx 2  4 Bx  B  2Cx  C  3
 4 Ax3   4 A  4 B  x 2  ( A  4 B  2C ) x  ( B  C  3)

4 = 4A
A 1
12  4 A  4 B
12  4  4 B
8  4B
B2
Comparing the constant term gives
7  BC 3
7  2C 3
C2
4 x 3  12 x 2  13 x  7 2 3
Therefore  1x  2  
4x  4x  1
2
2 x  1  2 x  1 2
74 MAT1581
ACTIVITY 2
Express as partial fractions:
9 y 2  12 y  5
a)
3y  2
6 x3  x 2  5 x  1
b)
x3  x
3. SUMMARY
The rules of partial fractions are as follows for proper fractions:
1. The numerator of the given function must be of a lower degree than that of the
denominator.
2. Factorise the denominator into prime factors. This is important as the factors
obtained determine the shape of the partial factors:
A
2.1 A linear factor  ax  b  gives a partial fraction of the form
ax  b
A B
2.2 Repeated linear factors  a  b  give partial fractions
2

ax  b (ax  b) 2
A B C
and  ax  b  give partial fractions  
3
ax  b (ax  b)  ax  b 
2 3
Ax  B
 
2.3 A quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c gives a partial fraction
ax  bx  c
2
3. Add the partial fractions together to form a single algebraic fraction. The
numerator contains the unknown constants and the denominator is identical to
that of the original expression.
4. Equate the numerator so obtained with the numerator of the original algebraic
fraction.
5. Substitute appropriate values of x to determine the values of the unknowns.
6. If some values remain unknown, return to the equation in step 4. Simplify and
rearrange the numerator of the algebraic fraction. Substitute all values
obtained in step 5. Compare coefficients to find the remaining unknowns.
The rules of partial fractions are as follows for improper fractions:

 Divide out by long division. The resulting remainder is a proper fraction. Now
follow the rules for proper fractions.
OR
 Add an extra term. The extra term is a polynomial of degree n - d, where n is
the degree of the numerator and d is the degree of the denominator.
Remember that a polynomial of degree 0 is a constant, a polynomial of
degree1 has the form Ax  B , a polynomial of degree 2 has the form
Ax 2  Bx  C , and so on.
MAT1581 75
4.1 Activity 1
3x 2  8
a)
x2  4
This is an improper fraction, so we need to divide first.
3
x  4 3x  8
2 2
3 x 2  12
 20
3x 2  8 20
Therefore 2  3 2
x 4 x 4
20
 3
 x  2  x  2 
20 A B
Now,  
x 4
2
x2 x2
thus 20  A  x  2  B  x  2 [multiply by ( x  2)( x  2)]
If x  2, then 20  4 B
 B  5
If x  2, then 20  4A
 A 5
3x 2  8 5 5
Thus  3 
x 4
2
x2 x2
76 MAT1581
3x 2  2 x  5
b)
6 x2  5x  1
This is an improper fraction, so we need to divide first
1
2
6 x 2  5x  1 3x2  2 x  5
3x 2  52 x  12
x
2  5 12
3x 2  2 x  5 1 x 11
Therefore   2
6 x2  5x  1 2  x  1 6 x  1
x 11
A B
Now 2
 
 x  1 6 x  1 x 1 6x 1
A  6 x  1  B  x  1

 x  1 6 x  1
x  11
 A  6 x  1  B  x  1
2
Let x  1, then 6 =7 A
6
A 
7
1 1   1 
Let x   16 , then  -  11  B    1
2 6   6 
1  1  66   7
    B 
2 6   6
 65  14 B
65
 B 
14
x 11
6 65
Therefore, 2
 
 x  1 6 x  1 7  x  1 14  6 x  1
3x 2  2 x  5 1 6 65
and   
6 x  5 x  1 2 7  x  1 14  6 x  1
2
MAT1581 77
x3  2 x 2  4 x  4
c)
x2  x  2
x3
x  x  2 x3  2 x 2  4 x  4
2
x3  x 2  2 x
 3x 2  2 x  4
3 x 2  3 x  6
x  10
x3  2 x 2  4 x  4 x  10
Thus  x 3 2
x  x2
2
x  x2
x  10 x  10
Now 
x  x  2  x  2  x  1
2
x  10 A B
and  
 x  2  x  1  x  2   x  1
A( x  1)  B ( x  2)

 x  2  ( x  1)

x  10  A( x  1)  B( x  2)
Let x  1, then -9 = 3B
 B  3
Let x  2, then  12  3 A
 A4
x  10 4 3
Therefore  
 x  2  x  1  x  2   x  1
x3  2 x 2  4 x  4 4 3
and  x 3 
x2  x  2  x  2   x  1
78 MAT1581
x2  x  1 x2  x  1
d)  2
 x  1 x  2  x  3x  2
1
x2  3x  2 x 2  x  1
x2  3x  2
 2x 1
x2  x  1 2 x  1
Therefore  1
 x  1 x  2   x  1 x  2 
2 x  1 A B A  x  2   B  x  1
Now   
 x  1 x  2  x  1 x  2  x  2  x  1
2 x  1  A( x  2)  B ( x  1)
Let x  1, then 1  A
Let x  2, then 3   B
B  3
2 x  1 1 3
Therefore  
 x  1 x  2  x  1 x  2
x2  x  1 1 3
and  1 
 x  1 x  2  x 1 x  2
MAT1581 79
4.2 Activity 2
a) The fraction is improper, n - d = 1. The denominator has only one linear

factor.
9 y 2  12 y  5 C
Hence  Ay  B 
3y  2 3y  2
Ay  3 y  2)  B(3 y  2   C

3y  2
9 y 2  12 y  5  Ay  3 y  2)  B(3 y  2   C
9   23  +12   23  +5  C
2
Let x   23 , then
1 C
Now 9 y 2  12 y  5  Ay  3 y  2)  B(3 y  2   1
 3 Ay 2  2 Ay  3By  2 B  1
 3 Ay 2  (2 A  3B) y  (2 B  1)
Comparing coefficients in y 2 gives

9  3A
A3
Comparing the y coefficients gives
12  2(3)  3B
12  6  3B
3B  6
B2
9 y 2  12 y  5 1
Therefore  3y  2 
3y  2 3y  2
80 MAT1581
b) The fraction is improper, n - d = 0. The partial fraction will include a constant.

 
The denominator is factorised to x x2  1 . The linear factor x produces a
B
partial fraction of the form , and the quadratic factor x2 +1 produces a
x
Cx  D
partial fraction of the form 2
x 1
6 x3  x 2  5 x  1 6 x3  x 2  5 x  1
Hence 
x3  x x  x 2  1
B Cx  D
 A  2
x x 1
Ax  x  1  B( x 2  1)  x  Cx  D 
2

x  x 2  1
6 x3  x 2  5 x  1  Ax  x 2  1  B( x 2  1)  x  Cx  D 
Let x  0, then -1  B
Now 6 x 3  x 2  5 x  1  Ax  x 2  1  1( x 2  1)  x  Cx  D 
 Ax 3  Ax  x 2  1  Cx 2  Dx
 Ax 3  (1  C ) x 2  ( A  D) x  1
6=A
1  (1  C )
1  1  C
C2
Comparing the x coefficients gives
5  A D
56 D
D  1
6 x3  x 2  5 x  1 6 x3  x 2  5 x  1
Therefore 
x3  x x  x 2  1
1 2x  1
 6 
x x2  1
MAT1581 81
POST-TEST: PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Find the partial fractions for/Resolve into partial fractions/Express as partial fractions:
1
a) 2
x  25
x
b)
x  25
2
3x 2  1
c)
x 2  3x  2
2x  3
d)
3x 2  x  2
3x 2  x  1
e)
 x  1
2
4x  3
f)
 x  1
3
14 x 2  31x  5
g)
 x  1 2 x  3
2
2 x3  3x 2  54 x  50
h)
x 2  2 x  24
MAT1581 82
POST-TEST SOLUTIONS
a) Factorise the denominator
1 1 A B A  x  5  B  x  5
   
x 2  25  x  5  x  5  x  5 x  5  x  5  x  5
1  A  x  5  B  x  5
Let x  5, then 1  10 A
1
A
10
Let x  5, then 1  10 B
1
B  
10
1 1 1
 2  
x  25 10  x  5  10  x  5 
x x A B A  x  5  B  x  5
b)    
x  25  x  5  x  5  x  5 x  5
2
 x  5  x  5
x  A  x  5  B  x  5
Let x  5, then 5  10 A
1
A
2
Let x  5, then  5  10 B
1
B 
2
x 1 1
Therefore 2  
x  25 2  x  5  2  x  5 
3x 2  1
c)
x 2  3x  2
This is an improper fraction. We must divide first
3
x 2  3x  2 3x 2  1
3x 2  6  9 x
 5  9x
MAT1581 83
Module 3
Partial fractions: Post-test solutions
3x 2  1 9x  5
Hence  3 2
x  3x  2
2
x  3x  2
Now find partial fractions for the proper fraction
9x  5 A B A  x  1  B  x  2 
  
 x  2  x  1  x  2   x  1  x  2  x  1
9 x  5  A  x  1  B  x  2 
Let x  1, then 4   B
 B  4
Let x  2, then 13  A
3x 2  1 13 4
Therefore  3 
x  3x  2
2
x  2 x 1
2x  3 2x  3 A B A  x  1  B  3 x  2 
d)    
3 x  x  2  3 x  2  x  1 3 x  2 x  1
2
 3x  2  x  1
2 x  3  A  x  1  B  3 x  2 
Let x  1, then 5  5 B
B 1
2 5 5
Let x   , then   A
3 3 3
 A  1
2x  3 1 1
Therefore  
3x  x  2 x  1 3x  2
2
3x 2  x  1 3x 2  x  1
e) 
 x  1 x2  2 x  1
2
This is an improper fraction. We must divide first

(or add a constant term to the partial fractions).
3
x 2  2 x  1 3x 2  x  1
3x 2  6 x  3
 7x  2
3x 2  x  1 7 x  2 A B
Therefore  3  3 
 x  1  x  1 x  1  x  12
2 2
84 MAT1581
Module 3
Resolve the proper fraction in partial fractions

7 x  2 A B A  x  1  B
  
 x  1 x  1  x  1 ( x  1) 2
2 2

7 x  2  A  x  1  B
7 x  2  Ax  A  B
Compare coefficients of terms in x :

 A  7
Compare constant terms
A  B  2
B  5
3x2  x  1 7 5
Therefore  3 
 x  1 x  1  x  1 2
2
A  x  1  B  x  1  C  x  1
3 2
4x  3 A B C
f)    
 x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1  x  1
3 2 3 3

4 x  3  A  x  1  B  x  1  C
2
 Ax 2  2 Ax  A  Bx  B  C
0 x 2  4 x  3  Ax 2  ( 2 A  B ) x  ( A  B  C
Comparing coefficients gives:
A 0
2 A  B  4
B  4
A  B  C  3
C  1
4x  3 4 1
Therefore  
 x  1  x  1  x  1
3 2 3
g) 14 x 2  31x  5  A  B  C
 x  1 2 x  3  x  1  2 x  3  2 x  32
2
A  2 x  32  B  x  1 2 x  3  C  x  1

 x  1 2 x  3
2
MAT1581 85
Module 3

14 x2 31x5  A 2 x  32  B 2 x  3( x1)C ( x1)
4 Ax2 12 Ax9 A2 Bx2  Bx3BCxC

(2 B4 A) x2 (12 A BC ) x(9 A3B C )
Compare coefficients:
144 A2 B (1)
31  12 A  B  C (2)
5  9 A  3B  C (3)
(2)(3): 36  21A2B (4)
(4)  (1): 50  25 A
A  2
Substitute in (1):
2B  14 -8
 6
B  3
Substitute in (2):
31  24  3  C
C  31-27
4
14 x 2  31x  5  2  3

4
 x  1 2 x  32  x  1  2 x  3  2 x  32
86 MAT1581
Module 3
h)
2 x 3  3 x 2  54 x  50 2 x3  3 x 2  54 x  50

x 2  2 x  24  x  6  x  4 
This is an improper fraction.
n d 1
Add an expression of degree 1 to the partial fractions.
2 x 3  3 x 2  54 x  50 C D
 A  Bx  
 x  6  x  4   x  6  x  4
A  x  6  x  4   Bx  x  6  x  4   C ( x  4)  D( x  6)

 x  6  x  4 
2 x3  3 x 2  54 x  50  A  x  6  x  4   Bx  x  6  x  4   C ( x  4)  D( x  6) (*)
Let x  6, then 2(6)3  3( 6) 2  54(6)  50  C (6  4)
50  10C
C  5
Let x  4, then 2(4)  3(4)  54(4)  50  D (4  6)
3 2
10  10 D
D 1
Thus * becomes:
2 x3  3 x 2  54 x  50  A  x  6  x  4   Bx  x  6  x  4   C ( x  4)  D( x  6)
 A  x 2  2 x  24   Bx  x 2  2 x  24   Cx  4C  Dx  6 D
 Ax 2  2 Ax  24 A  Bx3  2 Bx 2  24 Bx  Cx  4C  Dx  6 D
 Bx 3  ( A  2 B) x 2  (2 A  24 B  C  D) x  (24 A  4C  6 D)
Compare coefficients in x3 : 2  B
Compare coefficients in x 2 : 3  A  2 B
3 A4
 A  1
Therefore
2 x 3  3 x 2  54 x  50 5 1
 1  2 x  
x  2 x  24
2
 x  6  x  4
You have now completed learning unit 3: Partial fractions – improper fractions. You
should be able to
 use long division to simplify improper fractions
 add an extra term to the partial fractions to find partial fractions of improper fractions
Next is module 4: Complex numbers. Learning unit 1 deals with imaginary and complex
numbers.
MAT1581 87
M
O
COMPLEX NUMBERS D
CONTENTS U
L
PAGE
E
LEARNING UNIT 1 IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 90
1. IMAGINARY NUMBERS ................................................................................... 91

2. COMPLEX NUMBERS ........................................................................................ 93 4
2.1 Equality of complex numbers ................................................................................ 93
2.2 Conjugates of complex numbers ........................................................................... 93
3. ARGAND DIAGRAM .......................................................................................... 94
4.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................... 96
LEARNING UNIT 2 OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS 98
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION ..................................................................... 99

2. MULTIPLICATION ............................................................................................. 99
3. DIVISION ........................................................................................................... 100
4. COMPLEX EQUATIONS ................................................................................. 102
5. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES.......................................................................... 102
5.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 102
5.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 103
5.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 104
5.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................. 106
LEARNING UNIT 3 POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM 108
1. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................... 109

2. EXPONENTIAL FORM .................................................................................... 112
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 113
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 115
MAT1581
Mathematics 1 (Engineering) 88
COMPLEX NUMBERS: Imaginary and complex numbers
LEARNING UNIT 4 OPERATIONS IN POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM

117
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM ...

............................................................................................................................ 118
2. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN EXPONENTIAL FORM ...................... 118
3. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN POLAR FORM ..................................... 120
3.1 Multiplication ...................................................................................................... 120
3.2 Division ............................................................................................................... 121
4. POWERS, ROOTS AND DEMOIVRE’S FORMULA ................................... 122
5.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 127
5.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 127
5.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 128
5.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................. 128
5.5 Activity 5 ............................................................................................................. 129
POST-TEST 132
MAT1581 89
MODULE 4 COMPLEX NUMBERS
LEARNING UNIT 1 Imaginary and complex
numbers
OUTCOMES

 express an imaginary number in standard form
 find the complex conjugate of a complex number
 represent a complex number on an Argand diagram
 solve any quadratic equation
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. IMAGINARY NUMBERS ................................................................................... 91

2. COMPLEX NUMBERS ........................................................................................ 93
2.1 Equality of complex numbers ................................................................................ 93
2.2 Conjugates of complex numbers ........................................................................... 93
3. ARGAND DIAGRAM .......................................................................................... 94
4.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................... 95
4.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................... 96
MAT1581
Mathematics 1 (Engineering) 90
1. IMAGINARY NUMBERS
If the quadratic equation x 2  2 x  5  0 is solved using the quadratic formula, then

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
(2)  (2) 2  4(1)(5)

2(1)
2  16

2
2  4 1

2
 1  2 1
It is not possible to evaluate 1 in real terms. To solve this problem, a new number
was invented to correspond to the square root of –1. The name for this number is the
imaginary unit, and it is represented by the symbol i or j. Thus we have
i  j  1
Another popular name for the imaginary unit is the j-operator. In pure mathematics the
symbol i is used but in science and technology j is preferred, because i represents
electrical current.
Definition
Pure imaginary number

If b is a real number, b  0, then b is a pure imaginary number and we have
b  (1)b  1 b  j b where j  1
We call j b or b j the standard form for a pure imaginary number.
ACTIVITY 1
Simplify and express each of the following radicals (roots) in the standard
form:
a) 9
b) 0.25
c) 3
d)  18
MAT1581 91
Since j  1 , we have some interesting relationships:
 
2
j2  1  1
j 3  j 2 . j  1. j   j
j 4  j 2 . j 2  1.  1  1
Any larger power of j can be reduced to one of these basic four.
Thus j 5  j 41  j 4 . j  1. j  j
j15  j 4 4 43  j 4 j 4 j 4 j 3  1.1.1.(  j )   j
1 i i
Also    i  Important 
i i  i 1
1 1
  1
i 2
1
1 1 1 1
     (i )  i
i 3 i 2 i i i
1 1 1
 2 2  1
i 4
i .i (1)(1)
1 1 1
5
 4   i
i i i i
...
We need to be careful when working with imaginary numbers:

Consider the problem 9 4 . We know that 9  3 j and 4  2 j , so
9 4   3 j  2 j   6 j 2  6 .
But we got used to the property a b  ab . If we use it in this problem, we get
9 4  36  6 . If our new set of numbers is going to be successful, we cannot get
two different answers when simplifying.
The rule is that whenever you work with square roots of negative numbers, express each
number as a complex number in i or j form before you proceed with any calculations.
Therefore the correct answer to the above problem is 9 4   3 j  2 j   6 j 2  6 .
ACTIVITY 2
 
2
a) 4
b) 3 12
c) 2 8
92 MAT1581
2. COMPLEX NUMBERS
When an imaginary number and a real number are added, we get a complex number. A
complex number is of the form a  jb , where a and b are real numbers. When a = 0 and
b  0 , we have a pure imaginary number. When b = 0, we get a number of the form a,
which is a real number.
Definition
Rectangular or Cartesian form of a complex number
The form a  bj is known as the rectangular form of a complex number, where a is the
real part and b is the imaginary part.
2.1 Equality of complex numbers
Two complex numbers are equal if both the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts
are equal.
Thus
If a  bj = c  dj
then a = c and b = d
2.2 Conjugates of complex numbers
Every complex number has a conjugate. This is particularly useful when you are dividing
by a complex number, as you will see in unit 2.
The conjugate of a complex number a  bj is the complex number a  bj .
To form the conjugate of a complex number you need to change only the sign of the
imaginary part of the complex number.
For example, the conjugate of 2 + 3j is 2 – 3j and the conjugate of 2 – 3j is 2 + 3j. Thus

each number is the conjugate of the other.
ACTIVITY 3
1. Write down the conjugates of the following complex numbers:
a) 3 4 j
b) 52j
c) 7j
d) 12
2. Solve the following quadratic equations:
a) x2  4  0
b) 2 x 2  3x  5  0
c) x 2  2 x  10  0
MAT1581 93
3. ARGAND DIAGRAM
A complex number may be represented pictorially on rectangular or Cartesian axes. The

horizontal (or x-axis) is used to represent the real axis and the vertical (or y-axis) is used
to represent the imaginary axis. This diagram is called an Argand diagram.
In figure 1 the following complex numbers are represented:

A  3  j 2 ; B  2  j3 ; C  4  j3 and D  4  j5
FIGURE 1
ACTIVITY 4
Represent the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram:
A  2  j3 ; B  4  j2 and C 1  j6
94 MAT1581
4.1 Activity 1
a) 9  9 1  3 j
b) 0.25  0.25 1  0.5 j
c) 3  3 1  3 j or j 3
d)  18   9  2 1  3 2 j or  3j 2
Many people prefer to write the symbol j in front of the radical sign to reduce the
danger of thinking it is under the radical sign.
4.2 Activity 2
 
2
 2 j
2
a) 4
 4 j2
 4
b) 3 12   j 12 
 j 3
  j 3  2 j 3 
 2 j  3
2
2
 2(1)(3)
 6
c) 2 8  2 j 8  
 j 16
4j
4.3 Activity 3
1. a) 34 j
b) 52j
c) 7j
d) 12
Since 12 = 12  0 j and the conjugate is 12  0 j
2. a) x2  4  0
x 2  4
x  4
  j2
MAT1581 95
b) 2 x 2  3x  5  0
3  (3) 2  4(2)(5)
x 
2(2)
3  31

4
3 31
  j
4 4
 0.750  j1.392
c) x 2  2 x  10  0
2  4  4(1)(10)
x
2
2  36

2
2 6 j
 
2 2
 1  3 j
4.4 Activity 4
96 MAT1581
You have now completed learning unit 1 on imaginary and complex numbers and you
should be able to
 express an imaginary number in standard form
 find the complex conjugate of a complex number
 represent a complex number on an Argand diagram
 solve any quadratic equation
We now move on to learning unit 2 on operations with complex numbers.
MAT1581 97
LEARNING UNIT 2 Operations with complex
numbers
OUTCOMES

 add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers
 solve complex equations
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION ..................................................................... 99

2. MULTIPLICATION ............................................................................................. 99
3. DIVISION ........................................................................................................... 100
4. COMPLEX EQUATIONS ................................................................................. 102
5.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 102
5.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 103
5.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 104
5.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................. 106
MAT1581 98
COMPLEX NUMBERS: Operations with complex numbers
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by adding/subtracting separately the two real
parts and the two imaginary parts.
Example 1
Simplify and write in the form a  bj :
a)  2  3 j   3  4 j 
b)  2  3 j   3  4 j 
Solution
a)  2  3 j   3  4 j   2  3 j  3  4 j  5  j
b)  2  3 j    3  4 j   2  3 j  3  4 j  1  j7 .
ACTIVITY 1
1. Find the following sums:
a)  9  2 j   8  6 j 
b) 6  3 j   5  7 j 
c)   4  3 j    1  4 
2. Find the following differences:
a) 3  4 j    2  j 
b)  5  7 j    3  10 j 
c)  8  4 j    3  10 j 
2. MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication of complex numbers is achieved by assuming that all quantities involved

are real and then using j  1 to simplify.
2
Example 2
Simplify  3  j 2  4  j 5 .
Solution
 3  j 2  4  j5  12  j15  j8  10 j 2
 12  j 7  10(1)
 12  10  j 7
 22  j 7
MAT1581 99
ACTIVITY 2
Multiply and write the answer in the form a  bj :
a)  2  5 j  3  4 j 
b)  5  3 j 2
c)  7  3 j  7  3 j 
d)  a  bj  a  bj 
3. DIVISION
Division of complex numbers is achieved by multiplying both numerator and

denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This results in a real
denominator.
Example 3
Divide and express each answer in the form a  bj :
10  4 j
a)
1 j
86 j
b)
2 j
3 2 j
c)
42j
0.5  j 3
d)
2.4 j
Solution
10  4 j 10  4 j 1  j
a)  .
1 j 1 j 1 j
10  10 j  4 j  4 j 2

11
6  14 j

2
 37 j
86j 86j 2 j
b)  .
2 j 2 j 2 j
16  8 j  12 j  6 j 2

4 1
10  20 j

5
 24j
100 MAT1581
32j 3 2 j 42 j
c)  .
42j 42j 42j
12  6 j  8 j  4 j 2

16  4
8  14 j

20
8 14
  j
20 20
 0, 4  0, 7 j
0,5  j 3 0,5  j 3 2.4 j

d)  .
2.4 j 2.4 j 2.4 j
0,5(2.4 j )  j 3  2.4 j 

5.76
1.2 j   2.4  3

5.76

 2.4  3

1.2
5.76 5.76
3 1
  j
2.4 4.8
 0.72  0.21 j
ACTIVITY 3
Simplify and write the answers in the form a  ib :
4  3i
a)
7  2i
1 3 7
b)  
1 i 2  i 1 i
1
c) i8  6   i   7 1  i 
3 3
i
1  2i 1  i 
d)
1  2i 2
MAT1581 101
4. COMPLEX EQUATIONS
To solve equations we use the equality of complex numbers as stated in unit 1. If two
complex numbers are equal, then their real parts and their imaginary parts are equal:
If a  bj  c  dj then a  c and b  d .
Example 4
Solve 4  3 j  7 j  x  2  yj for x and y.
Solution
The best way is to rearrange the terms so that the known values are on one side of the
equation and the unknowns x and y are on the other.
4  3 j  7 j  x  2  yj
4  3 j  7 j  2  x  yj
2  4 j  x  yj
Thus x = 2 and y = 4, since the real parts must be equal and the imaginary parts must be
equal.
ACTIVITY 4
1. Solve the following equations for x and y:
a) 2  x  jy   6  j 3
b) x  j 2 y    y  j3x   2  j3
2. Solve the following equations for a and b:
a) 2  j 3  a  jb
b) 1  j 2  2  j3  a  jb
5.1 Activity 1
1.
a)  9  2 j   8  6 j 
  9  8   2  6  j
 17  8 j
b) 6  3 j   5  7 j 
  6  5   3  7  j
 11  4 j
102 MAT1581
c)  4  3 j    1  4 

  4  3 j   1  j 4 
  4  3 j    1  j 2 
  4  1   3  2  j
 5  j
2.
a) 3  4 j    2  j 
  3  2    4  1 j
 1 3 j
b)  5  7 j    3  10 j 
  5  3   7  (10)  j
 2  17 j
c)  8  4 j    3  10 j 
  8  3   4  10  j
 11  6 j
5.2 Activity 2
a)  2  5 j  3  4 j 
 6  8 j  15 j  20 j 2
 6  7 j  20(1)
 26  7 j
b)  5  3 j 2
  5  3 j  5  3 j 
 25  15 j  15 j  9 j 2
 25  9  30 j
 16  30 j
c)  7  3 j  7  3 j 
 49  21 j  21 j  9 j 2
 49  9
 58
MAT1581 103
d)  a  bj  a  bj 
 a 2  abj  abj  bj 2
 a 2  b( 1)
 a 2  b2
Note in answers c) and d) that the product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real
number. This is always true.
5.3 Activity 3
4  3i  4  3i  7  2i 
a) 
7  2i  7  2i  7  2i 
28  8i  21i  6i 2

49  14i  14i  4i 2
28  8i  21i  6

49  4
22  29i

53
22 29
  i
53 53
b) Simplify each, then combine the answers to obtain a final answer:

1 1 i
Term 1: 
1  i 1  i 1  i 
1 i

11
1 1
  i
2 2
3 3  2  i 
Term 2: 
2  i  2  i  2  i 
6  3i

4 1
6 3
  i
5 5
7 7 1  i 
Term 3: 
1  i 1  i 1  i 
7  7i

11
7 7
  i
2 2
104 MAT1581
1 3 7 1 1  6 3  7 7 
Thus      i    i    i
1 i 2  i 1 i  2 2   5 5   2 2 
1 1 6 3 7 7
  i  i  i
2 2 5 5 2 2
1 6 7  1 3 7
    i   
2 5 2  2 5 2
4 2
2 2 i
5 5
14 12
  i
5 5
c) Term 1: i8  i 4  i 4
 11
1
1 1
Term 2:  6 
i 1
1
Term 3:  i    1   i 
3 3 3
 i 3
 i

Term 4: 7 1  i   7 1  3i  3i 2  i 3
3

 7 1  3i  3  i 
 14  14i
1
  i   7 1  i   1  1  i  14  14i
3 3
Thus i8  6
i
 16  15i
1  2i 1  i  1  i  2i  2i 2
d) 
1  2i 2 1  4i  4i 2
MAT1581 105
1  i  2i  2

1  4i  4
3i

3  4i
 3  i  3  4i 

 3  4i  3  4i 
9  12i  3i  4i 2

32  42
9  12i  3i  4

9  16
13 9
  i
25 25
5.4 Activity 4
1. a) 2  x  jy   6  j 3
2 x  j 2 y  6  j3
 2 x  6 and 2 y  3
3
x3 y
2
b)  x  j 2 y    y  j3x   2  j3
 x  y   j  2 y  3x   2  j3
 x  y  2 and (1)
2 y  3 x  3 (2)
We now have two simultaneous equations to solve:
Eq. (1)  2 : 2 x  2 y  4 (3)
(2)  (3) x 7
x  7
Substitute in (1) to obtain
7  y  2
y9
2. a) 2  j 3  a  jb
 2  j 32  a  jb
 2  j 3 2  j3  a  jb
4  12 j  9 j 2  a  jb
5  12 j  a  jb
a  5 and b  12
106 MAT1581
b) 1  j 2  2  j3  a  jb
2  4 j  3 j  6 j 2  a  jb
4  7 j  a  jb
 a  4 and b  7
Now that you have completed learning unit 2, you should be able to
 add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers
 solve complex equations
Now move on to learning unit 3: Complex numbers: polar and exponential form.
MAT1581 107
LEARNING UNIT 3 Polar and exponential
form
OUTCOMES

 write a complex number in polar form
 write a complex number in exponential form
 determine the modulus and argument of a complex number
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ................................................... 109

2. EXPONENTIAL FORM .................................................................................... 112
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 113
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 115
MAT1581 108
COMPLEX NUMBERS: Polar and exponential form
1. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Sometimes it is convenient to express a complex number z = a + jb in a different form.


Let OP be the complex number z = a + jb on the Argand diagram in figure 1:
FIGURE 1

If  is the angle which OP makes with the x-axis and r is its length, then
b b
r 2  a 2  b 2  r  a 2  b 2 and tan   which implies that   arc tan .
a a
Also a  r cos  and b  r sin  .
Since z = a + jb this can be written as z  r cos  jr sin  r  cos  j sin  .
This is called the polar form of the complex number a + jb.
Polar form
b
z  r  cos  j sin  where r  a2  b2 and   arc tan .
a
The expression r  cos  j sin   is often abbreviated as r cis  or r  . In the

abbreviation r cis  , the c represents cosine, the s represents sine and the i represents the
mathematical operator i or j. The symbol r  is read “ r at angle ”.
We have special names for the values of r and 

 r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of the complex number z and is often
abbreviated to “mod z” or indicated by z
 is the argument (or amplitude) of the complex number z and can be abbreviated to
“arg z”
Example 1
Determine the modulus and the argument of the complex number z = 4 + j3 and express z
in polar form.
Start with a diagram as in figure 2.
MAT1581 109
FIGURE 2
Modulus z  r  42  32
 25
5
Argument arg z    arctan  34   36,87  3652 '
Thus z  r  cos  j sin  
 5  cos 3652 ' j sin 3652 ' 
 5 cis 3652 '
 5 3652 '
Example 2
Find the polar form of the complex number z = 2 + j3
Start with an Argand diagram as drawn in figure 3.
FIGURE 3
3
r  22  32 tan  
2
 13  1,5
r  3.606   56.31  5618'
110 MAT1581
Thus z  3.606  cos5618' j sin 5618' 

 3.606 cis 5618'
 3.606 5618'
ACTIVITY 1
1. Determine the argument of the complex number z = 3 –j4
2. Express the following complex numbers in polar form:
a) 3 + j4 b) 3 + j4 c) 3 –j4 d) 3 –j4
We have already used the shorthand version r  to denote the polar form of a complex
number, where r   r  cos  j sin  . However, we sometimes find complex numbers
of the form r  cos  j sin   and then we denote this as r  .
It is easy to remember:
resembles the first quadrant and indicates measuring angles in the positive direction while
resembles the fourth quadrant and indicates measuring angles in the negative direction.
Example 3
Thus 3  cos 45  j sin 45   3 45  3 45
and 2  cos 150°  j sin150   2 150  2 210
Convert from polar form to rectangular form
A complex number written in polar form as r  or r cis or r  cos  j sin   has

the rectangular coordinates a + bj, where a  r cos and b  r sin 
To convert is thus a simple matter of substitution.
Example 4
Convert 5(cos35  j sin 35) to rectangular form.
a  r cos   5 cos 35  4.096
b  r sin   5sin 35  2.868
Thus 5(cos 35  j sin 35)  4.096  j 2.868
MAT1581 111
2. EXPONENTIAL FORM
There is yet another way of expressing a complex number. It is called the exponential
form because it involves exponents of the number e.
Exponential form
j
The exponential form of a complex number uses Euler’s formula, e  cos  j sin ,
and states that
z  re j
where  is in radians.
Thus z  r cos  j sin can now be written as z  re j . The exponential form can be
obtained from the polar form easily since the r value and the angle are the same for both.
It is important to note that in the exponential form, the angle must be in radians.
Example 5
Change the polar form 5  cos60  j sin 60 into exponential form.

We need to change the angle to radians first: 60  60 
180


3

j
Thus 5  cos 60  j sin 60   5e 3 .
ACTIVITY 2
1. Express 6  cos180  j sin180 in exponential form.
2. Write 8 225 in exponential form.
3. Express –4 + 3j in exponential form.
4. Express 4.6e5.7 j in polar and rectangular form.
112 MAT1581
3.1 Activity 1
1. Start with a diagram as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4
 is measured from OX to OP. We first find the acute reference angle E from the
diagram.
4
tan E 
3
 1.333
E  53.13  537 '
Because  is in the third quadrant:   180  E

 2337 '
Thus arg z  2337 '
2. We will use figure 5 to answer this question.
a) r  32  42  25  5
4
tan    1.333
3
  53.13  537 '
Thus 3  j 4  5 537 '
MAT1581 113
FIGURE 5
b) r  ( 3) 2  42  25  5
4
tan E   1.333
3
E  53.13  537 '
Because  is in the second quadrant  =180°  537 '  12653'
Thus  3  j 4  5 12653'
c) Refer to question 1.
By convention we use the principal value for the argument that is numerically the
least value, such that      .
r  ( 3)2  ( 4)2  25  5
4
tan E   1.333
3
E  53.13  537 '
Because  is in the third quadrant  = 233°7' =  12653'
Thus  3  j 4  5 12653'
114 MAT1581
d) r  (3)2  ( 4)2  25  5
4
tan E   1.333
3
E  53.13  537 '
Because  is in the fourth quadrant  =  537
Thus  3  j 4  5 537 '
By convention we use the principal value that is numerically the least value, such
that      .
3.2 Activity 2
1. r=6
 = 180° =  radians
Thus 6  cos180  j sin180   6e j
2. r=8
  225  54  3,927 rad
5
j
Thus 8 225  8e 4  8e j 3,927
Both of these answers are correct. Because you will probably be using a
calculator to convert from degrees to radians, the last version is the one that you
will most likely use. But remember it is rounded off and is therefore the least
accurate.
3. We must first determine r and .

r  (4) 2   3  25  5
3
tan   
4
Use your calculator in radian mode to find the value of  in radians.
R ef  = 0.644
 is in the second quadrant
    0.644  2.498
Thus  4  3 j  5e j 2.498
4. r = 4.6
 = 5.7
Polar form: 4.6e5.7 j = 4.6(cos5.7 + j sin5.7)
Rectangular form:
With the calculator in radian mode we get a  4.6cos5.7  3.840 and
b  4.6sin 5.7  2.533
4.6e = 3.840  j 2.533
5.7 j
MAT1581 115
You have reached the end of this learning unit, so you should be able to
 write a complex number in polar form
 write a complex number in exponential form
 determine the modulus and argument of a complex number
We next examine learning unit 4: Complex numbers: operations in polar and exponential
form.
116 MAT1581
LEARNING UNIT 4 Operations in polar and
exponential form
OUTCOMES

 add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers in exponential and polar form
 raise a complex number to a power
 use DeMoivre’s theorem to find the nth roots of a complex number
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM ...

............................................................................................................................ 118
2. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN EXPONENTIAL FORM ...................... 118
3. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN POLAR FORM ..................................... 120
3.1 Multiplication ...................................................................................................... 120
3.2 Division ............................................................................................................... 121
4. POWERS, ROOTS AND DEMOIVRE’S FORMULA ................................... 122
5.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 127
5.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 127
5.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 128
5.4 Activity 4 ............................................................................................................. 128
5.5 Activity 5 ............................................................................................................. 129
MAT1581 117
COMPLEX NUMBERS: Operations in polar and exponential form
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN POLAR AND EXPONENTIAL FORM
Addition and subtraction in polar or exponential form is not possible directly. Each
complex number must be converted into rectangular form first.
Example 1
Evaluate in polar form 2 30  5 45  4 120 .
Convert all numbers to rectangular form:

2 30  2 cos 30  j 2 sin 30  1.732  j
5 45  5cos( 45)  j5sin  45   3.536  j 3.536
4 120  4 cos120  j 4 sin120  2  j 3.464
Arrange numbers so that they can be added easily:

1.732  j
3.536  j 3.536
2  j 3.464
7.268  j 6
Thus 2 30  5 45  4 120  7.268  j 6
Convert the answer in polar form:

r  (7.268) 2   6 
2
 88.824
 9.425
 6 
tan    
 7268 
Ref = 39.54°
 is in the fourth quadrant
  39.4°
Thus 2 30  5 45  4 120  7,.68  j 6  9.425 39.54°
2. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN EXPONENTIAL FORM
One advantage of using the exponential form for complex numbers is that complex
numbers written in exponential form obey the laws of exponents.
We will use the basic rules for multiplication, division and powers:
118 MAT1581
am an  am  n
am
n
 am  n
a
a  m n
 a mn
 ab 
m
 a m bm
j1 j
If we have two complex numbers z1  r1e and z2  r2e 2 , we can multiply, divide or
take powers of them using these rules:
z1 z2 
 r1e j1  r e 2
j 2
 r1r2 e j (1   2 )
z1 r1e j1 r1 j (1  2 )

 j 2
 e
z2 r2 e r2
 z1 n  
n
 r1e j1  r1n e jn1
Example 2
a) Multiply 7e4.2 j by 2e2.5 j .
b) Divide 9e3.2 j by 2e4.3 j .
 
5
c) Calculate 4e j 2.3 .
Solution
a) 
7 e 4. j  2e   (7)(2)e
2.5 j j (4.2  2.5)
 14 e j 6.7
9e3.2 j 9 j (3.2  4.3)
b) 4.3 j
 2e  4.5e  j1.1
2e
c)  4e 
j 2.3 5
 45 e j 5(2.3)  1024e j11.5
ACTIVITY 1
Perform the indicated operations:

a) 2e 3 j 6e 2 j  
b) 8e3 j  2e j
c) 8.5e3.4 j  2e5.3 j
d)  3e  2j 4
1
e)  16e 6j 4

MAT1581 119
3. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING IN POLAR FORM
Remember the relationship between the exponential and the polar forms:
re j  r  cos  j sin  
3.1 Multiplication
j j
Let z1  r1e 1 and z2  r2e 2 be two complex numbers; then we know that
z1 z2  r1r2 e j (1 2 ) .
In polar form this would be r1  cos1  j sin 1  . r2  cos 2  j sin 2  .
Using trigonometric identities as in module 6 we can show that this is equal to
r1r2 cos 1   2   j sin 1   2   .
Using the alternative way of writing, we have

z1 z2  r1 1  r2 2  r1r2 1  2
Notice that the angles can be either in radians or degrees when working in polar form.
Remember to multiply two complex numbers in polar form:

 Multiply the moduli (r’s)
 Add the arguments (’s)
Example 3
a) 2  cos 30  j sin 30   3  cos 40  j sin 40 
 2  3 cos  30  40   j sin  30  40  
 6  cos 70  j sin 70 
b) 4  cos 20  j sin 20   3  cos 70  j sin 70 

 12  cos 90  j sin 90 
 12 j sin 90
 12 j
ACTIVITY 2
Determine:
a) a  cos   j sin    b  cos   j sin  
3  cos 30  j sin 30  

2
b)
120 MAT1581
3.2 Division
j j
Let z1  r1e 1 and z2  r2e 2 be two complex numbers; then we know that
z1 r1 j (1  2 )
 e .
z2 r2
z1 r  cos1  j sin 1 
In polar form this would be  1 .
z2 r2  cos 2  j sin  2 
Using trigonometric identities we can show that this is equal to
 cos 1   2   j sin 1   2  .

r1
r2
Using the alternative way of writing, we have

z1 r1 1 r
  1 1   2
z 2 r2  2 r2
Notice that the angles can be either in radians or degrees when working in polar form.
Remember to divide two complex numbers in polar form:

 Divide the moduli (r’s)
 Subtract the arguments (’s)
Example 4
6  cos 78  j sin 78 
3  cos 30  j sin 30 
 2 cos  78  30    j sin  78  30   
 2  cos 48  j sin 48 

 2 48
ACTIVITY 3
Calculate:
15 135°
a)
3 75
3  cos 20  j sin 20   5  cos10  j sin10 
b)
2  cos 30  j sin 30 
MAT1581 121
4. POWERS, ROOTS AND DEMOIVRE’S FORMULA
Finding powers of complex numbers in polar form also uses the same process we
developed for powers in exponential form.
DeMoivre’s formula
j
For any complex number z  r cis   r   re :
 
n
z n  re j  r n e jn
or  r  cos   j sin    n  r n  cos n  j sin n 
This theorem is true for all positive, negative and fractional values of n, and is thus useful
for determining powers and roots of complex numbers.
DeMoivre’s theorem says that to raise a complex number in polar form to any power n
 raise the modulus r to the power n
 multiply the argument  by n
Example 5
Simplify
 4  cos 30  i sin 30  
4
a)
 4  cos 60  i sin 60  
1
2
b)
 cos 3  j sin 3 
4
c)
 cos   j sin  
5
 
9
d) 3 j
Solution
 4  cos 30  i sin 30  
4
a)
 44  cos120  i sin120 
 256 cis120
 4  cos 60  i sin 60  
1
2
b)
4  cos 30  i sin 30 

1
2
 2 cis 30
122 MAT1581
c)
 cos 3  j sin 3 4
 cos   j sin  5
cos 4  3   j sin 4  3 

cos  5   j sin  5 
cos12  j sin12

cos 5  j sin 5
 cos 7  j sin 7
d) Write  3  j in polar form and then apply DeMoivre’s theorem.
 3
r  31  2
1
tan  
 3
Ref  30
  150 ( is in the second quadrant)
 3  j  2 150
    2 150 
9 9
3 j
 29 1 350
 29  cos1 350  j sin1 350 
 29  0   j  1 
 2 9 j
 512 j
MAT1581 123
ACTIVITY 4
  1  j 
3 8
1 j 3
Express in the form a + jb.
 2  j 2 
4
Finding the roots of a complex number
DeMoivre’s formula can be used to help find all of the roots of a complex number. For
example, the equation z 3  1 has three roots. One of the roots is –1. What are the other
two? DeMoivre’s formula can be used to find the other two roots.
First write –1 in polar form: 1  1 cos180  j sin180

Using DeMoivre’s formula with n  13 , we get
1
180 180 
  3  13  cos
1
1  j sin 
 3 3 
 1 cos 60  j sin 60 
1 3
  j
2 2
 0,5  j 0,866
1
We can see that this is different from –1. You can check that  0,5  j 0,866  3  1 . So
this is a valid answer.
Why did we get a different answer? If you divide any number between 0° and 1080° (0
and 6) by 3, we find an answer between 0° and 360° (0 and 2). Now 180°, 540° and
900° can all be represented by the same terminal side on an Argand diagram. So we
could have written –1 as 1  cos540  j sin 540 or as 1  cos900  j sin 900 . Let’s
find the cube root of these numbers:
1
1
 540 540 
 1 3  13  cos  j sin 
 3 3 
 1 cos180  j sin180 
 1
and
1
1
 900 900 
 1 3  13  cos  j sin 
 3 3 
 1 cos 300  j sin 300 
  0,5  j 0,866 
124 MAT1581
Now we have found three different cube roots of –1. The first and last are conjugates of
each other. We have also given an example of a process we can use to find all of the nth
roots of a number, where n is a positive integer.
Roots of a complex number

If z  r  cos  j sin   , then the nth roots of z are given by the formula
   360.k    360.k  
wk  n r cos     j sin   
 n n  n n  
where k  0,1, 2,..., n  1.
If  is in radians, substitute 2 for 360°.
Example 6
Find the cube root of z = 8(cos120° + jsin120°).
The three roots will be called w0 , w1 and w2 .
Using the formula above we find

  120 360.0   120 360.0  
w0  3 8 cos     j sin   
  3 3   3 3  
 2  cos 40  j sin 40 
 1.532  j1.286
  120 360.1   120 360.1  

w1  3 8 cos     j sin   
  3 3   3 3  
 2  cos160  j sin160
 1.879  j 0.684
  120 360.2   120 360.2  

w2  3 8  cos     j sin   
  3 3   3 3  
 2  cos 280  j sin 280 
 0.347  j1.970
The three roots are shown in figure 1. Notice that the roots are equally spaced around the
diagram. Whenever you graph the nth roots of a number, they should be equally spaced
around the diagram. If they are not, you have made a calculation error.
MAT1581 125
FIGURE 1
Although there are different roots of a complex number, we are sometimes asked to find
the principal root.
Principal root
This is the root whose vector is the nearest to the positive x-axis.
In some cases it may be the first root and in other cases the last root. In example 6 it is
the first root w0.
Example 7
Solve for x if x3 + 1 = 0. Give the answer in polar form with the angles in radians.
Solution
x3  1
1
x  3 1   1 3
We need to find the cube roots of –1 to solve for x.
Write –1 as a complex number in polar form.
1  1 cos   j sin  
  2 .0 
Thus x0  3 1  cos     2 .0  
  j sin   
 3 3  3 3  
  
 1  cos  j sin 
 3 3

1
3
126 MAT1581
   2 .1    2 .1  
x1  3 1 cos     j sin   
 3 3  3 3  
 1 cos   j sin  
 1
   2 .2    2 .2  
x2  3 1 cos     j sin   
 3 3  3 3  
 5 5 
 1 cos  j sin 
 3 3 
5
1
3
 5
Thus the values of x are 1 ,  1 and 1 .
3 3
ACTIVITY 5
1. Find the cube roots of z = 5(cos225° + jsin225°).
2. Solve for x if x4 + 1 = 0. Give the answer in the form a + jb.
5.1 Activity 1
a) 2e3 j .6e2 j  (2.6)e3 j 2 j  12e5 j

b) 8e3 j  2e j  82 e3 j  j  4e2 j
3.4 j 5.3 j
c) 8,5e3.4 j  2e5.3 j  8.5
2 e  4.25e1.9 j
d)  3e 
2j 4
 34 e2.4 j  81e8 j
1 1 1
 
6 j
e) 16e 6j 4
 16 4 e 4  2e1,5 j
5.2 Activity 2
a) a  cos   j sin    b  cos   j sin  
 ab  cos      j sin     
3  cos 30  j sin 30  
2
b)
 3  cos 30  j sin 30    3  cos 30  j sin 30  
 9  cos 60  j sin 60 
MAT1581 127
5.3 Activity 3
15 135° 15
a)  135  75  5 60
3 75 3
3  cos 20  j sin 20   5  cos10  j sin10 

b)
2  cos 30  j sin 30 
15  cos 30  j sin 30 

2  cos 30  j sin 30 
15

2
 7,5
5.4 Activity 4
Write all the complex numbers in polar form.
 3
1  j 3  : r  3  1 and tan  
1
2  Re f.  60
   300

Thus 1  j 3  2 300
1
1  j  : r  1  1 and tan  
1
 2   45
Thus 1  j   2 45
2
2  j 2 : r  (2) 2  (2) 2 and tan  
2
 8  (1)
2 2 Ref = 45°
  135
Thus  2  j 2  2 2 135
We are now ready to simplify the given expression:
128 MAT1581
1  j 3  1  j  2 
3
 2 300 
8 3 8
45
1
2

 2  j2 2 
4 4
135
3
2
 8 900 16 360 


64 540
 2 720
 2 0
 2 cis 0
2
5.5 Activity 5
1.
 225 225 
w0  3 5  cos  j sin 
 3 3 
 1,71  cos 75  j sin 75 
 1,71 75
 0.443  j1.652
  225 360   225 360  

w1  3 5  cos     j sin   
  3 3   3 3  
 1,71  cos195  j sin195 
 1,71 195
 1.652  j 0.443
  225 360.2   225 360.2  

w2  3 5  cos     j sins   
  3 3   3 3  
 1.71 cos 315  j sin 315 
 1.71 315
 1.209  j1.209
Represented on a Argand diagram as seen in figure 2.
MAT1581 129
Figure 2
2. x  14
Let  1  1 cos   j sin  
   2 .0    2 .0  
x0  4 1 cos     j sin   
 4 4  4 4  
  
 1 cos  j sin 
 4 4
1 1 1
  j  1  j 
2 2 2
   2 .1    2 .1  
x1  4 1 cos     j sin   
 4 4  4 4  
 3 3 
 1 cos  j sin 
 4 4
1 1 1
 j  1  j 
2 2 2
   2 .2    2 .2  
x2  4 1 cos     j sin   
 4 4  4 4  
 5 5 
 1 cos  j sin 
 4 4 
1 1 1
 j  1  j 
2 2 2
130 MAT1581
   2 .3    2 .3  
x3  4 1 cos     j sin   
 4 4  4 4  
 7 7 
 1 cos  j sin 
 4 4 
1 1 1
 j  1  j 
2 2 2
1
Thus the values of x are  1  j 
2
MAT1581 131
POST-TEST: COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. Write down the conjugates of the following numbers:

a) 2  j5
b) 3  j 2
c)  j5
2. Write the following numbers in polar form:

a) 5  j 2
b) 4  j 3
3. Represent the following numbers on an Argand diagram:

A  4  j 2  ; B  3  j 3 and C  2  5 j 
4. Express in the form a  ib :

1
a) i8 
2
4  7i
b)
5  6i
1  2i
c)
1 i
 3  5 j  2  6 j 
d)
24j
4 j
e)
1  j  3  j 2 
5. Add the following numbers:
2  cos 30  j sin 30  ; 5  cos 50  j sin 50  and 2  cos100  j sin100 
6. Find the solutions to the quadratic equation 3x2 4x + 5 = 0.
7. Simplify the following:

a)  
2 3  4 j   5  6 j 
b) 9   
18  6  2 
c) 1  2i  4  3i 
8. If x and y are real, solve the equations:
a)  2  j3 3  j 4   x  jy
jx 3x  j 4
b) 
1  jy x  3y
MAT1581 132
Module 4
TRIGONOMETRY: Post-test
9. If  a  b   j  a  b    2  j52  j  2  j3 , find the values of a and b.

10. Express –5 – 8j in exponential form.
11. Calculate the following:

a)  
3.6e5.4 j 2.5e6.1 j 
b) 17e4.3 j  4e2.8 j
1
c) 1.728e  2.1 j 3
12. Find the roots of the equation x 5  1  0 . Which is the principal root? Give the
answer in polar form with the angles in radians.
1
13. Prove that  cos  i sin  .
 cos  i sin  
2
1 i 
14. Solve for x and y if x  iy    .
 i 
15. Find all fourth roots of 8  8i 3 . Write your answer in the form a + jb.
1  j  1  j 
3 4
3
16. Simplify and write in the form a + jb.
1  j 
9
MAT1581 133
COMPLEX NUMBERS: POST-TEST SOLUTIONS
1. a) 2  j5
b) 3  j 2
c) j5
2.
r  25  4 2
a) tan  
5
 29   180  21.8
 158.2
 z  29 cis158.2
b)
3
r  16  9 tan  
4
5
  180  36.9
 216.9
 z  5 cis 143.1
3.
1 1 1
4.a) i8   1 1
2 2 2
MAT1581 134
Module 4
COMPLEX NUMBERS: Post-test solutions
4  7i 5  6i 20  42  11i
b)  
5  6i 5  6i 25  36
62  11i

61
1  2i 1  i 3  i
c)  
1 i 1 i 2
 3  5 j  2  6 j  24  28 j 2  4 j
d)  
24j 24j 24j
48  112  56 j  96 j

4  16
160  40 j

20
 8  2 j
4  j 5  j 19  9 j
e)  
5 j 5 j 25  1
19  9 j

26
5. Write the numbers in rectangular form.

2 cis 30  1.73  i
5 cis 50  3.2  i  3.83
2 cis100  0.35  i 1.97 
Sum  4.28 i  6.8
4  16  60 4 44
6. x  
6 6 6
2 1
  11
3 3
2 11
  i
3 3
2 11 2 11
The solutions are thus i and i .
3 3 3 3
7. a)  2 3  4 j   5  6 j 
  2 3  5    4  6  j
 52 3 2j
Note that the real part of this complex number is 5  2 3 and the imaginary part
is  2 j .
MAT1581 135
Module 4
b)  9  18    6  2 
 9  3 j 2   6  j 2 
 9  6  3 2  2  j
 3 2j 2
c) 1  2i  4  3i   4  3i  8i  6i 2
 4  11i  6
 2  11i
8. a)  2  j3 3  j 4   x  jy,
6  j8  j 9  j 2 12  x  jy
6  j  (1)12  x  jy
18  j  x  jy
 x  18
 y 1
jx 3x  j 4
b) 
1  jy x  3y
cross multiply:
jx  x  3 y   1  jy  3x  j 4 

j x 2  3xy   3x  j 4  j 3xy  j 2 4 y
  3x  4 y   j  4  3xy 
Thus 0  3x  4 y @ and
x 2  3xy  4  3xy
x2  4
x  2
Substitute in @: 4 y  3x
y  6
9.  a  b   j  a  b    2  j 5  2  j  2  j 3
 4  j 20  25 j 2  j 2  j 2 3
 4  j 22  22
 18  j 22
Thus
 a  b  18
a  b  22
a  2 and b  20
136
MAT1581
Module 4
 5   8 
2 2
10. r  a 2  b2 
 25  64
 89
 9.434
tan   8
5  1.6
R ef   1.012
(Remember your answer must be in radians)
 is in the third quadrant:
    1.012  4.154
Thus  5  8 j  9.434e j 4.154
11. a)  3.6e  2.5e   9e

5.4 j 6.1 j 11.5 j
b) 17e 4.3 j  4e2.8 j  4.25e1.5 j

1
c) 
1.728e 2.1 j  3  1.2e0.7 j
12. x5  1
x  51 Let 1  cos 0  j sin 0
  0 2 .0   0 2 .0  
x0  5 1 cos     j sin   
 5 5  5 5  
 1 cos 0  j sin 0
1
  0 2 .1   0 2 .1  
x1  5 1 cos     j sin   
 5 5  5 5  
 2 2 
 1 cos  j sin 
 5 5 
  0 2 .2   0 2 .2  
x2  5 1 cos     j sin   
 5 5  5 5  
 4 4 
 1  cos  j sin
 5 5 
MAT1581 137
Module 4
  0 2 .3   0 2 .3  
x3  5 1 cos     j sin   
 5 5  5 5  
 6 6 
 1  cos  j sin 
 5 5 
  0 2 .4   0 2 .4  
x4  5 1 cos     j sin   
 5 5  5 5  
 8 8 
 1  cos  j sin 
 5 5 
xo = 1 is the principal root.
1 cos   i sin 
13. Left-hand side= 
cos  i sin cos   i sin 
cos   i sin 

cos 2   sin 2 
 cos   i sin 
 Right-hand side
2
1 i 
14. x  iy   
 i 
1  2i  i 2

1
 2i
x  0 y2
15. Write z  8  8i 3 in polar form.
8 3
r  64  64  3   16 tan    3
8
  180o  60o
 240
 z  8  8i 3  16 cis 240
138
MAT1581
Module 4
  240 360.0   240 360.0  

w0  4 16 cos     j sin   
  4 4   4 4  
 2 cos 60  j sin 60
 1 j 3
  240 360.1   240 360.1  

w1  4 16 cos     j sin   
  4 4   4 4  
 2 cos150  j sin150
 3 j
  240 360.2   240 360.2  

w2  4 16 cos     j sin   
  4 4   4 4  
 2 cos 240  j sin 240
 1  j 3
  240 360.3   240 360.3  

w3  4 16 cos     j sin   
  4 4   4 4  
 2 cos 330  j sin 330
 3 i
1  j 3 1  j     2 cis 300
4 3 4
3 2 cis 45
16.
1  j 9  2 cis 315 
9
 2
3
cis 3(45)  2  cis 4  300 
4

 2
9
cis 9  315 

2 
2 cis 135 16 cis 1200 
16. 2 cis 2835
 2 cis  1500 
 2 cis  60 
 2 cos 60  2i sin 60
 1 i 3
MAT1581 139
Module 4
At the end of this learning unit 4 on complex numbers - operations in polar and
exponential form, you should be able to
 add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers in exponential and polar form
 raise a complex number to a power
 use DeMoivre’s theorem to find the nth roots of a complex number
We will next engage with module 5. The first learning unit is on the straight line.
140
MAT1581
M
O
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY D
CONTENTS U
L
PAGE
E
LEARNING UNIT 1 THE STRAIGHT LINE 143
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 144 5

2. THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE ......................................................... 144
2.1 Summary of possible cases................................................................................ 145
2.2 Finding the equation of a straight line given the slope and the coordinates of one
point ....................................................................................................................... 147
2.3 Finding the equation of a line passing through two given points ...................... 147
2.4 Finding the angle between two straight lines whose equations are given ......... 148
2.4.1 Parallel lines ...................................................................................................... 149
2.4.2 Perpendicular lines ............................................................................................ 150
3. THE SKETCH GRAPH OF A STRAIGHT LINE ................................................ 151
3.1 Table method ..................................................................................................... 151
3.2 Intercept method ................................................................................................ 152
3.2 Intercept-gradient method ................................................................................. 153
4. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITIES ............................................................................ 154
4.1 Activity 1 ........................................................................................................... 154
4.2 Activity 2 ........................................................................................................... 155
4.3 Activity 3 ........................................................................................................... 155
LEARNING UNIT 2 THE PARABOLA 157
1. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS ................................................................................. 158

2. THE PARABOLA ................................................................................................. 158
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 163
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 164
3.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 164
LEARNING UNIT 3 THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 166
1. THE GRAPH OF THE HYPERBOLA xy = k ...................................................... 167

1.1 If k > 0, that is k is positive ................................................................................. 167
1.2 If k < 0, that is k is negative ................................................................................ 168
1.3 Determination of the equation of a hyperbola ..................................................... 169
2. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITY ............................................................................... 170
MAT1581
Mathematics I (ENGINEERING 141
M
LEARNING UNIT 4 THE CIRCLE 172
O
D 1. THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE AT THE ORIGIN AND
U RADIUS EQUAL TO r.......................................................................................... 173
L 2. FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE NOT AT THE
ORIGIN AND RADIUS EQUAL TO r ................................................................. 174
E 3. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITY ............................................................................... 176
5 LEARNING UNIT 6 THE ELLIPSE 177

2 2
x y
1. THE ELLIPSE 2  2  1 .................................................................................. 178
a b
2. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE WITH FOCI ON THE X- or Y-AXIS ...... 178
3. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE OF WHICH THE FOCI ARE NOT ON THE
X- or Y-AXIS ......................................................................................................... 182
LEARNING UNIT 7 THE CENTRAL HYPERBOLA 187
1. THE GRAPH OF THE CENTRAL HYPERBOLA .............................................. 188

POST-TEST 192
MAT1581
142 MATHEMATICS I ( ENGINEERING)
MODULE 5 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
LEARNING UNIT 1 The straight line
OUTCOMES

 find the equation of a straight line
 interpret different values of the gradient and y-intercept of a straight line
 find the angle between two straight lines
 sketch a straight line
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 144

2. THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE ......................................................... 144
2.1 Summary of possible cases................................................................................ 145
2.2 Finding the equation of a straight line given the slope and the coordinates of one
point ....................................................................................................................... 147
2.2 Finding the equation of a line passing through two given points ...................... 147
2.4 Finding the angle between two straight lines whose equations are given ......... 148
2.4.1 Parallel lines ...................................................................................................... 149
2.4.2 Perpendicular lines ............................................................................................ 150
3. THE SKETCH GRAPH OF A STRAIGHT LINE ................................................ 151
3.1 Table method ..................................................................................................... 152
3.2 Intercept method ................................................................................................ 152
3.2 Intercept-gradient method ................................................................................. 153
4.1 Activity 1 ........................................................................................................... 154
4.2 Activity 2 ........................................................................................................... 155
4.3 Activity 3 ........................................................................................................... 155
MAT1581 143
Mathematics I (ENGINEERING)
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The straight line
1. INTRODUCTION
If any equation of the first degree in x and y is graphed, we obtain a straight line. An
equation of the first degree in x and y is one that contains only the first power of x and y.
The most general equation of the first degree is Ax  By  C  0 where A, B and C are
constants. We will introduce other forms of the equation in this learning unit.
2. THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The equation to a straight line is an algebraic statement of the relation that exists
between the x and y coordinates of every point on the line. It is important to note that no
point outside the line can have its coordinates related in the same way as points on the
line.
The relation is usually written in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are constants, that is
numbers independent of the values of x and y. These constants have a very definite
significance:
“m” is called the slope or gradient of the line.

“c” is the distance from the origin at which the line crosses the y-axis or the y-intercept.
If an equation to a straight line is not given in the form y = mx + c, it can be changed to

this form.
Example 1
Convert the general form of an equation of the first degree Ax  By  C  0 to the form
y = mx + c
Solution
Ax  By  C  0
By   Ax  C
 Ax  C
y
B
A C
 x
B B
A C
which is of the form y = mx + c, where m   x and c   .
B B
Example 2
Convert the equation 3x  4 y  2 to the form y = mx + c.
Solution
144 MAT1581
MATHEMATICS I ( ENGINEERING)
3x  4 y  2
4 y  2  3x
2  3x
y
4
2 3x
y 
4 4
3x 1
y 
4 2
ACTIVITY 1
Convert the following equations to the form y = mx + c:
a) 3x  4 y  2
1 1
b) x  y 
7 9
2.1 Summary of possible cases
By arranging equations of the first degree in the form y = mx + c, we can see at a glance
how the graph of the line will lie.
In figure 1 all the possible cases are depicted.

Lines sloping upward to the right have a positive m.
Lines sloping downward to the right have a negativem.
A positive value of c of a line indicates that the line cuts the y-axis above the origin,
while a negative c indicates that this cutting point is below the origin. A line with c = 0
will pass through the origin.
The special cases shown in the figure are AB and CD parallel to the axis of y and another
pair EF and GR parallel to the axis of x.
AB and CD are at 90o to X1OX, and tan 90o is (infinity). The m is infinity and therefore
we cannot use the m in our calculations.
The coordinates of any point in these lines are completely defined if we state the
following:
I. The equation to the line AB is x = k OR x  k = 0.

II. The equation to the line EF is y = V OR y  V = 0.
III. The equation to the line GH is y = S OR y + S = 0.
MAT1581 145
MATHEMATICS 1 (ENGINEERING)
FIGURE 1
146 MAT1581
2.2 Finding the equation of a line given the slope and the coordinates of
one point
The equation of a straight line can be written in a more useful form called the point-slope
form:
y  y1  m  x  x1 
Example 3
Find the equation of the line with slope 0.3 drawn through the point (7, 1.5).
Solution
y  y1  m  x  x1 
Let  x1 , y1    7,1.5 and we know that m  0.3
y  1.5  0.3  x   7  
y  1.5  0.3  x  7 
y  1.5  0.3x  2.1
y  0.3x  2.1  1.5
y  0.3x  3.6
2.3 Finding the equation of a line passing through two given points
To find the equation of a straight line passing through two given points, the following
formula for the slope is used:
y2  y1
m
x2  x1
We can combine this formula with the point-slope formula to obtain
y2  y1
y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1
Further note that this formula for the slope corresponds with the definition of the tangent
function, thus
y  y1
m 2  tan  , where  is the smallest angle between the line and the x -axis .
x2  x1
MAT1581 147
Example 4
Find the equation of the line passing through the points (2,3) and (1,1.7).
Solution
Let  2,3 =  x1, y1  and  1, 1.7  =  x2 , y2  .
y2  y1
y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1
 1.7  3 
y 3    x  2
 1  2 
y  3  1.567  x  2 
y  1.567 x  3.134  3
y  1.567 x  0.134
ACTIVITY 2
Find the equation
a) to the line with slope – 0,5 drawn through the point (–8, – 2.5)
b) of the straight line PQ through the two points P (2,1) and Q (8,9)
2.4 Finding the angle between two straight lines whose equations are
given
FIGURE 2
Refer to figure 2. Let the equation of AB be y  m1 x  c1 and the equation of CD

y  m2 x  c2 . Then m1  tan 1 and m2  tan  2 .
It is well known by most students that the sum of the three angles of a triangle = 180°.
148 MAT1581
Thus 1  180   2     180

    2  1
 tan   tan  2  1 
tan  2  tan 1

1  tan  2 .tan 1
m2  m1
tan  
1  m2 .m1
Two very important results follow from this equation.
2.4.1 Parallel lines
If two straight lines are parallel, then the angle between them must be 0.
But tan   0 can only be 0 if m2  m1 .
Thus if two lines are parallel, the slopes are equal.
Consider the following:
Lines AB and PQ are parallel to each other. If we use mAB to indicate the slope of AB and
mPQ to indicate the slope of PQ, it follows that mAB  mPQ .
Example 5
Find the equation of the straight line through (–5, –3) drawn parallel to the line
2 y  3x  4  0 .
Solution
We must first find the slope of the line 2 y  3x  4  0 .
MAT1581 149
If 2 y  3x  4  0 then 2 y  3x  4
3 4
y x
2 2
y  1.5 x  2
m1  1.5
Then we use the formula for the equation of a line, remembering that the slope of the
given line is equal to the slope of the new line since the two lines are parallel:
y  y1  m  x  x1 
y   3  1.5  x   5 
y  3  1.5  x  5
y  1.5 x  7.5  3
y  1.5 x  10.5
2.4.2 Perpendicular lines
If two lines are perpendicular, then the angle between them must be a right angle.
Thus   90 and tan   tan 90  
a
Now if  , then b must  0
b
m2  m1
Therefore   implies that 1  m2 .m1  0 and m2 m1  1
1  m2 .m1
Thus if two lines are perpendicular, the product of their slopes is equal to 1.
Consider the following:
Lines AB and PQ are perpendicular to each other. If we use mAB to indicate the slope of
AB and mPQ to indicate the slope of PQ, it follows that mAB  mPQ  1 .
150 MAT1581
Example 6
Show that the lines 4x  3y  1 = 0 and 6x + 8y + 1 = 0 are perpendicular to each other.
Solution
4x  3 y 1  0 6x  8 y 1  0
REMEMBER : First write each equation in standard form !
3 y  4 x  1 8 y  6 x  1
4 x 1 6 1
y  y x
3 3 8 8
4 1 3 1
y x y   x
3 3 4 8
4 3
m1  m2  
3 4
4 3
m1  m2     1
3 4
Thus the two lines are perpendicular.
ACTIVITY 3
a) Find the equation to a line drawn through (3, –7) perpendicular to the line
y  12 x  3
b) If two straight lines 4 x  3 y  1  0 and Kx  8 y  1  0 are perpendicular
to each other, find the value of K.
c) Find the equation of the straight line through (–5, –3) drawn parallel to
the line 2 y  3x  4  0 .
3. THE SKETCH GRAPH OF A STRAIGHT LINE
An accurate drawing, generally on graph paper, is called a plot. A less accurate drawing,
usually on ordinary paper, is called a sketch. When you are required to submit a sketch,
you should not use graph paper. The requirements are that salient points should be
included, and the derivation of the salient points shown in the calculations.
There are three methods to draw a straight line. You should find the one you are most
comfortable with.
3.1 Table method
Choose three x-values. Set up a table with the x- and y-values. Plot the points. Connect
the points to form a straight line.
MAT1581 151
Example 7
Sketch the graph of y = 3x.
Choose three x-values and set up a table:

x -1 0 1
y -3 0 3
Use the three points to sketch the graph:
3.2 Intercept method
Determine the x- and y-intercepts by putting x and y equal to 0 alternatively. Plot the
values on a graph and connect to form a straight line.
Example 8
Sketch the graph of y + x + 2 = 0.
To determine the y-intercept, put x = 0:

y02  0
y  2
To determine the x-intercept, put y = 0:
0 x2 0
x  2
Use these two values to draw the graph:
152 MAT1581
3.2 Intercept-gradient method
Write the equation in the form y = mx + c.

y  y1
The gradient m  2
x2  x1
change in y -values

change in x-values
vertical change

horizontal change
and c  the y  intercept
To sketch the graph we start at c and then count out the appropriate vertical and
horizontal change. This is best seen in an example.
Example 9
Sketch the graph of y + 2x – 3 = 0.
Rewrite equation in the standard form: y  2 x  3 .

2 change in y vertical change
Then m  2    and c  3
1 change in x horizontal change
Start at the y-intercept (A). As the change in y is negative, count down 2 units and as the
change in x is positive, count 1 unit to the right, ending at point B. Connect points A and
B to form a straight line.
MAT1581 153
4.1 Activity 1
a) 3x  4 y  2
4 y  2  3 x
2  3x
y
4
2 3x
y 
4 4
3x 1
y 
4 2
1 1
b) x y
7 9
1 1
 y x
7 9
1 1 
 y  7    x   7
7 9 
7
y  7x 
9
154 MAT1581
4.2 Activity 2
a) y  y1  m  x  x1 
y   2.5  0.5  x   8 
y  2.5  0.5  x  8
y  2.5  0.5 x  4
y  0.5 x  6.5
b) Let  x1 , y1    2,1 and  x2 , y2    8,9 

y2  y1
y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1
 9 1 
y 1     x  2
82
8
y 1   x  2
6
y  1  1.33  x  2 
y  1.33x  2.66  1
y  1.33x  1.66
4.3 Activity 3
a) Let the equation of the required line be y = mx + c.

For two lines to be perpendicular m1m2  1
m  12  1
m  2
Since (3, –7) is a point on the line, the required line is
y  mx  c
7  2(3)  c
c  1
The equation is y = 2x  1.
4 1
b) If 4 x  3 y  1  0 then y x
3 3
K 1
If Kx  8 y  1  0 then y x
8 8
MAT1581 155
For perpendicular lines m1  m2  1

4  K
     1
3  8
4.K    3 8 
 24
K 6
3
c) If 2 y  3x  4  0 then y   x  2 .
2
3
For parallel lines m1  m2   .
2
The equation of the required line is y  y1  m  x  x1 
Since (-5; -3) is a point on the line y   3   

3
2
 x   5 
3
thus y  3    x  5
2
3 21
y  x
2 2
or 2 y  3 x  21  0
This is the end of this learning unit and you should be able to
 find the equation of a straight line
 interpret different values of the gradient and y-intercept of a straight line
 find the angle between two straight lines
 sketch a straight line
We can now move to the next learning unit on parabolas.
156 MAT1581
LEARNING UNIT 2 The parabola
OUTCOMES

 sketch the graph of a parabola
 find the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS ................................................................................. 158

2. THE PARABOLA ................................................................................................. 158
3.1 Activity 1 ............................................................................................................. 163
3.2 Activity 2 ............................................................................................................. 164
3.3 Activity 3 ............................................................................................................. 164
MAT181QE / WIM131UE 157

UNISA ENGINEERING
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The parabola
1. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS
Definition
A function is a quadratic function if, and only if, it can be written in the form
y  ax 2  bx  c , where a, b and c are constants and a  0 .
For example, y  x 2  3x  2 and s  3t 2 are quadratic functions.

1
However, g  x   2 is not a quadratic function, since it cannot be written in the form
x 1
g  x   ax 2  bx  c .
ACTIVITY 1
State whether or not the function is quadratic:
f  x   26  3 x g  x   7  x 
2
a) b)
c) g  x   4 x2 d) h  s   6  4 s  1
1
e) h  q  f) f  t   2t  3  t  4t
2q  4
s2  4
f s  g t   t2  1  
2
g) h)
2
2. THE PARABOLA
The graph of the quadratic function is called a parabola and has a shape such as the
curves in figure 1.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1
If a > 0, the parabola extends upward indefinitely, and we say that the parabola opens
upward or is concave up (figure 1(a)). If a < 0, the parabola opens downward or is
concave down (figure 1(b)).
158 MAT1581
MATHEMATICS I (ENGINEERING)
Figure 1 shows points labelled vertex. If a > 0, the vertex is the "lowest" point on the
parabola. This means that at this point y has a minimum value.
By performing algebraic manipulations on ax2 + bx + c we can determine not only this

minimum value but also where it occurs:

y  ax 2  bx  c  ax 2  bx  c 
Adding and subtracting b2
4a
gives y   ax  bx    c 
2 b2
4a
b2
4a
 ax  x    c 
2 b
a
b2
4 a2
b2
4a
y  a  x    c  
b 2
2a
b2
4a
 ax     b 2
2a  4 ac b 2
4a
Since  x  2ba   0 and a  0, it follows that y has a minimum value when

2
x  0, that is, when x   2ba . The minimum value is c  4ba .

2
b
2a

Thus the vertex is the point  2ba ; c  4ba .
2

This is also the vertex of a parabola that opens downward  a  0  , but in this case
c  4ba is the maximum value of y  see figure 1 b   .

2
Instead of calculating c  4ba to find the minimum or maximum value it is easier to

2
substitute the value of the x coordinate in the given equation.
In summary
The graph of the quadratic function y  f  x   ax 2  bx  c is a parabola.

1. If a > 0, the parabola opens upward. If a < 0, it opens downward.
 b  b 
2. The vertex occurs at   , f    .
 2a  2a  
We can quickly sketch the graph of a quadratic function by first locating the vertex and a
few other points on the graph. Frequently it is convenient to choose these other points to
be those where the parabola intersects the x- and y-axes. These are called x- and y-
intercepts, respectively.
A y-intercept (0,y) is obtained by setting x = 0 in y  ax 2  bx  c and solving for y.
The x-intercepts (x,0) are obtained by setting y = 0 in y  ax 2  bx  c and solving for
x.
Once the intercepts and vertex are found, it is then relatively easy to pass the appropriate
parabola through these points. In the event that the x-intercepts are very close to the
vertex, or that no x-intercepts exist, we find a point on each side of the vertex so that we
can give a reasonable sketch of the parabola.
MAT1581 159
MATHEMATICS (ENGINEERING)
ACTIVITY 2
Answer the questions without sketching the parabola.
1. For the parabola f  x   4 x 2 8 x  7
a) Find the vertex
b) Does the vertex correspond to the highest or the lowest point on the
graph?
2. For the parabola y  f  x   x 2  2 x  8 , find
a) the y-intercept
b) the x-intercepts
c) the vertex
Remember to check your response on page 164.
Example 1
Sketch the following quadratic functions:
a) y  f  x   12  4 x  x 2
Thus a = 1, b = 4 and c = 12.
Since a < 0 the parabola opens downward.
b 4
If the vertex is (x, y), then x     2 .
2a 2  1
To find y we substitute the value of x in the given equation:
y  f  2   12  4  2    2   16
2
Thus the vertex (highest point) is (2,16).
Now find the intercepts with the axes:

If x  0, then y  12  4  0   02  12. Hence the y -intercept is  0,12  .
If y  0, then 0  12  4 x  x 2
0   6  x  2  x 
6  x  0 or 2  x  0
Thus x = 6 of x = 2, and the x-intercepts are (6,0) and (2,0).
Now we plot the vertex and intercepts (see figure 2(a)). Through these points we
draw a parabola opening downward. See figure 2(b).
160 MAT1581
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2
b) p  2q 2
Since p = 2q2 + 0q + 0, p is a quadratic function of q
where a = 2, b = 0 and c = 0.
The parabola opens upward, since a > 0.
b 0
 0, and p  2  0   0 .
2
If the vertex is (q, p), then q   
2a 2  2
A parabola opening upward with vertex at (0,0) cannot have any other intercepts.
Hence, to draw a reasonable graph we plot a point on each side of the vertex and
pass a parabola through the three points. See figure 3.
FIGURE 3
c) g  x   x  x  6  7
Since g  x   x 2 6 x  7 , g is a quadratic function
where a = 1, b = 6, and c = 7.
The parabola opens upward, since a > 0.
If the vertex is (x, g(x)),
MAT1581 161
b 6
 3, and g  3   3  6  3  7  2.
2
then x   
2a 2 1
The vertex is (3; 2).
y-intercept = c = 7
To find the x-intercepts we will use the quadratic formula:

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
  6    6 2  4 1 7 

2 1
6 8

2
6  4.2

2
62 2

2
6 2 2
 
2 2
 3 2
  
Thus the x -intercepts are 3  2 ,0 and 3  2 , 0 . 
After plotting the vertex and intercepts we draw a parabola opening upward. See
figure 4.
FIGURE 4
d) Graph y  f  x   2 x 2  2 x  3 and find the range of f.

This function is quadratic with a = 2, b = 2, and c = 3.
Since a > 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward.
162 MAT1581
If the vertex is (x,y), then

2
b 2 1  1  1 5
x    and y  2     2     3 
2a 2  2 2  2  2 2
 1 5
Thus the vertex is   ,  .
 2 2
If x = 0, then y = 3 and the y-intercept is (0;3).

A parabola opening upward with its vertex above the x-axis has no x-intercepts. In
figure 5 we plotted the y-intercept, the vertex and an additional point to the left of
the vertex. Passing a parabola through these points gives the required graph.
5
From figure 5 we see the range of f is y  .
2
FIGURE 5
ACTIVITY 3
Graph the function. Give the vertex and intercepts and state the range:
a) y  f  x   x2  6x  5
b) y  f  x   3 x 2
3.1 Activity 1
f  x   26  3x No g  x    7  x   x 2  14 x  49 Yes
2
a) b)
c) g  x   4 x 2 Yes d) h  s   6  4 s  1 No
1
e) h  q  No f) f  t   2t  3  t  4t No
2q  4
s2  4 1 2
f  s  
g t   t2  1 
2
g)  s  2 Yes h) No
2 2
MAT1581 163
3.2 Activity 2
1 a) Given: a  4, b  8 and c  7 .
b 8
If the vertex is the point (x,y), then x    1 .
2a 2(4)
Substitute in the given equation to find y:
y  f  1  4(1)2  8(1)  7  4  8  7  3
The vertex is the point (1;3).
b) a > 0 , thus the vertex corresponds to the lowest point on the graph.
2 a) If x = 0 then y = 8, thus the y-intercept is –8.

b) If y = 0, then x 2  2 x  8  0
 x  4  x  2   0
x  4 or x  2
Thus the x-intercepts are – 4 and 2.
b 2
c) If the vertex is the point (x,y), then x    1 .
2a 2(1)
Substitute in the given equation to find y:
y  f  1  (1)2  2(1)  8  1  2  8  9
The vertex is the point (1,9).
3.3 Activity 3
a) y-intercept : 5
x-intercept: x 2  6 x  5  0
 x  5  x  1  0
x  5 or x  1
(6)
Vertex: x  3
2(1)
y  f (3)  (3) 2  6(3)  5  9  18  5  4
Range: y  4
164 MAT1581
b) x = 0 and y = 0
Vertex (0,0)
Range: y  0
You have completed this learning unit and you should be able to
 sketch the graph of a parabola
 find the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola
We will now move to the next learning unit on rectangular hyperbolas.
MAT1581 165
The rectangular
LEARNING UNIT 3
hyperbola
OUTCOMES

 sketch a rectangular hyperbola
 find the equation of a rectangular hyperbola given a point on the hyperbola
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. THE GRAPH OF THE HYPERBOLA xy = k ...................................................... 167

1.1 If k > 0, that is k is positive ................................................................................. 167
1.2 If k < 0, that is k is negative ................................................................................ 168
1.3 Determination of the equation of a hyperbola ..................................................... 169
2. RESPONSE TO ACTIVITY ................................................................................. 170
MAT1581 166
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The rectangular hyperbola
1. THE GRAPH OF THE HYPERBOLA xy = k
k k
The general equation of a hyperbola is xy  k , y  or x  where k may be positive or
x y
negative.
1.1 If k > 0, that is k is positive
Example 1
Draw the graph of the function defined by xy = k where k = 20.
20
Thus xy  20 or y 
x
MAT1581 167
Note the following properties where k is positive:
 The graph consists of two separate branches, one entirely in the first quadrant and the
other entirely in the third quadrant.
 If x has a very great positive value, then y has a very small positive value, and
conversely.
 If x has a very great negative value, then y has a very small negative value, and
conversely.
 If x increases from , then y decreases, and the graph does not cut the y-axis.
 If x > 0 and increases, then y decreases from +, and the graph does not cut the x-
axis.
k
 The domain of the function y  extends from   to  , x  0 excluded.
x
(If a graph approaches the axis until it almost touches the axis at infinity, the axes are
called the asymptotes of the graph and since the asymptotes are perpendicular to each
other, the graph of xy = k is called a rectangular hyperbola.)
 The branches are identical and symmetrical about y =  x.
 Each branch is symmetrical with respect to y = x, i.e. if (a; b) is on the graph, then (b;
a) will also be on it.
In the graph of xy = 20 we see that both (10; 2) and (2; 10) also both (1; 20) and
(20; 1), etc. are on the curve. Since (x; y) and (x; y) are on the curve, the graph
is symmetrical with respect to the origin (0; 0).
1.2 If k < 0, that is k is negative
By drawing the graph of the function defined by xy =  20, the following corresponding
properties may be deduced. See figure 2.
168 MAT5181
FIGURE 2
 The two branches lie in the second and fourth quadrants.
 If x has a very great positive value, then y has a very small negative value, and
conversely.
 If x has a very great negative value, then y has a very small positive value, and
conversely.
 The branches are symmetrical about y = x.

Each branch is symmetrical about y = x and the curve is symmetrical with
respect to the origin.
1.3 Determination of the equation of a hyperbola
The equation of a hyperbola can be found if one point on the curve is given.
Example 2
If point (1 , 2) lies on the hyperbola xy = k, find the equation of the hyperbola.
Substitute in the general form to find the value of k:
MAT1581 169
xy  k
 1 2   k
 k  2
The equation is xy  2
ACTIVITY 1
1. Sketch the graphs of
a) xy  2
b) 2 xy  3  0
2. Find the equation of the hyperbola if 2 , 3) is a point on the hyperbola.
Remember to check the response below.
2. RESPONSES TO ACTIVITY
1a)
170 MAT5181
1b)
2. xy  k
 2  3  k
 k  6
The equation is xy  6
This is the end of this learning unit, and you should be able to
 sketch a rectangular hyperbola
 find the equation of a rectangular hyperbola given a point on the hyperbola
We can now continue to the next learning unit on the circle.
MAT1581 171
LEARNING UNIT 4 The circle
OUTCOMES

 sketch the graph of a circle
 find the equation of a circle
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE AT THE ORIGIN AND
RADIUS EQUAL TO R ........................................................................................ 173
2. FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE NOT AT THE
ORIGIN AND RADIUS EQUAL TO r ................................................................. 174
MAT1581 172
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The circle
1. THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE AT THE ORIGIN AND

RADIUS EQUAL TO r
To describe a circle a point must move such that it stays the same distance from a fixed
point. This point is the centre.
In the figure, P is the moving point with coordinates (x, y). The centre is at the origin with
coordinates (0 , 0) and the radius is equal to r. From any position of the point P draw a
perpendicular line on the x-axis. The triangle OPQ formed is a right-angled triangle of
which the hypotenuse is the side OP. To find the equation we must express the condition
that P should stay the same distance from 0, algebraically.
By the theorem of Pythagoras PQ 2  OQ 2  OP 2 .

Hence the equation of the circle is x 2  y 2  r 2 .
Thus:
The equation x 2  y 2  a 2 represents a circle with centre at the origin and radius a.
For example, x 2  y 2  25 is a circle with centre at the origin and radius 5.

This equation may sometimes be written in a different form:
y   25  x 2 is the same circle as x 2  y 2  25
y   25  x 2 represents a semi-circle, the lower half of the above circle.
Likewise y  25  x 2 represents the upper half of the circle.
MAT1581 173
2. FINDING THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE WITH CENTRE NOT AT THE

ORIGIN AND RADIUS EQUAL TO r
To find the equation of the circle in this case, we must express the condition that the
moving point P should stay at a constant distance from the fixed point (centre)
algebraically.
FIGURE 2
In the figure the coordinates of the centre are (h , k). Consider the moving point P in any
position. Draw through M lines parallel to the x-axis and y-axis. Draw from P a line PN
perpendicular to the x-axis to form the right-angled triangle PMN.
In the figure PK = x ; PB = y ; ML = h and MA = k.
Hence it follows that MN = x h and that PN = y  k.
Since the triangle PMN is a right-angled triangle, it follows that MN2 + PN 2 = MP 2

(Pythagoras's theorem).
Hence the equation of the circle is

 x  h 2   y  k 2  r 2
This is a very convenient form of the equation of the circle and we may memorise it as
follows:
2 2 2
(x  x-value of centre) + (y  y-value of centre) = radius
Example 1
Find the equation of the circle with centre at (3,2) and radius 5 units of length.
174 MAT1581
The equation is of the form  x  h 2   y  k 2  r 2

 5
2
 x   3    y  2  
2 2
 x  3 2   y  2  2  5
If the brackets are removed and the terms rearranged, the equation becomes
x2  y 2  6 x  4 y  8  0
Note:
If we consider the equation we find that (1) the coefficients of x2 and y2 are equal
(2) there are no terms in xy
We will find our observations useful to recognise a circle equation.
ACTIVITY 1
1. Find the equation of a circle with centre (-2;3) and radius 3 units.
2. Sketch the graph of x  y  6 x  4 y  8  0
2 2
MAT1581 175
1.  x  h 2   y  k 2  r 2
 3
2
 x   2     y  3 
2 2
 x  2   y  3  3
2 2
x 2  y 2  4 x  6 y  10  0
2. We recognise the equation as that of a circle with the origin not at the centre.
To find the standard form, we rearrange the equation and complete the squares in
x and y.
x2  y 2  6x  4 y  8  0
Standard form:
x 2
 6 x    y 2  4 y   8
x 2
 6 x  9    y 2  4 y  4   8  9  4
 x  3   y  2  5
2 2
Circle with origin (  3,2) and radius 5  2.23

[To complete a square, divide the coefficient of the middle term by 2 and add the
square of your answer:
For example, to complete x 2  6 x : divide 6 by 2, your answer is 3. Now take 3
and square, the answer is 9. Add 9 to x 2  6 x to obtain x 2  6 x  9  ( x  3) 2 ]
This ends the learning unit on circles and you should be able to
 sketch the graph of a circle
 find the equation of a circle
We now move to the next learning unit on ellipses.
176 MAT1581
LEARNING UNIT 5 The ellipse
OUTCOMES

 sketch the graph of an ellipse
 find the equation of an ellipse
 find the vertices, foci and the length of the major and minor axes of the ellipse
CONTENTS
PAGE
2 2
x y
1. THE ELLIPSE 2
 2  1 .................................................................................. 178
a b
2. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE WITH FOCI ON THE X- or Y-AXIS ...... 178
3. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE OF WHICH THE FOCI ARE NOT ON THE X-
or Y-AXIS .............................................................................................................. 182
MAT158 177
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The ellipse
x2 y 2
1. THE ELLIPSE  1
a 2 b2
Definition
The ellipse is the set of all points in a plane such that the sum of their distances from two
fixed points remains constant. The two fixed points are called the focal points (foci) and the
line drawn through them is called the major axis of the ellipse. The points of intersection of
the ellipse with the major axis are called vertices.
In figure 1:
VV ' is the major axis.
The vertices are V and V. F' and
F are the foci.
FIGURE 1
2. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE WITH FOCI ON THE X- or Y-AXIS
Suppose the two focal points

lie on the x-axis at –c and c.
FIGURE 2
If the length of the major axis (in figure 2 the x-axis) is given by 2a, and the length of the
major axis is given by 2b, we may write the equation of the ellipse as
x2 y 2
 1
a 2 b2
The relation between a, b and c is given by c  a 2  b 2
178 MAT1581
using the theorem of Pythagoras. See figure 3.
FIGURE 3
If the major axis lies along the y-axis, we can write the equation as
x2 y 2
 1
b2 a 2
See figure 4.
[Note: a gives the length of the major axis and b the length of the minor axis. When the
major axis is along the y-axis, the x-coordinate of V and F is 0.]
FIGURE 4
Example 1
Find the lengths of the major and minor axes of the following ellipses and sketch them:
x2 y2
a)  1
16 4
b) 25 x 2  9 y 2  25
Solution
a) Here we have a 2  16, b 2  4 and c  a 2  b 2  16  4
2 3  3.46
The centre of the ellipse is at the (0,0) and the major axis lies along the x-axis. The
points of intersection with the major axis are at x = 4 and x = 4.
MAT1581 179
The points of intersection of the minor axis of the ellipse, that is the values of b, are
at y = 2 or 2.
The foci on the major axis lie at x  2 3 and  2 3 . [You can use the answer in
decimal form, that is foci at x  3.46 and x  3.46 .]
Length of the major axis = 2a = 8 units.
Length of the minor axis = 2b = 4 units.
FIGURE 5
b) 25 x 2  9 y 2  25
x2 y 2
.  1
1 25 9
25 25 25  9
Therefore b 2  1 and a 2  and c  a 2  b 2  1 
9 9 9
16

9
4

3
FIGURE 6
180 MAT1581
Example 2
Calculate the equation of the ellipse if the following are given:
a) Intercepts (± 8,0) and minor axis = 6
b) One vertex at (0,13), one focal point at (0, 12) and centre at (0,0)
Solution
a) Draw a sketch.
FIGURE 7
Here we have 2a = 16 and therefore a = 8,

2b = 6 and therefore b = 3
x2 y2
 Equation:  1
64 9
b) Draw a sketch.
FIGURE 8
The major axis lies along the y-axis, a = 13, c = 12.

Therefore b 2  a 2  c 2  25 .
MAT1581 181
x2 y2
Thus the equation of the ellipse is 2  2  1
b a
2
x y2
 1
25 169
3. THE EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE OF WHICH THE FOCI ARE NOT ON

THE X- or Y-AXIS
A further assumption is that the major and minor axes are parallel to the ANALYTIC axis. If
the centre of the ellipse is at (h,k) and the length of the major axis is a and that of the minor
axis b, we can write the equation of the ellipse as
 x  h 2  y  k 2
 1
a2 b2
FIGURE 9
Example 3
a) Sketch the ellipse represented by the equation x 2  9 y 2  4 x  18 y  23  0 .
b) Write down the equation of the ellipse with vertices (8,3) and (4,3) and one focal
point at (6,3).
Solution
 x  h 2  y  k 2
Our equation is not yet in the standard form   1.
a2 b2
We alter the given equation as follows: ( x 2  4 x)  9( y 2  2 y )  23
To complete the square, the coefficient of the first term must be 1. Don’t forget to add the
same numbers on both sides.
( x 2  4 x  4)  9( y 2  2 y  1)  23  4  9(1)
 x  2 9  y  1  36
2 2
In the standard form the right-hand side must be equal to 1. Divide both sides by 36.
182 MAT1581

 x  2
2

 y  1
1
2
36 4
Therefore a 2  36 and b2  4
and c  32  4 2  5.66
The centre of the ellipse is at (2,1).

The major axis is parallel to the x-axis, that is along the line y = 1.
The minor axis is parallel to the y-axis, that is along the line x = 2.
The length of the major axis = 2a = 2(6) = 12.
The length of the minor axis = 2b = 2(2) = 4.
To sketch, start by finding the centre. Draw the axes through the centre. Count the required
length along the axes. Mark the foci. Complete the ellipse. This is sufficient for our
purposes. You can go further and find the intercepts with the axes.
FIGURE 10
c) The centre of the ellipse is at the midpoint of VV’ that is at (2, 3).
Therefore a6
and c4
and consequently b 2  a 2  c 2
 36  16
 20
Therefore the equation of the ellipse is
 x  2  y  3
2 2
 1
36 20
MAT1581 183
ACTIVITY 1
1. For each of the following ellipses, find the length of the major and minor
axes and the focal points:
a) 4 x 2  9 y 2  36
b) 25 x 2  16 y 2  400
c) x 2  4 y 2  6 x  32 y  69  0
d) 16 x 2  9 y 2  32 x  36 y  92  0
2. Find the equations of the following ellipses:
a) V  13, 0  and F 12, 0  b) Centre  0, 0  ; a  5; F  0, 4 
c) V  7,3 ; V '  3,3 ; F  6,3 d) Centre  0, 0  ; V  0, 5  ; F  0, 3 
Remember to check the response below.
x2 y2
1. a)  1
9 4
a  3; b  2; focal points x   9  4   5  2.24
Length of major axis = 6 and length of minor axis = 4.
x2 y2
b)  1
16 25
a  5; b  4; focal points y   a 2  b2   25  16  3
Length of major axis = 10 and length of minor axis = 8. Major axis along y -axis.
c) ( x 2  6 x  9)  4( y 2  8 y  16)  69  9  4(16)

 x  32  4  y  4 2  4
 x  32   y  4 2  1
4 1
 a  2; b  1; focal points: c  4  1   3
Centre is at (3;  4)

 focal points: 3  3;  4 
Length of major axis = 4 and length of minor axis = 2.
184 MAT1581
d) 16( x 2  2 x  1)  9( y 2  4 y  4)  92  16 1  9  4 
16  x  1  9  y  2   144
2 2
 x  12   y  2 2 1
9 16

Centre at  1, 2  and foci at 1;2  7 
Length of the major axis = 8 and length of the minor axis = 6.
2. a) Centre at  0,0 
Given V ( 13,0) thus a  13 and the major axis is along the x -axis;
Given F 12,0  thus c  12
c 2  a 2  b2 thus 122  132  b2
 b2  25
x2 y2
  1
169 25
b) Centre at  0,0  ; a  5
Given F  0, 4  thus c  4 and the major axis is along the y -axis.
c 2  a 2  b2  42  52  b2
 b2  9
x2 y2
 1
9 25
MAT1581 185
c) Given V  7,3 ; V '  3,3 and F  6,3 thus the major axis is along y  3.
The centre is at the midpoint of VV ' that is at (2,3)

a  half the length of VV '  1
2  7   3   12 10   5
c  length from centre to F  6,3 = 6  2  4
 Note that the value of c is not necessary to determine the equation.
b2  a 2  c2
b 2  25  16
b3
 x  2 2   y  32 1
25 9
d) Centre (0,0),V  0, 5 and F  0, 3

Thus a  5, c3 and the major axis is along the y  axis
b   5  2   3 2  16  4
x2 y2
 1
16 25
e) Centre (0,0),V  0, 5 and F  0, 3

Thus a  5, c3 and the major axis is along the y  axis
b   5  2   3 2  16  4
x2 y2
 1
16 25
Now that you have come to the end of this learning unit, you should be able to
 sketch the graph of an ellipse
 find the equation of an ellipse
 find the vertices, foci and the length of the major and minor axes of the ellipse
You can now continue to the next learning unit on the central hyperbola.
186 MAT1581
LEARNING UNIT 6 The central hyperbola
OUTCOMES

 recognise the equation of a central hyperbola
 sketch the graph of the central hyperbola
 find the vertices, foci, endpoints of the conjugate axis and the asymptotes of the
central hyperbola
CONTENTS
PAGE
1. THE GRAPH OF THE CENTRAL HYPERBOLA .............................................. 188
MAT1581 187
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The Central Hyperbola
1. THE GRAPH OF THE CENTRAL HYPERBOLA
Definition
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane for which the difference between the distances
of the points from two fixed points is a constant. The fixed points are called the focal
points.
The transverse axis is the line segment through the two foci with its endpoints on the
hyperbola. The endpoints of the transverse axis are called the vertices. The centre C of
the hyperbola is the midpoint of the foci. The line segment through the centre that is
perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate axis.
x2 y 2  x  h  y  k 
2 2
We will discuss both 2  2  1 and the more general form   1.

a b a2 b2
The only difference between these two hyperbolas is that the centre of the first is at the
origin (0,0), whereas the centre of the second one is at the point (h,k).
Standard equation: Hyperbola with a horizontal major axis

x2 y 2
The equation 2  2  1 describes a central hyperbola with the centre at (0,0) and the
a b
major axis on the x-axis:
Endpoint of the conjugate axis

b
Asymptote y  x
a
Endpoint of the conjugate axis
Please note:
 The vertices are V(a,0) and V’(a,0).
 The endpoints of the conjugate axis are W(0,b) and W’(0,-b).
 The foci are at F(-c,0) and F’(c,0) where c 2  a 2  b2 .
 The lines y  ba x and y  ab x are the asymptotes of this hyperbola.
188 MAT1581
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The central hyperbola
[The intercepts b, b, a and a determine the position of the dotted line rectangle which
is shown in the figure. This rectangle serves as an aid to draw the asymptotes and finally
the hyperbola.]
Standard equation: Hyperbola with a vertical major axis

y 2 x2
The equation is 2  2  1 describes the hyperbola with centre at (0,0) and the major
b a
axis on the y-axis. See figure 2.
Please note:
 The vertices are (0,b) and (0,-b).
 The endpoints of the conjugate axis are (a,0) and (-a,0).
 The foci are at F(0,-c) and F’(0,c) where c 2  a 2  b2 .
 The lines y  ba x and y  -ab x are the asymptotes of this hyperbola.
Example 1
 x  2 2  y  12
Sketch the graph of  1
42 32
The centre of this hyperbola is at (2, 1). Thus we have to draw a rectangle with the point
(2, 1) as the centre.
The length of the sides parallel to the x-axis is equal to 2a; count 4 units to the left and 4
units to the right of this point. This gives us the vertices V’(2,-1) and V(6,1).
MAT1581 189
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The Central Hyperbola
The lengths of the sides parallel to the y-axis equal to 2b; count 3 units to the left and 3
units to the right of this point. This gives us the endpoints of the conjugate axis W’(2,4)
and W(2,2).
The foci: c   a 2  b2   16  9   25  5 . As the centre is at (2, 1) the foci are
at F’( -3, -1) and F(7,-1).
To complete the sketch, we can find the intercepts with the x-axis: Put y  0
 x  2
2
1 10
 1
16 9 9
160
 x  2 2 
9
 x  2   4.22
 x  6, 22 or  2.22
FIGURE 3
ACTIVITY 1
For the following hyperbolas find (i) the coordinates of the centre
(ii) the foci
(iii) the vertices
(iv) the ends of the conjugate axis
a)
 x  1   y  2   1
2 2
32 42
b)
 x  32  y 2 1
122 52
190 MAT1581
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: The central hyperbola
a) i Centre 1 , 2 
 ii  c   9  16  5
Foci :  4, 2  and  6, 2 
(iii) Vertices:  2, 2  and  4, 2 
 iv  Endpoints of the conjugate axis: (1,  2) and (1,6)
b) i Centre  3,0 

 ii  c   144  25  13
Foci :  -16,0  and 10,0 
 iii  Vertices:  9 , 0  and  15 , 0 
 iv  Endpoints of the conjugate axis: (  3, 5) and ( 3 , 5)
Now that you have come to the end of this learning unit, you should be able to
 recognise the equation of a central hyperbola
 sketch the graph of the central hyperbola
 find the vertices, foci, endpoints of the conjugate axis and the asymptotes of the
central hyperbola
It may be handy to know the term “conic section” in connection with the topics covered
in module 5. Collectively we can call the straight line, parabola, rectangular hyperbola,
circle, ellipse and central hyperbola conic sections. All of these can be obtained by
cutting a cone in different sections.
You should now test your knowledge of the straight line, parabola, rectangular hyperbola,
circle, ellipse and central hyperbola by doing the post-test for module 5.
MAT1581 191
POST-TEST: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
1. Show that the two lines 4x  3y  1 = 0 and 6x + 8y + 1 = 0 are perpendicular to

each other.
2. A straight line AB passes through the two points (3, 6) and (2, 3). Find its
equation, and also find the equation of the straight line which bisects the distance
between the two points and is perpendicular to it.
3.
a) Calculate the distance between the points A (5 , 6) and B (7 , 12).
b) Derive the equation of the line passing through these points.
4.
a) Find the equation of a line which cuts the x- and y-axis at 3 and 5, respectively.
b) Find the equation of the line joining the point (3,2) to the point of intersection of
the lines x  y + 4 = 0 and y  2x  5 = 0.
5. Determine the equations of the following straight lines:

a) With slope 3 and y-intercept 2
b) Passing through the point (5; 4) and parallel to the line 2x + 3y  12 = 0
6. Determine the angle between the lines 3y = 4x + 2 and y =  x.
7. Identify the type of curve of the following equations. Sketch the graph of the
curve. Show the coordinates of all relevant points.
a) 4 y  3x  5  0
b) y  g ( x)  2 x 2  6 x
c) y  f ( x)  x 2  1
d) xy = 4
e) x 2  4 y 2  6 x  32 y  69  0
16  x  1  9  y  2   144
2 2
f)
g) 9 x 2  4 y 2  36
h) 9 x 2  4 y 2  36
i)  x  32  y 2  1.21
MAT1581 192
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: POST-TEST SOLUTIONS
4 1
1. If 4 x  3 y  1  0 then y x   m1 x  c1
3 3
6 1
If 6x  8 y  1  0 then y   x   m2 x  c2
8 8
4 6
m1m2      1
3 8
The two lines are perpendicular.
2. Let the equation of AB be y = mx + c

6  3m  c
3  2m  c
9 3
From which we find m   and c 
5 5
9 3
The equation of AB is y   x  .
5 5
To find the coordinates (x1, y1) of the mid-point of AB we have
x  x3 y  y3
x1  2 and y1  2
2 2
3  2 63
x1  y1 
2 2
1 3
 
2 2
The slope m of the required perpendicular line
m1m2  1
 9
m1     1
 5
5
m1 
9
The midpoint   12 ; 32  is a point on the line, thus y  m1 x  c
3 5 1
    c
2 9 2
3 5
  c
2 18
27  5 32
c 
18 9
16

9
MAT1581 193
Module 5
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY: Post-test solutions
5 16
The equation of the perpendicular is y x .
9 9
or 9 y  5 x  16  0
3.
a) d AB   x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2
  7  52  12  6 2
 144  36
 180
 13.42
y2  y1
b) y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1
12  6
y6  x  5
7  5
6
  x  5
12
1
  x  5
2
 2 y  12   x  5
2 y   x  17
1 17
y  x
2 2
4. a) Given: c  5 and (3;0) is a point on the line
Thus y  mx  c
0  m(3)  5
3m  5
5
m
3
5
The equation of the line is y  x  5 or 5 x  3 y  15
3
b) To find the intersection of the lines we must solve the two equations
simultaneously.
x  y  4 (1)
2 x  y  5 (2)
x  1 (1)  (2)
x  1
Put in equation (1) to find y  3
Thus (1 , 3) is a point on the line.
194 MAT1581
Module 5
y2  y1
Therefore y  y1   x  x1 
x2  x1
23
y 3
3   1
 x   1 
1
y 3  x  1
4
4 y  12   x  1
4 y  x  11
5. a) y  3x  2
b) Find the slope of the required line:
2 2
If 3 y  2 x  12 then y   x  4 and m  
3 3
Now (5;4) is a point on the line, thus
y  y1  m  x  x1 
2
y4  x  5
3
3 y  12  2 x  10
3 y  2 x  22
4 2 4
6. If 3 y  4 x  2 then y  x  and m1 
3 3 3
If y   x then m2  1 .
Therefore
m  m1
tan   2
1  m2m1
1  43

1   1  43 
 73

 13
7 3
 
3 1
7
  81.87
7.
MAT1581 195
Module 5
3 5
a) Straight line: If 4 y  3x  5  0, then y   x  .
4 4
5 5
y-intercept =  = 1.25 x-intercept =  = 1.67
4 3
b) Parabola: y-intercept : (0;0)

x-intercept: 2 x 2  6 x  0
x 2  3x  0
x  x  3  0
x  0 or x  3  0
x  3
(6) 3
Vertex: x  
2(2) 2
2
 3  3  9 18 9
y  2     6      
 2  2 2 2 2
9
Range : y 
2
c) Parabola: y-intercept : (0,1)
196 MAT1581
Module 5
x-intercepts: x 2  1  0
 x  1 x  1  0
x  1 or x  1
(0)
Vertex: x  0
2(1)
y  1
Range : y  1
d) xy  4 Rectangular hyperbola
x -2 -1 1 2
y -2 -4 4 2
MAT1581 197
Module 5
e)
x 2  4 y 2  6 x  32 y  69  0
Standard form: Ellipse
x 2
  
 6 x  4 y 2  8 y  69
( x 2  6 x  9)  4( y 2  8 y  16)  69  9  64
 x  3 2  4  y  4  2  4
 x  3 2  y  4  2
 1
4 1
Centre (h,k) = (3,-4) and focus c = 3
f)
16( x  1)2  9( y  2)2  144
Standard form: Central hyperbola
 x  12   y  2 2 1
9 16
x  intercepts:
 x  12   0  2 2 1
9 16
 x  12  1
4
9 16
20
( x  1) 2 
16
20
x  1
4
x  2.12 or x  0.12
198 MAT1581
Module 5
g) 9 x 2  4 y 2  36 Divide by 36 to get standard form

x2 y 2
 1
4 9
 Central hyperbola The vertices are Y  2, 0  and Y '  2, 0 
The foci are at F   
13, 0 and F '  13, 0 
3 3
The asymptotes are y  x and y   x
2 2
h) 9 x 2  4 y 2  36 Divide by 36 to get standard form

x2 y 2
 1
4 9
 Ellipse The vertices are X  2, 0  and X '  2, 0 
Y(0, 3) and Y'(0,-3)
Focus points 5 and  5
MAT1581 199
Module 5
15. Circle: Centre(h,k) = (-3, 0) Radius = 1.21  1.1
You have reached the end of study guide 1 and should now be ready to move to study
guide 2 on calculus. The first learning unit will refresh your knowledge of functional
notation.
200 MAT1581

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MATHEMATICS I

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

First edition 2004

All rights reserved

Layout done by the Department

MODULE 1 Binomial theorem 1

MODULE 2 Systems of equations and determinants

MODULE 3 Partial fractions

MODULE 4 Complex numbers

MODULE 5 Analytic geometry

Purpose of this module

You must have mastered all mathematical operations with exponential,

Where do you start?

Learn the following off by heart:

Do the following on the internet:

Consult your tutorial letter to obtain information on

Set up a study plan

Format of study material

An average student should be able to study a unit in an evening. Contact the

 Use of computer software

Greek letter Greek name

Laws of indices Factors

1  x n  1  nx  nn  1 x 2  nn  1n  2 x 3  ...

1. z  a  bj  r cos  j sin    r   re j , 7. De Moivre's theorem

1. Straight line 1. Circle: (  in radians)

Definitions Compound angle addition and subtraction

4.  f ' (x).e f(x) dx  e f(x)  c

6.  f ' (x).sin f(x) dx   cos f(x)  c

7.  f ' (x).cos f(x) dx  sin f(x)  c

8.  f ' (x). tan f(x) dx  n sec f(x)  c

9.  f ' (x).cot f(x) dx  n sin f(x)  c

10.  f ' (x).sec f(x) dx  n sec f(x)  tan f(x)  c

11.  f ' (x).cosec f(x) dx  n  cosec f(x)  cot f(x)  c

12.  f ' (x).sec2 f(x) dx  tan f(x)  c

13.  f ' (x).cosec 2 f(x) dx   cot f(x)  c

14.  f ' (x).sec f(x). tan f(x) dx  sec f(x)  c

15.  f ' (x).cosec f(x).cot f(x)dx  cosec f(x)  c

POST-TEST: BINOMIAL THEOREM 12

At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to

A mathematical expression which consists of only two terms, say a + b, is called a

Examine the following expansions:

We can conclude that

The binomial theorem

The special case with a = 1 is also given:

2. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A POSITIVE INTEGER

The value of n is 8; thus there will be nine terms in the expansion.

n  n  1 n  2  n  3 ( n  4)( n  5)  n  6  n  7  n 8 8 8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1 0 8

The value of n is 4, thus there will be five terms in the expansion.

To find  a  b  notice that  a  b    a  ( b)  . We obtain the answer by replacing b

with – b in the expansion for  a  b  .

2. Write down the first four terms in the expansion of  x  3 y  .

Remember to check the response on page 9.

3. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A NEGATIVE INTEGER

If n is a negative integer, the expansion is infinite.

Substitute a  x, b   2x and n  2 into the binomial theorem.

Remember to check the response on page 10.

4. THE EXPANSION OF (a + b)n FOR n A FRACTION

If n is a fraction, the expansion is infinite.