LESSON 1: Kinetic Molecular Theory Examples:

Convert the boiling temperature of a gold, 2966°C into

Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) degrees Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
– explains how volume, pressure, temperature, and other
properties affect the behavior of gases. Solution
● °C to °F:
Assumptions of KMT °F = °C (9/5) + 32
1. Gases are composed of molecules. The distance from °F = 2966°C (9/5) + 32
one molecule to another is far greater than the = 5,370.8 °F
molecules dimensions.
2. Gas molecules are in constant, random motion, and ● °C to Kelvin:
frequently collide with one another. K = °C + 273.15
Perfectly Elastic = No loss of Kinetic Energy K = 2966°C + 273.15
3. Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules = 3,239.15 K
are weak.
4. Average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly 3. Volume (V)
related to its temperature. – refers to three dimensional space enclosed by the container.

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Units:

● Liter (L)
● Milliliter (mL)
– Energy at rest – Energy in motion
● Cubic centimeter (cm3)

Properties that describe a gas Conversion Factors:

● Attractive: +- ● 1L = 1000 mL
● Repulsive: -- | ++ ● 1L = 1000 cm3
● 1cm3 = 1mL
● 1 cm3 = 0.001 L
(1) P = pressure
(2) V = volume Examples:
(3) T = temperature
(4) n = number of molecules Convert 50 cm3 to L

1cm3 = 0.001 L
1. Pressure: P = F/A = 50 cm3 × 0.001 L / 1 cm3
= 0.05 L
Where:
● P = Pressure
● F = Force ➡︎ directly proportional to pressure 4. Amount of Gas in Moles (n)
● A = Area ➡︎ inversely proportional to pressure – the amount of gas is expressed in terms of mole and is given
the symbol (n). However the amount of gas may also be
Units: expressed in other units such as grams.
a. mmHg = millimeters of mercury
b. torr Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Moles Relationship
c. bar
d. Pascal
e. atm = Atmospheric Pressure Gas Laws - define the behavior of gases

Conversion Factors: Scientists who Made Contribution in Gas Laws

● 1 atm = 760 mmHg 1. Robert Boyle
● 1 atm = 101,325 pascal/Pa 2. John Dalton
● 1 atm = 1.01325 bar 3. William Henry
● 1 atm = 760 torr 4. Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles
5. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
● 1 mmHg= 1 torr 6. Amedeo Avogadro
● 1 mmHg = 133.322 Pascal
A. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship)
Solid – fixed shape and volume – Robert Boyle
Liquid – no fixed shape but fixed volume – states that the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to
Gas – no fixed shape and volume its volume.

Examples: General Formula: P1V1 = P2V2

1. 0.357 atm to torr: Where:

● P1 = Pressure 1
Solution: ● V1 = Volume 1
= 0.357 atm x 760 torr / 1 atm ● P2 = Pressure 2
= 271.32 torr ● V2 = Volume 2

2. Convert 264 mmHg to torr and Pascal Formulas:

1. P1 = P2V2
a) mmHg to torr: 2. V1 = P2V2 / P1
= 264 mmHg x 1 torr / 1 mmHg 3. P2 = P1V1 / V2
= 264 torr 4. V2 = P1V1 / P2

b) mmHg to Pascal: Sample Problem:

= 264 mmHg × 133.322 Pa / 1 mmHg
= 35,197.008 Pa
2. Temperature (T)
– measures the hotness or coldness.
– expressed in terms of many scales including Fahrenheit, Celsius,
and Kelvin.
Formulas:
● Celsius to Kelvin: K = °C + 273.15
● Kelvin to Celsius: °C = K - 273.15
● Fahrenheit to Celsius: °C = (°F - 32) 5/9
● Celsius to Fahrenheit: °F = °C (9/5) + 32
● Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (°F - 32) 5/9 + 273.15
● Kelvin to Fahrenheit: °F = (K - 273.15) 9/5 + 32
A sample of CO2 was confined to a container at constant
temperature. When the pressure applied to the gas is 2.50 atm
the volume occupied by the gas is 4.50 L. How much pressure
must be exerted to decrease the volume of the gas to 3.00 L?
Given: V2 = 3.00 L, V1 = 4.50 L, P1 = 2.50 atm
Required: P2 = ?
Equation: P2 = P1V1 / V2
Solution:
P2 = (2.50 atm) (4.50 L) / 3.00 L
P2 = 11.25 atm / 3.00
Answer: P2 = 3.75 atm
B. Charles's Law (Volume-Temperature Relationship) Sample Problem:
– Jacques Alexandre Charles
– states that at constant pressure, an increase in temperature of Determine the volume of 4.50 moles of methane gas, (CH4) at
the gas will increase the volume it occupies and a corresponding STP.
decrease in temperature would lower its volume. * 1 mole of gas (n1)= 22.4L (V1)
– The temperature must be in Kelvin.
Given: n1 = 1 mole, V1 = 22.4L, n2 = 4.5 moles of CH4
General Formula: V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Required: V2 = ?
Equations:
1. V1 = T1V2 / T2 Equation: V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
2. T2 = T1V2 / V1 = V1n2 / n1 = V2n1 / n1
3. T1 = V1T2 / V2 = V1n2 / n1 = V2
4. V2 = V1T2 / T1
Solution:
Sample Problem: V2 = (22.4L)(4.5 mol) / 1 mol
V2 = 100.80 L / 1
Kr gas occupies a volume of 1.75 L at 25°C. Determine the
volume of the gas if the temperature is increased to 50.0°C Answer: V2 = 100.80 L

Given: V1 = 1.75 L, T1 = 25°C, T2 = 50.0°C

Ideal Gas Law
Required: V2 = ?
General Formula: PV = nRT
Formula: V2 = V1T2 / T1
Where:
Solution: ● P = pressure in atm
Convert °C to K: ● V = volume in L
a. T1 = 25°C + 273.15 = 298.15 K ● T = temperature in K
b. T2 = 50.0°C + 273.15 = 323.15 K ● n = amount of gas in moles
TAKE NOTE: Since the temperature is in degree Celsius, convert it into ● R = the gas constant
Kelvin (K) = 0.0821 L - atm / mol K

V2 = (1.75 L)(323.15K) / 298.15 K Sample Problem:

V2 = 565.5125 L / 298.15
V2 = 5.655125 x 102 L / 298.15 6.50 moles of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) occupy a volume of 13.5 L
at 28.0 °C Determine the pressure in atm of CO2 at these
Answer: V2 = 1.89 L conditions.

Given: V = 13.5 L, T = 28.0 °C, n = 6.50 moles,

C. Gay-Lussac's Law (Pressure-Temperature Relationship) R = 0.0821 L - atm / mol K
– Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
– states that the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the Required: P = ?
absolute temperature.
Equation: PV = nRT
General Formula: P1 / T1 = P2 / T2 P = nRT / V

Equations: Solution:
1. P1 = P2T1 / T2 P = (6.50 moles)(0.0821 L - atm / mol K)(301.15 K) / 13.5 L
2. T2 = P2T1 / P1 P = 160.7086975 atm / 13.5
3. P2 = P1T2 / T1
4. T1 = P1T2 / P2 Answer: P = 11.90 atm

Sample Problem:
Combined Gas Law
A sample of gas exerted a pressure of 745 mmHg at 30°C. – relates pressure, volume, and temperature, at constant number
What would be the temperature required to change the of moles.
pressure to standard condition?
General Formula: P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
Take Note: Pressure at STP = 760 mmHg
Sample Problem:
Given: P1 = 745 mmHg, T1 = 30°C, P2 = 760 mmHg
A sample of helium gas occupies a volume of 3.00 L at 700
Required: T2 = ? mmHg and 10.0 °C. The volume increases by 4.00 L and the
temperature decreases to 2.0 °C. What is the final pressure
Formula: T2 = P2T1 / P1 exerted on the gas?

Solution: Given: V1 = 3.00 L, P1 = 700 mmHg, T1 = 10.0 °C V2 = 4.00 L,

Convert °C to K: T2 = 2.0 °C
T1 = 30°C + 273.15 = 303.15 K
Required: P2 = ?
TAKE NOTE: Since the temperature is in degree Celsius, convert it into
Kelvin (K) Formula:
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 (cross multiply)
T2 = (760 mmHg)(303.15 K) / 745 mmHg P1V1T2 / V2T1 = P2V2T1 / V2T1
T2 = 230 394 K / 745 P1V1T2 / V2T1 = P2
T2 = 2.30394 x 105 K / 745
Solution:
Answer: T2 = 309 K or 309.25 K or 3.09 x 102 K 1) mmHg to atm: 1 atm = 760 mmHg
700 mmHg × 1 atm / 760 mmHg = 0.921052631
2) °C to R:
Avogadro's Law a) 10.0 °C + 273.15 = 283.15 K
– Amedeo Avogadro suggested that equal volumes of different b) 2.0 °C + 273.15 = 275.15 K
gases at the same temperature and same pressure will have the 3) P2 = (0.921052631 atm)(3.00 L)(275.15 K) /
same number of molecules. (4.00 L)(283.15 K)
– increase in the amount of the gas will increase in the volume P2 = 760.2828947 / 1,132.6
and vice versa.
– the conditions of T and P are called the Standard Temperature Answer: P2 = 0.67 atm
and Pressure (STP)
● 1 mole of gas = 22.4 L

General Formula: V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
 LESSON 2: BIOMOLECULES
I. BIOCHEMISTRY
– branch of chemistry that deals with the properties and
reactions of molecules in living organisms.
III. CARBOHYDRATES .
– derived from the Greek word “sakcharon” which means
“sugar.” They are also called “saccharides.”
. – Major Function: Provide immediate energy to the body.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

II. BIOMOLECULES . 1. Monosaccharides

– building blocks of living things.
– considered as “macromolecules.” (macro = large)
– metallic bonding – type of chemical bonding between
2 or more metal atoms.
● Covalent Bond – both non-metal
● Ionic Bond – metal and non-metal
– simplest form of carbohydrate.
– also called as “single sugar.”
(mono = single, sacharr = sugar)
– considered as the building blocks of complex
carbohydrates.
– Oligosaccharides: 3–9 monosaccharide units

Polymer – long molecule that consists of several a. Glucose

monomers, which are combined through covalent – immediate source of energy
bonding. – A.K.A “Blood sugar”
Monomer – building blocks of biomolecules. b. Fructose
MONOMERS – found in honey and fruits
● Monosaccharides – Carbohydrates – A.K.A “Fruit Sugar or Levulose”
● Glycerol and Fatty Acids – Lipids c. Galactose
● Amino Acids – Proteins – A.KA "Milk Sugar”
● Nucleotides – Nucleic Acids
2. Disaccharides
Bioelements – formed when two monosaccharides are combined.
– makes up living things mostly consists of: – undergo a process called “Dehydration synthesis.”
1. Carbon (C) a. Sucrose
2. Oxygen (0) – Glucose + Fructose
3. Hydrogen (H) – A.K.A "Table Sugar”
4. Nitrogen (N) b. Maltose
– Glucose + Glucose
4 MAJOR TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES – A.K.A “Malt Sugar”
1. Carbohydrates c. Lactose
2. Lipids – Glucose + Galactose
3. Proteins – sugar found in milk
4. Nucleic Acids
3. Polysaccharides
ELEMENTS IN BIOMOLECULES – most abundant type of carbohydrates that are
naturally occurring.
1. Carbon – consists of more than 10 monosaccharides units.
– carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids a. Glycogen
contain carbon. – consists of glucose units.
– can be found in all parts of all living things. – A.K.A “Animal starch.”
– abundant in liver and muscle cells.
2. Oxygen b. Chitin
– most abundant element in Earth's crust. – external skeleton in animals.
– present in all forms of biomolecules namely c. Cellulose
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. – consists of glucose units.
– can be found only in plants.
3. Nitrogen d. Starch
– most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere. – consists of glucose units.
– can be found in proteins and nucleic acids. – found in plants and is one of the most
important parts of our diet.
4. Hydrogen
– simplest element IV. LIPIDS .
– present in three major biomolecules, namely, – organic compounds that are insoluble in water.
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. – Fatty Acid: building block of lipids.

MAJOR FUNCTIONS
1. Storage of energy
2. Chemical signals in the cell (hormones)
3. Boundaries for cells
4. Cushion for organs

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

1. Fats and Oils

– Triaglycerides: commonly known as fats and oils.
– animals have fats that they use to store energy, provide
insulation, and protect the sensitive parts of the body.
– plants also store energy in the form of oils, which can
be found in their seeds.
a. Saturated Fats
– single bonded and are solid at room
temperature.
– considered bad fats.
b. Unsaturated Fats
– double bonded and are liquid at room
temperature.
– considered good fats.
2. Waxes TWO NATURAL TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
– typically found in plants and are used as protection to
avoid water loss. 1. Deoxyribonucleic Acids (DNA)
– found in all organisms
3. Steroids – double-helix structure
– have a significant role in reproduction, regulation of BASE PAIRING
metabolism, and absorption. 1. Adenine-Thymine
2. Cytosine-Guanine
4. Phospholipids
– found in the bilayer of the membrane in plants. It 2. Ribonucleic Acids (RNA)
serves as a membrane structural component. – mostly involved in protein synthesis
– has a phospholipid bilayer that is hydrophobic and – single structure
hydrophilic in the cell membranes.
LESSON 3.1: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
V. PROTEINS .
– considered as the primary building materials of the
body. . I. CHEMICAL REACTION .
– Amino Acid: building blocks of protein – process in which one or more substances are converted
to one or more different substances
MAIN FUNCTIONS – commonly represented by a chemical equation.
1. Serves as transport and storage of essential
substances. Chemical Equation
2. Responsible for coordinating movements, and – a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction.
provide mechanical support and protection – consists of reactants and products:
against diseases. 1. Reactants: starting materials that are placed on
the left side of the equation.
a. Peptide Bond – formed when an amino group and a 2. Products: placed on the right side.
carboxyl group condense during the synthesis of protein
List of Symbols Used in Writing Chemical Reactions
b. Polypeptide – final product of the amino acid chain
which is made up of this long chains Symbols Meaning

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS + Indicates that the

substances are mixed or
1. Primary Structure added
– unique sequence of amino acid linked in its polypeptide
chain that makes up the protein. → Means “yields,” “makes,”
● Insulin – hormone secreted by our pancreas “produces,” “forms,”
that regulated the level of blood sugar or separates the reactants
glucose from getting too high or too low from the products

2. Secondary Structure ← Reverse Reaction

– located within long polypeptide, where the chains are
organized into a regular pattern of hydrogen bonds Reaction to Equilibrium
between carbonyl and amino groups.
→
● Alpha-Helix ( α-helix ) – structure like a loosely ←
coiled spring
● Beta-Helix ( β-helix ) – the chains are folded so (s) Reactants or products
that they lie down along each other are in solid form

3. Tertiary Structure (l) Reactants or products

– three-dimensional structure that covers all the are in liquid form
polypeptide chain.
(g) Reactants or products
4. Quaternary Structure are in gas form
– protein folding that is consists of more than one amino
acid chain.
(aq) Designates an aqueous
solution; the substance is
VI. NUCLEIC ACIDS . dissolved in water
– Nucleotides – smaller units of nucleic acids

MAIN FUNCTION Examples:

1. Transfer genetic information from one
generation to another. Chemical Equation:
2. Sequences amino acids to build particular ● Silver nitrate + Magnesium chloride → Silver
proteins during protein synthesis. chloride + Magnesium nitrate

Chemical Equation:
● Aluminum metal reacts with iron (II) oxide
powder to produce aluminum oxide solid and
iron metal.
 Types of Chemical Reaction Example 6:

Combination or Synthesis
– reaction when two or more elements combine to form a
single product.

General Equation:
A + B → AB
A+B→C

Example 1:
Double Displacement (Replacement)
– reaction in which ions get exchanged between two
reactants, resulting to the formation of a new compound.

General Equation:
AB + CD → AD + CB
AB + CD → AC + BD

Example 7:
Example 2:

Example 8:

Decomposition Reaction
– a single reactant breaks down into simpler ones.

General Equation: AB → A + B
LESSON 3.2: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Example 3:

. I. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS .

– states that the matter is neither created nor destroyed.
– states that matter is conserved in a chemical reaction.

Example 4:

. II. BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS .

Single Displacement (Replacement)

– a substance; it can be an element or a compound
– it is capable of replacing one of the atoms of a given
compound.

General Equation:
AB + C → AC + B
A + BC → AC + B

Example 5: