Module Activity:

Learning Evidence #1. Exploiting Relationships

Gutierrez, Francis; Mapari, Sean Nathan; Nonato, Aran Jay
Evolutionary Biology - Second Semester
Submitted on: May 12, 2024

Beneficial( Mutualistic Interactions)

1. Mutualistic Symbiosis between Rhizobium (from Genera Azorhizobium,

Bradyrhizobium, Photorhizobium, Rhizobium, and Sinorhizobium) and Leguminous
plants (Leguminosae).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347859713_Simple_Feasibility_Analysis_Of_Nitrogen-Fixing_Cereals_Project

Within the intricate pattern of agricultural symbiosis lies a captivating alliance between
Leguminosae plants and Rhizobia microbes, culminating in a harmonious dance of biological
nitrogen fixation. These leguminous marvels, spanning peas, beans, and clovers among others,
engage in a mutualistic dalliance with Rhizobia dwelling within their root nodules. It's a
symbiotic affair where both partners reap rich rewards: the Rhizobia receive a cozy abode and
sustenance in the form of nutrients and carbohydrates from the plant's roots, while in return, they
bestow upon their botanical hosts the precious gift of fixed nitrogen, primarily in the form of
ammonia. This nitrogen infusion serves as a lifeblood for the Leguminosae, fueling their growth
and bolstering their productivity.

The symbiotic pact between Rhizobia and Leguminosae is more than just a botanical
barter; it's a cornerstone of agricultural sustainability and conservation. As Rahmani et al. (2020)
elucidate, this symbiosis is pivotal because plants cannot directly access nitrogen from the
environment. By hosting nitrogen-fixing bacteria within their root nodules, Leguminosae plants
bypass this limitation, effectively tapping into a potent source of ammonia—a primary nutrient
indispensable for their growth and vitality. This synergistic relationship not only augments the
plants' nutrient uptake but also reduces farmers' reliance on synthetic ammonia fertilizers,
offering a sustainable alternative rooted in ecological wisdom.

Farmers, cognizant of this symbiotic bounty, leverage the natural nitrogen-fixing prowess
of Leguminosae plants to cultivate thriving ecosystems of conservation agriculture. Stagnari et
al. (2017) underscore the transformative potential of this alliance, wherein the incorporation of
legumes into crop rotations enriches soil fertility, mitigates nitrogen runoff, and fosters
agroecological resilience. By harnessing the symbiotic synergy between Rhizobia and
Leguminosae, farmers embark on a journey towards agricultural sustainability, fostering a
tapestry of interwoven relationships that harmonize human endeavors with the rhythms of the
natural world.

2. Use of honeybees (Apis mellifera) for pollination in fruit orchards.

In the realm of agricultural symbiosis, honeybees (Apis mellifera) emerge as unsung

heroes, embodying the essence of a beneficial partnership crucial for fruit orchards' vitality.
These industrious insects undertake a pivotal role in the pollination of numerous fruit-bearing
crops, ranging from luscious apples to succulent cherries and nutritious almonds. As honeybees
embark on their quest for nectar and pollen, they inadvertently orchestrate a delicate ballet of
pollination. With each flower visit, pollen grains hitchhike on their fuzzy bodies, traversing
between blossoms and catalyzing the miraculous process of fertilization. This balletic exchange
not only ensures the fruit's inception but also fosters its subsequent development.

The ramifications of honeybee pollination reverberate throughout orchards, manifesting

in amplified fruit set, elevated quality, and augmented yields. Studies such as Steele et al. (2022)
underscore the indispensable role of honeybees in bolstering agricultural productivity through
their pollination services. By entrusting nature's diligent pollinators, farmers not only cultivate a
bounty of fruits but also nurture biodiversity within their orchards' intricate ecosystems. This
reliance on honeybees for pollination not only streamlines agricultural operations but also fosters
a harmonious coexistence with nature.

In essence, the utilization of honeybees for pollination epitomizes a symbiotic alliance

rooted in mutual benefit and ecological stewardship. By embracing the innate pollination
prowess of honeybees, farmers cultivate not just crops, but also a sustainable agricultural ethos
that reveres the delicate dance of nature's interconnectedness. Through the buzz of honeybees
among blossoms, orchards flourish, embodying the profound beauty and efficacy of harmonizing
with nature's rhythms.

Harmful (Antagonistic Interactions)

1. Ladybugs (Coccinellidae) against aphids (Aphidoidea)

In agriculture, the interaction between ladybugs (Coccinellidae) and aphids (Aphidoidea)

represents a classic example of biological pest control. Ladybugs, also known as lady beetles, are
known predators of aphids, feeding on them as a primary food source. This predation plays a
crucial role in regulating aphid populations, thereby preventing significant damage to crops.

Research by Hodek and Honek (1996) emphasizes the importance of ladybugs in

agricultural ecosystems, highlighting their ability to effectively control aphid infestations without
the need for chemical pesticides. Recent studies continue to underscore the significance of
ladybugs in sustainable agriculture. A study by Zeng et al. (2017) demonstrated the potential of
augmenting ladybug populations to enhance aphid suppression in organic farming systems. This
research showcases the practical applications of utilizing natural enemies like ladybugs for pest
management, aligning with the principles of organic and environmentally friendly farming
practices.

Furthermore, advancements in ecological modeling have shed light on the intricate

dynamics of ladybug-aphid interactions in agroecosystems. Research by Schmidt et al. (2021)
utilized mathematical models to explore the impacts of landscape structure on the effectiveness
of biological control by ladybugs. Their findings provide valuable insights into optimizing
landscape management strategies to support ladybug populations and enhance their pest control
services in agricultural landscapes.

Promoting the presence of ladybugs in agricultural landscapes not only benefits crop
yields but also contributes to broader ecological conservation efforts. Encouraging biodiversity,
including natural predators like ladybugs, helps maintain the balance of ecosystems and
enhances their resilience to pest outbreaks. By integrating biological pest control methods into
agricultural practices, farmers can foster sustainable farming systems that prioritize
environmental health and long-term productivity (Ammann et al., 2020)

2. Red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and the Eurasian pine marten (Martes martes).

The interaction between the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and the Eurasian pine marten
(Martes martes) exemplifies a classic case of predator-prey dynamics in natural ecosystems. Pine
martens, equipped with keen senses and agile bodies, have evolved as adept hunters, preying
upon red squirrels both on the ground and in the trees where these squirrels spend much of their
time foraging and nesting. This predation exerts a notable selective pressure on red squirrel
populations, particularly in regions where pine martens are plentiful.

Pine martens employ a variety of hunting techniques, including stealthy approaches and
swift strikes, to capture red squirrels. They leverage their arboreal prowess to pursue squirrels
through the intricate network of branches and foliage, demonstrating remarkable agility and
precision in their movements. Consequently, red squirrels must remain vigilant and develop
strategies to detect and evade these predators to ensure their survival.

In response to predation pressure, red squirrels may exhibit various evolutionary

adaptations aimed at enhancing their chances of survival. These adaptations can include
heightened vigilance behaviors, such as increased scanning for potential threats, as well as
modifications in habitat use to minimize exposure to pine martens. Additionally, selection may
favor individuals with traits that confer greater speed and agility, allowing them to escape from
predators more effectively. Over generations, these adaptive responses contribute to the ongoing
coevolutionary dynamics between red squirrels and pine martens.

Conversely, pine martens may also undergo evolutionary changes to optimize their
hunting efficiency and increase their success rates in capturing red squirrels. This could involve
enhancements in sensory capabilities, such as improved vision or scent detection, as well as the
refinement of hunting strategies tailored specifically to prey on red squirrels. Through this
reciprocal process of adaptation and counter-adaptation, the antagonistic interaction between red
squirrels and pine martens perpetuates a dynamic evolutionary arms race, shaping the ecological
landscape of their shared habitats.

References:
Ammann, L., Moorhouse‐Gann, R. J., Cuff, J. P., Bertrand, C., Mestre, L., Hidalgo, N.

P., Ellison, A., Herzog, F., Entling, M. H., Albrecht, M., & Symondson, W. O. C. (2020).

Insights into aphid prey consumption by ladybirds: Optimising field sampling methods

and primer design for high throughput sequencing. PloS One, 15(7), e0235054.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235054

Rahmani, T. P. D., Kumalawati, D. A., Tyas, D. A., Armanda, D. T., & Rusmadi, R.

(2020). Simple Feasibility Analysis of Nitrogen-Fixing Cereals Project. Al-Hayat, 3(2),

102. https://doi.org/10.21580/ah.v3i2.6082

Schmidt, J. M., Rostás, M., & Schneider, G. (2021). The effect of landscape structure on

aphid control by ladybeetles: A spatially explicit model. Ecological Modelling, 448,

109526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2021.109526

Stagnari, F., Maggio, A., Galieni, A., & Pisante, M. (2017). Multiple benefits of legumes

for agriculture sustainability: an overview. Chemical and Biological Technologies in

Agriculture, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-016-0085-1

Steele, T., Schürch, R., Ohlinger, B. D., & Couvillon, M. J. (2022). Apple orchards feed

honey bees during, but even more so after, bloom. Ecosphere, 13(9).

https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4228

Wauters, L. A., Gurnell, J., & Martinoli, A. (2002). Interspecific competition between

native Eurasian red squirrels and alien grey squirrels: does resource partitioning occur?

Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 52(4), 332-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-

002-0509-6
Zeng, Y., Wu, Y., & Yan, H. (2017). Augmentation of aphidophagous coccinellids with

food sprays enhances aphid suppression in organic cabbage fields. BioControl, 62(2),

227–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-016-9775-4