EGG AND EGG COOKERY

Egg

• “an astonishing gift from birds to humans, the

acme of food packaging, a prime resource of all
cooks”
• Carries symbolic significance: renewal of life
(easter)

Fertile eggs

• If a rooster is available when the hen starts to

lay eggs, the eggs produced are fertilized
• Fertile eggs can be incubated and develop into
chicks
• Fertilized duck eggs: balut and penoy Composition of eggs
• More expensive to produce, do not keep as well
• Moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrates, ash
as non- fertile eggs, may contain male
hormones • Egg proteins
o Albumin – accounts for 2/3 of total
Free Range Eggs o Conalbumin and ovomucoid –

• Produced by hens raised outdoors accounts for 10%

• More varied diet: eggs taste better o Ovomucin – accounts for 2%l; for
thickness of egg white
Organic eggs o Ovoglobulin, lysozyme, avidin*

• Eggs from hens fed rations having ingredients • Proteins of egg yolk – vitelline, phosvitin, levitin

that were grown without pesticides, fungicides, • Lipids – triglycerides, phospholipids (lecithin) &

herbicides, or commercial fertilizers lipoproteins

• More expensive • Other nutrients – B vitamins, iron

Physical Structure and Composition of Eggs Changes in egg during storage

• Most of the chemical and physical changes that

occur in egg during storage evolve from
reaction of the carbonic acid and bicarbonates
present as buffer in the white:
• 2NaHCO3 + H2CO3 -> Na2CO3 + 2H20 +
2CO2

carbonic acid slightly basic

a. Chemical change

• Increase in pH: loss of carbon dioxide from egg

until it is in equilibrium with atmosphere
• pH rises as a result of loss of carbon dioxide
from 7.9 to 9.3 in egg white
 • *storage at refrigerated temperatures greatly o Detect leakers, thin albumin, size of air
slow pH changes sac, blood spots

b. Physical changes Egg defects

• Increase amt of water in white dilutes the white • Leaker – ruptured egg shell membrane while
causing egg white thinning (spreading) & white shell is still intact; egg white leaks out
becomes less viscous • Thin albumen – yolk moves freely
• Chalaze w/c is water soluble dissolves and the • Air cell moves freely is a result of broken inner
yolk becomes off-centered and moves toward shell membrane
shell • Air cell depth – not more than 1/8 inch deep if
• Moisture from white penetrates the yolk fresh egg; evaporation/water loss – replaced
membrane then it weakens, and egg yolk with air
flattens • Blood & meat spots – dark, red spot in egg;
• Moisture escapes through the porous shell -> unacceptable if >1/8 inch in diameter
decreased contents -> enlarged air cell
Characteristics of fresh eggs
Changes in egg as it ages
• Porous, uncracked shell
• Egg shell loses its bloom, making egg more • Good size and shape
susceptible to contamination • Firm, defined albumen
• Air cell enlarges, due to loss of CO2 and • Conical, well concentrated yolk
moisture • Small air cell
• Albumen thins out due to loss of CO2 leading to • No germ spot
alkalinity
Egg Cookery
• Vitelline membrane becomes weaker due to
loss of CO2 • Coagulation of proteins: white at 62-65 C, yolk
at 65-70 C
Egg quality
o Coagulation – responsible for
• Egg Grading thickening effect
o A, B, C, D – phil std o Beyond this temperature, over
o AA, A, B – USDA std coagulation occurs and water is
• Egg size squeezed out causing shrinkage
o smaller due to malnutrition of hen, heat, resulting in a tough product
stress, overcrowding
Hard cooked eggs
o Jumbo, extra-large, large, medium,
small, peewee • Boiling water start and cold water start
• Bring eggs to room temperature before cooking
Measurement of quality
• Have enough water to cover (while boiling)
• Haugh unit (HU) • Low cooking temp. -> soft white
o Based oon thickness of albumen • Peelability – affected by handling & storage;
o Scores of 90 & above – excellent freshy laid eggs poor peelability
o Not used in actual practice • Stir egg while boiling to keep yolk centered
• Egg candling • Cracking of eggs while cooking in shell ->
o Nondestructive and fast leaking; can be due to careless handling, too
o Passing light through egg weak shells, sudden temperature changes
Effect of heat on eggs prevent oil droplets in suspension from
coalescing
• Formation of greenish discoloration at the
• Mayonnaise, cream puffs
interface of yolk and white when egg is
overcooked Egg as binding, thickening and gelling agent
o Due to the reaction of bet iron in yolk &
• Because it contains proteins that are easily
hydrogen sulfide liberated from sulfur
denatured by heat
containing proteins (ferrous sulfide)
• Using whole egg requires lower coagulation
o Reaction is favored by high cooking
temperature resulting in a stiffer gel
temperature & prolonged heating
• Addition of sugar, raises coagulation
o Reaction is prevented by immediate
temperature producing softer, weaker gel
cooling of egg (immersing in cold
• Softer gel is produced w/ addition of scalded
water) after cooking
milk and acid
Poached Eggs • In cooking custards, bain marie/double
boiler/steamer is used to avoid boiling w/c can
• Prepared by dropping broken out eggs into
produce a porous custard
boiling water or flavored liquid.
• Soft custards are produced by constant stirring
• Cooking: cooked in simmering water; addition
of salt and vinegar hastens coagulation • The higher the proportion of egg, the lower is
the coagulation temperature
Fried Egg
Egg as foam
• Deep Fried or Pan Fried
• When egg is beaten, albumen is denatured, air
• Cooking: Medium or Low Heat
is incorporated as white is stretched into thin
• “Once over” or “Over Easy”
films
Scrambled Eggs • With continued beating, the air cells are

• Another liquid usually cream or milk is added subdivided and volume is increased

• Cooking: Beat the eggs well, add 1/2T cream • Then protein network dried up and stabilizes

per egg. Heat butter in a pan, pour the egg the gas air foams

mixture and stir constantly with a whisk or fork o If only EW are used, color turns white &

as the egg is cooking over low heat. soft peaks are formed. Egg proteins
collect at the air/liquid interface of the
• Addition of sugar delays coagulation; addition
air bubble and undergo surface
of liquids and acids decreases coagulation
denaturation
point; greenish – harmless: due to high temp &
o If whole eggs (or EY) are used, color
in large batches
becomes pale yellow w/ continued
Emulsification beating; volume is increased (but not

• Emulsification – ability to hold together 2 as much as when only whites are

immiscible substances like oil & water used); no surface denaturation occurs

• Lecithin and lysolecithin – responsible for the Stages in foam formation

remarkable ability of egg yolk to act as an
a. Frothy
emulsifying agent
• Large, air bubbles that flow easily
• Both are phosphoproteins containing polar and
non-polar ends such that the polar end holds
water while the non-polar end holds the fat, thus
 b. Soft foam
• Air cells are smaller & more numerous;
Foams become whiter; Soft peaks are
formed when beater is lifted
c. Stiff foam
• Peaks hold their shape; when bowl is
tipped, it holds; moist & glossy
d. Dry
• Moistness & glossiness disappear;
specks of egg whites are seen

Egg Products

A. Chicken Eggs

Categorized as:

• Refrigerated Liquid Egg Products –

imported in metal or plastic containers
• Frozen Egg Products – used as ingredients
by food processors
• Dried Egg Products – used primarily as
ingredients in food industry

B. Duck Eggs

• Balut – unhatched 18 days old duck

chick, boiled
• Penoy – infertile eggs
• Itlog na maalat/pula – salted boiled
duck eggs painted red

Storage and handling

• Frozen egg products < -12oC long shelf

life
• Refrigerated liquid egg products stored
at recommended temperatures,
unopened, 2-6 days

Nutritional Value

1. High quality protein

2. All essential amino acids
3. Choline
4. Folate
5. Vitamin D
6. Egg Yolk – High in cholesterol
7. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
 FATS AND OILS Classification of Fats and Oils

Definition A. Classification by Appearance

• Triglycerides or compounds of FA’s & glycerol 1. Visible fats

• Belong to a group of organic compounds called • Visually distinctive
lipids • Butter, beef tallow, coconut oil
• Fat = all edible lipids that are solid at room 2. Invisible fats
temperature • Indistinguishable unless separated by
• Oil = all edible lipids that are liquids at room chemical means
temperature • Avocado, egg yolk, lean meats
• Naturally significant but not for culinary use
Chemical Characteristics
B. Classification by Source
• Fats and oils are triglycerides esters of fatty
acids 1. Animal Fats
• Depending upon number of carbon atoms of tile • Beef tallow
fatty acids, they may be short-chain, long chain • Suet
or medium-chain • Neutral lard
• Depending upon the degree of saturation of the • Leaf lard
predominant fatty acids, they may be PUFA, • Lard Compound
MUFA or SFA • Butter

Fatty acids • Low fat dairy spreads

• Oleo stock tallow
• SFA (no double bonds in carbon chain)
• Oleo oil
o animal fats, coconut oil & palm kernel
• Oleo stearin
oil
2. Vegetable Fats
• MUFA (one carbon w/ a double bond)
1. Hydrogenated fats or vegetable
o vegetable oils (olive, peanut oils)
shortenings
• PUFA (have more than one double bond) 2. Lard Substitute
o vegetable oils (corn, canola, 3. Margarine
cottonseed, soybean) 4. Vegetable oils
• Trans FA 5. Salad oils
o formed as by products when veg oils
C. Classification by Culinary Use
are hydrogenated

1. Table fats
Degree of Saturation
• Spreads such as butter & margarine
• Most vegetable oils are polyunsaturated. 2. Cooking oil
Exception of coconut oil which consists largely • For frying; coconut oil/corn oil
of medium chain saturated fats 3. Shortening
• Exist as mono-, di-, or triglycerides in foods • Plastic fats; for baked flour products
• Common form in foods is the triglycerides or 4. Salad oils
neutral fats • Corn oil, soybean oil, olive oil
Nutritional importance Physical Characteristics of Fats and Oils

• Concentrated source of energy: 9kcal/g 1. Physical Structure

• Should not exceed 30% • Solid fat is composed of crystal structures
• Excess -> fat deposits of straight chain FA suspended in oil
• Carry fat-soluble vitamins 2. Solid fat index (SFI)

• Insulate body organs from extreme Tº • The proportion of fat in crystalline form to
• Sources of EFA (linoleic and linolenic) – the suspending oil; More solids = high SFI

converted to prostaglandins (immune 3. Polymorphism

system) • Crystals may be fine or course depending
on variety of molecular species; If less
Culinary Importance
molecular species -> crystals become
• Slow in leaving the stomach & hence contribute unstable -> larger crystals will form
to satiety effect of food 4. Plasticity
• Provides creamy mouth feel to food • Property of fat that allows it to be molded or
• Needs proper storage to prevent absorption of pressed into various shapes w/o breaking
foreign odors 5. Ability to retain shape

• Heated fats for unique texture of fried foods • Fat w/ wide plastic range is desirable for

• Provides tenderness in baked products (fat creaming; e.g. hydrogenated fats

coats the flour particles creating a flaky tender • Fat w/ narrow plastic range is used as table
texture) fat; e.g. butter

• In cooking lean meats, baste w/ oily mixture to • Fat w/ wide plastic range contains FA
avoid dryness/stringiness • Fat w/ smaller crystals are more plastic

Chemical Composition
6. Melting Point
• Triglycerides – glycerol esters of free FA • Temperature at which fat becomes an oil
wherein all 3 carbons in the glycerol backbone • Determined by the strength of bonding
are attached to a FA forces between fatty acids within the crystal
• Monoglycerides – when only one of the 3 • Melting disrupts forces in solid molecules
carbons of glycerol molecule is esterified w/ a • High melting point - remains crystalline or
FA solid at room Tº; requires more heat to melt;
• Diglycerides – when 2 of the 3 carbons are high boiling point
esterified • Low melting point - requires less heat to
• MG & DG as emulsifiers  hydrophilic (interacts melt; liquid at room Tº; low boiling point
w/ water) & hydrophobic ends (interacts w/ fats) • Factors influencing melting point
• Phospholipids – combination of lipid & 1. Degree of saturation
phosphate group (ex. Lecithin) o Highly saturated: high melting point
• Phospholipids are polar substances – o Unsaturated: low melting point
positive/negative charge (effect of its acidic 2. Size of crystals
phosphate group & nitrogenous base) o Large: low melting point Size of
• Vitamins ADEK crystals
o Small: high melting point
 3. Winterized 12. Thermal Stability
o Pure fat chilled to remove solid
• Ability of fat/oil to withstand heat w/o
portions
undergoing deterioration
o Remains liquid even at
refrigeration, thus has low melting 13. Smoke Point
point
• The temperature at which fat becomes
4. Hydrogenation
overheated
o Addition of H+ at unsaturated
• depends on free glycerol content
points: high melting point
• When fats get overheated, dehydration &
7. Solidification temperature
decomposition of glycerol to acrolein
• The temperature range when a liquid fat is
occurs which is irritating to mucus
changed to solid
membrane and imparts an undesirable
• To solidify -> cooled to a Tº lower than the
flavor
melting Tº
• Acrolein = volatile bluish gas that indicates
• To liquefy -> warmed to a higher Tº than
smoke point of the oil
solidification T
• Fats w/ high smoke point are undesirable,
8. Solubility
especially for frying
• Natural fats
• Factors which lower Smoke Point
o insoluble in water
o Repeated heating of fats
o Slightly soluble in lower alcohols
o Using a wide diameter pan
o Readily soluble in non-polar
o Presence of food particles in the fat
solvent (chloroform, ether,
petroleum ether, benzene & 14. Fat Degradation
carbon tetrachloride)
• Lowers smoke point of fat
9. Density/Specific Gravity
• Increases viscosity
• Oil less dense than water (0.90 – 0.92
• Increases its ability to foam
g/cm3)
• *Reused oil affects quality of fried foods
• Specific gravity – the ratio between density
of a substance & water Changes in fat during heating

10. Refractive Index 1. Pyrolysis (thermal breakdown)

• measure of ability of a substance to bend • Heating oil causes molecular breakdown

light as it passes though it
2. Oxidation
• Clearer -> low refractive index
• RI decreases w/ increasing temperature • Heat combines w/ oxygen causing
because it becomes clearer as it is molecular breakdown
completely melted
3. Hydrolysis
11. Surfactant properties
• Water reacts w/ oil
• Ability to bridge water and oil molecules • Splits the ester bridge bet. FA and glycerol
• Useful for emulsification
4. Reaction w/ food residue
• Additional MG & DG in fats intended as
shortening • Contributes to deterioration
Chemical Properties and Reactions of Fats and Oils 3. Halogenation

A. Ester Linkage Reactions • ability of halogens (iodine) to be added to a

double bond in an UFA
1. Hydrolysis
Fat Rancidity
• Breaking of ester linkage bet. Glycerol
molecules & FA resulting in release of free • Spoilage of fats
FA o Hydrolytic
• Catalyzed by lipase (natural enzymes ▪ Due to hydrolysis of
present in fats), acid w/ heat triglycerides w/c liberate free
fatty acids (SFA) & glycerol
2. Saponification
o Oxidative
• Formation of soap w/ the free FA ▪ Reaction w/ oxygen
• Saponification number = the grams of KOH ▪ Due to oxidation of UFA in fat
required to saponify 1g of oil at specified by peroxides w/c in turn results
conditions in the formation of other
• Occurs primarily in processing (e.g. soapy molecules like ketones,
taste in miki) aldehydes, etc. producing the
rancid odor & flavor
3. Interesterification
Factors Affecting oxidation of fats and oils
• Transfer of FA from glycerol to another
alcohol • Initial quality of fat/oil
• Involved in production of MG and DG for • Conditions used manufacturing
emulsification factors • Storage conditions (heat., light, packaging)
• Surface area exposed to atmospheric oxygen
4. Rearrangement
• Presence of transition metals
• Used in commercial preparation of • Concentration of active lipoxidases
shortening where a variety of FA molecules • Application of preservatives
is desired to increase plasticity • Presence of chemical oxidizers

5. Acetylation Fat and Oil Products

• Replacement of FA by acetate A. Animal Fats

• For production of emulsifiers & food colors
• Butter
B. Reactions involving double bonds o Fat or cream that is separated from

1. Oxidation other milk constituents by agitation or

churning
• removal of hydrogen atom from the electron • Lard
adjacent to a double bond -> formation of o Fatty tissues of hog chopped into small
free radical (highly reactive; leads to auto- pieces & heated w/ or w/o water
oxidation)
• Beef tallow

2. Hydrogenation/Isomerization o dry rendered from fatty tissues of beef

• Fish oils
• highly unsaturated fats heated w/ H+ in
o omega FA
presence of a catalyst (nickel) to saturate
the double bond carbons
B. Plant Fats • Soybean oil
o produced as a byproduct of processing
• Coconut oil
soy meal.
o a cooking oil, with medical and
• Sunflower oil
industrial applications as well.
o a common cooking oils
Extracted from the kernel or meat of the
o also used to make biodiesel.
fruit of the coconut palm.
o Common in the tropics, and unusual in Storage of fats/oils
composition, with medium chain fatty
• Avoid exposure of oxygen, light, heat
acids dominant.
• Always cover oil container
• Corn oil
• Used oil should be strained to remove food
o one of the principal oils sold as salad
particles
and cooking oil.
• Canola oil Safety precautions
o the most sold cooking oil all around the
• Do not overheat oil.
world
• Never leave heating unattended.
o used as a salad and cooking oil, both
• Cool heated oil before transferring to any
domestically and industrially.
container.
o Also used in fuel industry as bio-fuel.
• Clean spilled oil immediately
• Cottonseed oil
• Do not throw oil in drain. Dispose in a tightly
o used as a salad and cooking oil, both
sealed container
domestically and industrially.
• Olive oil
o used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and
as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.
• Palm oil
o the most widely produced tropical oil
o Popular in West African and Brazilian
cuisine.
o Also used to make biofuel.
• Peanut oil (Ground nut oil)
o a clear oil with some applications as a
salad dressing, and, due to its high
smoke point, especially used for frying.
• Rapeseed oil
o including Canola oil, one of the most
widely used cooking oils.

• Safflower oil
o until the 1960s used in the paint
industry, now mostly as a cooking oil.
• Sesame oil
o cold pressed as light cooking oil
o hot pressed for a darker and stronger
flavor.
 RICE, CORN, AND OTHER CEREALS 5. Germ

Cereals • 3% of kernel
• Rich in oil & fat-soluble vitamins, protein & ash
• Cultivated plants belonging to the grass family
Easily attacked
used as food by man
• by insects & oxidative rancidity
• Most common: rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats,
millet or sorghum, triticale, buckwheat, Bulgur Composition of Grains
wheat (a donated food)
• Approximately 75% CHO, 10% CHON, 8-12%
• Also called grains
moisture, 1-2% fat & 1- 2%ash
Main Structure of Grains • Starch – main carbohydrate w/small amounts of
sucrose & dextrins
• Protein – 7.5% in ordinary rice,14% in oats
• Presence of bran, germ & aleurone layer
improves nutritive value as in unpolished or
whole grains (have more fiber, proteins, V&M)
• Starch is highly digestible; fiber furnishes
roughage
• Times of washing & amount of washing water
reduce nutrient content
• Pigments – white pigments belong to flavones,
Structure of Grains
yellow pigments belong to carotenoids
1. Seed coat or hull
Market Forms of Grains
• Has no value as food
1. Whole grains
2. Bran 2. Milled – bran & germ removed by milling
process
• 5% of the kernel
3. Enriched – vitamins (B1, B2, B3) & iron added
• Outer covering composed of several layers (2
to refined grams
layers in rice, 5 in wheat)
4. Parboiled – cereal grains that had undergone
• Chiefly cellulose but rich in V & M (thiamine) &
heat treatment w/ hull still intact then sun-dried
some protein
before dehulling
3. Aleurone layer 5. Convenient food item
6. Processed
• 8% of kernel
• Group of single layered square cells beneath Milled forms
the bran
• Highly milled or refined
• Contains protein, ash, VB1, some starch
o no bran & germ
4. Endosperm • Undermilled
o with traces of bran & germ
• 85% of kernel
• Brown rice
• Largest part of grain
o milled w/ only the hull removed;
• Contains 75% starch granules embedded in a
contains high amounts of bran & germ
matrix of about 10% protein, very little ash,
vitamins & fiber, & only trace of fat
Fundamentals of Cereal Cookery According to • Bago (newly
storage harvested)
• Proper ratio of water to cereal
• Luma or laon (has
• Complete gelatinization of starch
undergone long
• Prevention of lumping is moist cooking
storage)
• Retention of discrete grains as desired
• Prevention of scorching
Rice Production and Utilization Top 10 Rice
*main aim: to improve palatability & to increase
producers:
digestibility
• Nueva Ecija
Types of Cereal Grains
• Iloilo
A. Rice (Oryza sativa) • Pangasinan
• Isabela
Three subspecies: Indica, Japonica, Javanica
• Cagayan
Classification of Rice
• Camarines Sur
According to Size • Short - <5.5 mm • Maguindanao
of grain (IRRI) • Medium – 5.51mm to • Negros Occidental
6.6mm
• Tarlac
• Long – 6.61mm to
• Capiz
7.5mm
Drying
According to • Lowland rice eg. IR
location of 20, 26, 28, C4, 12 • Harvested: 20% moisture (18% to 25%)
cultivation • Upland/highland rice: • High moisture content = immature grains
Azucena, Palawan, • Moisture must be brought down to 14% to avoid
Dinalaga spoilage
According to • High amylose – 27% • Drying is done mostly by sun drying and
amylose content (wagwag, IR 8) mechanical rice dryers
• Moderately high – 25-
Rice Milling
27% (Burma or Thai
Rice) 1. Pre-cleaning – to remove dirt and foreign materials
• Intermediate – 20-
2. Dehusking or dehulling – hulls are removed
25% (Milagrosa)
• Low – less than 20% 3. Polishing step – removes the bran and the germ
(Japonica)
Composition and Nutritive Value
• Nonamylose – less
than 1% (waxy
rice/malagkit)
According to • Unpolished rice
processing • Polished or milled
• Enriched
• Pinipig
• Galapong
Rice Fortification o Patupat
o Puto
• Enrichment of rice with thiamin, niacin and iron
o Puto Maya
• Food Fortification Law (RA 8976)
o Kutchinta
o mixing rice with iron
o Bibingka
Parboiled Rice o Kalamay
o Rice Products
• Parboiling – process where the rough rice after
• Rice Snack Items
harvest is subjected to steaming prior to drying
o Pinipig
and milling
o Rice Crackers
• Parboiled rice when cooked is firm and fluffy
o Pop rice
with little tendency to stick together.
o Extruded rice Snacks
• Brownish in color
• Rice Derived Ingredients
Rice Cookery o Rice grits
Rice flour
1. Steaming
• Fermented Rice Products
• gentler and so results in firmer, more separate o Rice wine (tapuy)
grains o Rice Vinegar
• Rice Coffee
2. Sauté
• Canned Rice, Instant Rice and Noodle
• raw rice is coated with oil, usually olive oil by
B. Corn (Maize)
sautéing

3. Fried Rice ` • Widely grown for food and livestock fodder

• cooked rice that has been stir-fried in a wok or
a frying pan and is usually mixed with other
ingredients; not really fried but sautéed
4. Lugaw and Arroz Caldo
• porridge dishes with or without pieces of meat
or chicken or tripe, and are taken as breakfast
or snack fares.
5. Rice Cakes
• not really cakes in the style of wheat flour
cakes; some are more like puddings than cakes
◦ May be categorized into, the suman group, the
bibingka, the puto and the puddings
• One of chief grain crops
• The corn plant is a tall annual grass with a stout,
erect, solid stem.
• Staminate (male) flowers are borne on the
tassel terminating the main axis of the stem.
• The pistillate (female) inflorescences, which
mature to become the edible ears.
• Varieties of yellow and white corn are the most
popular as food
• Native to Central and South America
• Most important raw material for industrial starch
and syrups
• Corn Production: Cebu, Bohol, Siquijo
Physical Structure and Composition of Corn Kernel

6. Rice Cakes

• Suman – all uses malagkit rice

o Suman sa lihia
o Suman sa ibos
o Moron
o Budbud Tanjay
Corn Varieties Corn Products

• Dent Corn • Extruded Snacks and Breakfast Cereals – corn

o “field corn”, corn variety with kernels flour and corn meal are the major raw materials
that contain both hard and soft starch • Corn Starch, Modified Corn Starch, Dextrin and
• Flint Corn Syrups – ingredients for wide range of food
o hard, rounded, or short and flat kernels products
• Waxy corn • Fermented Corn Products – whiskey and
o grains that have waxy appearance vinegar
• Sweet corn • Corn oil - from the corn embryo which contains
o contains high percentage of sugar lipids
• Popcorn
Corn Cookery
o corn kernel which expands and puffs
up when heated • Boiling, Steaming
• Indian corn • Grilling
o white, red, purple, brown or • Tamales
multicoloured kernels. • Tortillas
• Flour corn • Popcorn and Caramel Popcorn
o has kernels shaped like those of flint • Corn Muffins
corn and composed entirely of soft • Binatog
starch • Maja Blanca
• Korniks
Corn Harvest, Drying and Milling

C. Wheat
• Manually harvested and husked
• Drying – done immediately after dehusking • Produced by repeated hybridization of Triticum
• Deshelling mainly done by hand spp with Aegilops spp
• Corn has higher moisture content • Second oldest cultivated cereal after barley
• Moisture content should be 14 to 15% for • Most widely cultivated exceeding rice
stability • Grown primarily for religious purposes

Market Forms of Corn
• Fresh corn on cob – corn is sold with husk on
• Dried whole kernels – commercially traded corn
• Corn grits – coarsely ground from whole kernel
• Corn meal – fine granules smaller than grits
• Corn flour – very fine granules
• Corn starch – recovered from wet milling of corn
• Masa Flour – raw materials for making tortilla
and other Mexican products
Bulgur – coarsely ground product derived from the
whole wheat kernel after removal of the bran, steaming
and drying
Cracked Wheat – similar to bulgur except that it is not
steamed
Wheat Germ – embryo or germ of the wheat grain is
removed during flour milling
D. Oats

Nixtamalization - Process that involves lime treatment • Made by steaming and subsequent rolling of

equivalent to our binatog oatmeal.

• Variants: Quick cooking and instant
• Rolled oats – high soluble fiber content
• Has high β-glucan content
E. Rye • May be caused by ingestion of wheat-
containing foods or inhalation of flour containing
• Grows in very cold regions
wheat
• Used in making bread and alcoholic drink
• Treatment: avoidance of wheat and wheat-
(Kvass)
containing foods
• Rye bread is darkish in color
• Rye kernel contains dietary fiber components 3. Gluten Intolerance or Gluten Enteropathy or
(soluble and insoluble) Celiac Disease
• Contains less starch than wheat
• Hereditary disorder of the immune system in
F. Barley which eating gluten leads to damage of the
mucosa of the small intestine
• Major uses today: animal feed and brewing
• Gluten — a protein found in wheat, barley, and
beer
rye — triggers its symptoms. There's currently
• Pearl barley – polished whole barley grain
no cure for celiac disease. A strict gluten-free
• Barley water – made by boiling pearl barley and
diet — also known as the celiac disease diet —
the resulting infusion is flavored with lemon and
must be followed to allow your body to heal
sweetened.
• Barley coffee – toasted and infusion is made

G. Millet

• Bears very small roundish yellowish grains.

• Budbud kabog
• Tasty, with a mildly sweet, nut-like flavor

Cereal Safety

1. Aflatoxin

• poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are

produced by certain molds which grow in soil,
decaying vegetation, hay, and grains.
• Corn is more susceptible to mold contamination
because of higher moisture content
• Rice is in danger of mold growth during rainy
season
• Rye ergotism is due to contamination with the
mold Claviceps purpurea
• Trypsin Inhibitors prevent the action of trypsin
in the stomach making amino acids unavailable

2. Wheat Allergy

• Adverse reactions involving immunoglobulin E

antibodies to one to one or more protein
fractions of wheat.
 STARCH AND STARCH PRODUCTS • Highly branched dense molecule
• A chains – outer unbranched chains
Starch
• B chains – inner branched chains
• Polysaccharide made up entirely of glucose • C chains – head chain that contain the single
present as granules or grains in reducing group
amyloplasts/leucoplasts of plants (seeds, roots, • *among the largest molecules in nature
cereals, legumes)
Properties of amylose & amylopectin
• A carbohydrate which is produced by
photosynthesis

How are starches classified?

• Second most abundant organic substance

• From Leafy green plants, roots, fruits, grains
• Staples of man: rice, corn (USA), cassava
(tropical), wheat, potato (Europe)
• Classified according to its source
• Classified as:
o Native – originally derived from its plant Starch granules
source
• Arranged radially & contain both crystalline &
o Modified – altered by treatment w/
non-crystalline regions in alternating layers
physical or chemical agents
• Cassava starch – irregular shapes w/ truncated
What are the 2 basic polymer structure of starches? round & concave granules
• Wheat starch – w/ small spherical & large
Structure of starch granules
lenticular granules
• Starch molecules are present in plant cells as • Rice – small polygonal granules
granules or grains, laid down in concentric rings • Corn – both round & larger polygonal granules
& deposited in a radial fashion • Potato – smooth ovoid granules of irregular
• Starch granules consist of water-compatible, sizes
amorphous & partially crystalline polymers • Rice – smallest among commercial granules
• These radially arranged crystallites are linked • Root crops granules > grains granules
by amorphous areas in which the starch • 100% Amylopectin – waxy starches
molecules are deposited in a less orderly
• Amylose & amylopectin associate through
fashion
hydrogen bonding, forming crystalline bundle
• Starch granules vary in size & shape
Properties of starch
Amylose – a linear starch molecule
• Native starches – insoluble solids
• Glucose units are linked through the C1 of one
• As a dispersion, starch in cold water remains a
glucose unit to C4 of the next glucose unit w/
suspension
the ring oxygen all on the same side
• When starch solution is heated to a critical
• A one long linear chain of glucose units
temperature, an irreversible reaction occurs ->
Amylopectin – branched starch molecule GELATINIZATION

• Besides the C1 to C4 linkage, there is a

branching C1 to C6 linkage
Gelatinization 3. Concentration of starch
• high concentration turns viscous more
• Series of steps that is dependent on water &
readily
heat resulting in a viscous and thickened
4. Effects of added ingredients
starchy products
• Addition of sugar at the start of cooking
• starch granules in suspension when heated
delays gelatinization but makes swollen
(moist heat cooking) absorbs water & the
granules more resistant to mechanical
granules swell accompanied by thickening,
rupture
increased in viscosity & loss of birefringence
• Acids delay gelatinization & results in softer
with increasing translucency
gel –
Gelatinization Process • Fats lower gelatinization temperature

1. Starch granules dispersed in water -> swell • Milk & eggs increase firmness of the gel

slightly 5. Method of cooking

2. As heated (CT ex. 70ºC) -> starch granules in • more viscous due to rapid & direct heating

amorphous region take up water & swells 6. Endpoint temperature

3. Swelling -> disrupts crystalline regions • wherein starch reaches optimum

4. Loose amylose molecules leach out of granules gelatinization

5. Loose granules take up even more water -> 7. Cooling & storage conditions

swells • Cooled too fast – no time to form micelles

6. Pressure of the swelling causes granules to • Cooled too slowly – liquid portion not be
collapse -> paste trapped in micelles -> weeping & syneresis
7. Cooked starch paste = swollen granules, loose 8. Dextrinization heat
molecules, collapsed fragments • less viscous

Birefringence Retrogradation

• Property of starch to rotate polarized light • A process which causes drying & hardening of
• Melting of crystalline region causes starch cooked starch; reassociation of the linear
molecules to lose birefringence amylose chains by hydrogen bonding -> upon

• Gelatinized starches = no birefringence cooling, creating structure that holds water

• Starches w/ high amylose content retrograde
Viscosity
more readily
• Resistance to flow when shear is applied • Staling of bread – amylopectin retrogradation;
• “consistency”; thickness/thinness of crumb becomes firm & fall easily; crust dries up
dispersions
Syneresis
• High viscosity gel (firm & resists flow)
• Low viscosity gel (flows) • Expulsion of moisture from gel; Occurs with stiff
gels
Factors influencing gelatinization
• As cooled gel ages, some water weeps from the
1. Agitation or stirring network (micelles)
• results in a weaker gel & the mixture • occurs when concentration of sugar is 50%;
becomes gluey changing temperature, adding salt Example:
2. Kind of starch lumpia sauce left
• root starch gelatinizes at lower temperature
than cereal starch
Thickening • Fermented in large intestine producing SCFA,
lactic acids & gases
• Ability to gelatinize without setting /
• Classified as
solidification
o RS1 – with intact cell walls (beans,
• Corn starch has twice thickening property as
legumes)
flour
o RS2 – banana, raw potato
• Thickening is less due to dextrinization of starch
o RS3 – undergone heating then
• Added ingredients:
retrograded (bahaw)
o Sugar decreases thickening; elevates
o RS4 – heavily chemically modified
gelatinization temperature (for starch to
starches
thicken)
o Acids decrease thickening Functions of starch

Dextrinization a. Thickening – sauces, gravy, pie filling & soups

b. Gelling – puddings, maja, bibingka
• Partially hydrolyzed starches prepared by dry
c. Structural – breads, cakes, framework of baked
roasting starch
products
• Dry heat cooking at 160ºC changes starch to
d. Binding & filling – meat extenders
smaller fragments called dextrins (water-
e. Stabilizing – salad & cooked salad dressings,
soluble thus decreases the ability to starch to
beverages, syrups
gelatinize & thicken)
f. Coating or dusting – breads, candies
• its gels have lower viscosity than starch gels
g. Moisture retaining – cake fillings, candies h.
(bread crumbs, toasted flour as thickeners)
Diluent – baking powder
• Have sweetish taste & nutty flavor
h. Coloring – as dextrins
• Less susceptible to lumping
Grain Starches vs. root starches
Hydrolysis
• Grain starches 22- 27% amylose
• Involves breaking up of the glycosidic bonds o Clear when hot, cloudy when cold
• Acids & enzymes (amylases) can catalyze this o Spongy & leaks watery fluid
reaction o No thinning when reheated

Modified starches • Root starches

o Crystal clear hot or cold
• Starches that have been altered physically or
o Freeze & thaw w/ no change
chemically to modify one or more of its chemical
o Thins when reheated
and/or physical property
• Adding of carboxymethyl group makes starch Proportion of water to starch affects & viscosity

less prone to damage by heat & bacteria, more

hydrophylic (water loving), aids in cross linking,
prevents from recrystallizing; can keep bread
fresh for a longer period

Resistant starches

• Defined as sum of starch & products of starch

degradation not absorbed in SI
• Cannot be digested
Problems in Starch cookery
• Lumping
• Thinning of gel – when using acid
• Weak gel – if too much liquid, sugar, fats
• Raw starch flavor (ungelatinized starch)
• Scorching – control temperature & constant
Kinds of alimentary pastes
stirring (use bain marie)
• Skin formation – loss of water from starch &
protein (use covers)
Preventing lumps
• Dissolve in cold water first to keep grains
dispersed
• Mix with sugar, cocoa powder or dry milk while
dry to aid dispersion
• Coat with fat – roux as thickener
• Keep stirring while cooking
• Maintain uniform temperature
Preventing raw starch
• Starches are cooked 5 minutes more after
reaching gelatinization point (90ºC) to be sure
that complete swelling & cooking
Market forms of starches
• Corn starch
• Rice flour (high amylose)
• Malagkit rice flour (pure amylopectin)
• Wheat flour
• Cassava flour
• Potato flour
• Arrowroot & taro flour
Alimentary pastes
• Pasta – italian for dough; unleavened dough
formed from liquid (eggs/water) mixed w/ flour
& cut/extruded into shapes & sizes
• made from semolina (granular product from
endosperm of durum wheat) Noodles – ribbons
or strands of boiled dough made w/ a starchy
ingredient & eggs/water
Noodles and pasta (alimentary pastes)
• Made from hard wheat flour; dough is shaped,
then dried in hot air
• Examples: spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli,
lasagna
a. Pancit canton
• Egg noodles made from flour & duck’s
eggs, salt & soda (kansui)
• Dough is shaped, boiled, then drained &
deep fried before packaging
b. Sotanghon
• Long, thin, round, translucent noodles
made from mungbean & cassava starch
• Also called cellophane noodles, bean
threads, NYLON or SILK NOODLES
• the starch paste is first cooked then
extruded into thin strands, then sun dried
c. Bihon
• Made from rice or corn flour, the dough is
extruded then boiled, cooled & dried
• First class bihon is made from rice
• Fresh bihon is also available but shelf life is
shorter & used for pancit palabok or luglug
d. Misua
• Made from cassava & wheat flour
• hairy noodles, usually salted; cheapest
noodle
e. Miki
• Flat yellowish noodles made from wheat
flour, lye & salt, egg, kasui
• The mixture is flattened, boiled & drained;
oil is applied on the surface
• Bigger and heavier
• Dried – shing a ling
 f. Instant Noodles • Cooked up to al dente stage
• Cooking time: 20 mins
• Made from rice or wheat flour, usually
• Macaroni: 6 cups water: 250g or 3 cups/cup of
packaged with flavorings; require 2 minutes
macaroni
to cook in boiling water
• Macaroni & spaghetti are boiled gently in water
g. Mami to which salt & oil had been added

• Thin egg noodles

• Wonton noodles; used in soups

h. Pansit molo

• Square stuffed noodles

Other Asian noodles

a. Somen

• Thin noodles served cold always

• Cha somen (w/ green tea), tomago soman Noodles and pasta cookery

(w/ egg yolks)

• Canton is just added to sautéed sauce

b. Soba (Japan) • Misua is usually dropped in boiling water &

allowed to boil one minutes
• Tan, thick flat chewy noodles
• For bihon, washed & soaked in water is poured
c. Rice sheets over it, then drained; cut the block or sheets in
quarters
• Used for dimsum; used as lumpia wrapper;
• Sotanghon is soaked in water first, then added
may also be in ribbon
to sauteed sauce
Pasta • Boiling broth is added to miki

6 basic chapes: Filipino Pancit dishes

• Tubular (macaroni)
• Strand (spaghetti)
• Ribbons (fettuccine)
• Fancy shapes (bows, wheels)
• Soup pasta (alphabet)
• Stuffed pasta (ravioli)

Proper cooking of noodles Pasta and noodle safety

Pasta: cooking is the same as in cereals • Contamination Prevention

o Cleanliness: A clean working
• Add 1 tsp. salt & 1 tsp. oil to boiling water
environment is essential in the
• When boiling vigorously, lower flame & simmer
prevention of contamination in working
with occasional stirring
 with pasta and other foods. Be sure to
wash hands thoroughly before handling
the pasta dough. The work area,
cutting boards, and utensils must be
clean. Do not use the same cutting
board for cutting pasta as was used for
raw meat or poultry unless it has been
properly washed and dried before
using. When you are finished making
the pasta, be sure to clean the work
area and all utensils thoroughly. The
eggs in the dough are a potential risk
factor for salmonella. Cleaning the area
with hot soapy water will help eliminate
traces of the bacteria.
o Handling: As with any dough that
contains raw eggs, fresh egg pasta
dough should never be tasted when it
is raw. It is also important that the eggs
used in the dough have been handled
and stored properly
for 4 or 5 days. The sauce should be
refrigerated separate from the pasta
and can be stored for 6 or 7 days. If the
pasta is stored together with the sauce,
it should be eaten within 1 or 2 days to
limit the amount of sauce that is
absorbed.
o To store, cook the pasta as you
normally would and then rinse with cold
water and allow it to drain well.
o Add a small amount of olive oil or butter
to help prevent the pasta from clumping
together while it is stored.
o To refrigerate, place the pasta in an
airtight plastic bag or an airtight
container and place in the refrigerator.
To freeze, place in an airtight plastic
freezer bag and press out as much
excess air.
o If storing sauced pasta, eat within 1 to
2 days.

Proper Storage

• Uncooked Pasta
o Dried Pasta:
▪ Dried pasta does not need to
be refrigerated. It can be
stored on the shelf in an airtight
container in a dry area that is
not exposed to extreme
temperatures.
o Fresh and Homemade Pasta:
▪ Fresh pasta can be stored in
the refrigerator for 2 or 3 days.
If the pasta will not be used
within that time, it can be
frozen and stored in the freezer
for 2 to 3 months. Homemade
pasta can be store in the
refrigerator for 1 or 2 days or
frozen for 2 to 3 months.
• Cooked Pasta
o cooked pasta can be stored unsauced
in an airtight container and refrigerated