Intro To Hor Measurement

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
INTRODUCTION LESSON
TO
SURVEYING
1
TOPICS
Topic 1: Introduction to Surveying

Topic 2: Basic Calculations in Surveying
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. define surveying;
2. explain engineering surveying;
3. discuss the history of surveying;
4. define various types of surveying;
5. evaluate conversion of units;
6. apply significant figures and the use of consistent units in
calculation;
7. differentiate errors and mistakes, and precision and accuracy; and
8. solve problems dealing with errors in measurements.
In this unit, you will be able to encounter the meaning and brief history of
surveying. The basic principles in calculation of surveying problems which will be
encountered throughout the module and the precision of solutions are also discussed in
this unit.
ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
SUB-TOPICS
1.1 Definition of Surveying

1.2 Brief History of Surveying
1.1 DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

Prior to the planning, design and the mobilization of the construction of
infrastructures and other engineering works, it is apparent to start with engineering
surveys. In the progress of the construction methods, rules and regulations since ancient
times, and when the acquisition, processing and presentation of data of engineering
surveys are paramount, surveyors nowadays are familiar with many different methods of
gathering spatial data about the Earth and its environment and to present this data into
various formats in an assortment of media. This acquisition and presentation of data gives
an idea of what contemporary survey is, futher, it gives rise to the term engineering
surveying, which is defined by Uren, 2010, as ection
Moreover, specialized techniques and the use of modern
technologies are of great help and convenience to engineering surveys.
Surveying has many definitions from its various applications and uses. However,
based on its wider and complex in extent and stated on this manual, surveying is defined
more appropraitely by La Putt, 1987 as
linear measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines,
and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SURVEYING

Surveying techniques have existed throughout much of recorded history. In ancient Egypt,
when the Nile River overflowed its banks and washed out farm boundaries, boundaries were re-
established by a rope stretcher, or surveyor, through the application of simple geometry. The
nearly perfect square and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza, built c. 2700 BC,
affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying. Following is the timeline of the development of
surveying from ancient times.
The Egyptian land register (3000 BC).
A recent reassessment of Stonehenge (c. 2500 BC) indicates that the monument was set
out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry.
The Groma surveying instrument originated in Mesopotamia (early 1st millennium BC).
Under the Romans, land surveyors were established as a profession, and they established
the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax
register of conquered lands (300 AD).
The rise of the Caliphate led to extensive surveying throughout the Arab Empire. Arabic
surveyors invented a variety of specialized instruments for surveying, including:
Instruments for accurate leveling: A wooden board with a plumb line and two
hooks, an equilateral triangle with a plumb line and two hooks, and a reed level;
A rotating alhidade: used for accurate alignment; and

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A surveying astrolabe: used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation,
finding the width of a river, and the distance between two points separated by
an impassable obstruction.
In England, The Domesday Book by William the Conqueror (1086)
covered all England;
contained names of the land owners, area, land quality, and specific information
of the area's content and inhabitants but did not include maps showing exact
locations
In the 18th century in Europe triangulation was used to build a hierarchy of networks to
allow point positioning within a country. Highest in the hierarchy were triangulation networks.
These were densified into networks of traverses (polygons), into which local mapping surveying
measurements, usually with measuring tape, corner prism and the familiar red and white poles,
are tied. For example, in the late 1780s, a team from the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain,
originally under General William Roy began the Principal Triangulation of Britain using the
specially built Ramsden theodolite. Large scale surveys are known as geodetic surveys.
Continental Europe's Cadastre was created in 1808
founded by Napoleon I (Bonaparte);
contained numbers of the parcels of land (or just land), land usage, names etc.,
and value of the land;
100 million parcels of land, triangle survey, measurable survey, map scale: 1:2500
and 1:1250;
spread fast around Europe, but faced problems especially in Mediterranean
countries, Balkan, and Eastern Europe due to cadastre upkeep costs and troubles.
A cadastre loses its value if register and maps are not constantly updated. Because of the
fundamental value of land and real estate to the local and global economy, land surveying was
one of the first professions to require Professional Licensure. In many jurisdictions, the land
surveyors license was the first Professional Licensure issued by the state, province, or federal
government.
Figure 1 shows one of the first photographs of surveying students in the early 20th century.
From then on, surveying progresses as to what it is now; its methods and applications. It continues
to progress for the convenience of gathering data on field and the accuracy of the data gathered
to be presented.
Figure 1 Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology

in the early 20th century.

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TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
Font Style Arial Narrow Font Size 11
Margins Write Full Name, Date and Section, Task Number
Attach images of the graph neatly. Handwritten is also acceptable.
A. Differentiate Plane Survey and Geodetic Survey.
B. Define the following:

1. Cadastral Survey
2. City Survey
3. Construction Survey
4. Forestry Survey
5. Industrial Survey
6. Mine Survey
7. Photogrammetric Survey
8. Route Survey
9. Topographic Survey
10. Hydrographic Survey
C. Research and outline the development of surveying instruments.

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TOPIC 2: BASIC CALCULATIONS IN SURVEYING
SUB-TOPICS
2.1 Units of Measurement

2.2 Significant Figures
2.3 Errors and Mistakes
2.4 Precision and Accuracy
2.5 Most Probable Value
2.6 Probable Error
2.7 Relative (Error) Precision
2.8 Weighted Observations
2.9 Interrelationships of errors
2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The International System of Units (SI Units) introdueced a coherent and worldwide
system of units. Units in SI of major concern to surveying are shown in Table 1. The usual
surveying type of instrument entail both angular and linear measurements.
Table 1Units in SI of major corncern to surveying.

Quantity Measured/
Base SI Unit Symbol
Physical Property
Linear Measurement meter m
Area square meter sq m or m2
Volume cubic meter cu m or m3
Plane Angle radian rad
Time second s
Mass kilogram kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Larger and smaller scale of measurements are derived from the above-listed units
in decimal steps by adding prefixes listed in the following table.
Table 2. Prefixes to measurements.

Prefixes Meaning (Decimal Step) Symbol
mega 1 000 000 M
kilo 1 000 k
hecto 100 h
deca 10 da
deci 0.1 d
centi 0.01 c
milli 0.001 m
micro 0.000 001
nano 0.000 000 001 n
There are still units which are not part of the SI but are still widely used. Examples
are liter, hectare, knot, day, hour and minutes. Degrees, minutes and seconds are
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also aceeptable for plane angles measured in SI. Conversion of units are widely used in
engineering surveys. Some unit conversions ussually used in surveying are listed in Table
3.
Table 3 Unit Conversions

From To
Quantity Unit Qauntity Unit
1 cable length 720 feet
1 chain 100 links
1 fathom 6 feet
1 foot 12 inches
1 furlong 40 rods
1 hand 4 inches
1 inch 2.54 centimeters
1 mile 1.609 kilometer
1 league 3 naut. mile
1 link 7.92 inches
1 meter 3.28 feet
1 mil 0.001 inch
1 mile 5280 feet
1 naut. mile 6080 feet
1 pole = 1 perch 1 rod
1 rod 5.5 yards
1 span 9 inches
1 vara 33 1/3 inches
1 yard 3 feet
15 miles/hour 22 ft/sec
1 knot 1 naut. mile/hour
1 rpm = 60 rps 120 rad/sec
Angular Measurements
The SI unit for plane angles is the radian. The radian is defined an an angle
subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equl to the radius of the circle. Obviously,
or . There are two (2) types of angular measruements:
1. Sexagesimal Units the sexagesimal units of angular measurement are the
degree, minute, and second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree
which is defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute
equals 60 seconds. Devisions of seconds are given in tenths, hundredths, and
thousandths.
2. Centesimal Units many countries in Europe and Middle East use the centesimal
system where the grad is the angular unit. In this sytem the circumference of a
circle (360 deg) I divided into 400 grads. The grad is divided into 100 centesimal
minutes or 0.9 degress, and the minute is subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds
or 0 deg 00 min 32.4 sec. Grads are usually expressed in decimals. For example.
194g 45c 82cc is expressed as 194.4582 grads.

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2.2 SIGNIFINCANT FIGURES
Rules:
1. Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as, for example in the
following values, each of which contain four (4) significant figures: 13.03, 1003,
and 130.3
2. For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal are not
significant. They merely show the position of the decimal such as in the following
example which contains three (3) significant fures: 0.00133, 0.000133 and 0.0133.
3. Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant such as: 133.00,
13.300, and 13.000. These values have five (5) significant figures.
2.3 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

Errors in surveying are defined as the difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity while mistakes are defined as the inaccuracies in
measurements which occur because some aspects in surveying operation is performed
by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.
Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments
used, either from faults in their constructions or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use. Surveying instruments, just like any
other instrument, are never perfect; proper corrections and field methods are
applied to bring the measurements within certain allowable limits of precision.
Moreover, with time and continuous usage, the wear and tear of the instrument
will likely be a cause for errors. Example of instrumental errors are:
a. Measuring with steel tape of incorrect length;
b. Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced;
c. Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment;
d. Sighting on a rod which is warped; and
e. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
2. Natural Errors these errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature
such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Common examples are:
a. The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape;
b. Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination;
c.
atmospheric refraction;
d. Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a
strong wind; and
e. Error in the meaasurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven
ground.
3. Personal Errors these errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. Typical of these errors are:
a. Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during
sighting;
b. Error in the meaurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target; and
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c. Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurement.
Mistakes
Most mistakes in surveying includes:
1. Reading the wrong graduation in the tape;
2. Omitting the whole length of tape;
3. Transposition of figures;
4. Reading a scale backward;
5. Misplacing a decimal points; and
6. Incorrect recording of field notes.
2.4 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made while accuracy indicates how close a given measurement
is to the absolute or true value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between
related measurements and their expectations. Consider the following figure for an
indication of good and poor precision and accuracy.
(a) Good Precision but Poor Accuracy (b) Good Accuracy but Poor Precision
(d) Good Precision and Good Accuracy (e) Poor Precision and Poor Accuracy
Figure 2.1 Indication of Precision and Accuracy
2.5 MOST PROBABLE VALUE

The most probable value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under
similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. Most probable value referes to
a quantity which, based on available data, has more chances of correct than has any other
value.
Illustrative Example 1
A surveying instructor sent out six group of students to measure a
distance between two points marked on the ground. The students came
up with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04,
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250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable
and that variations result from accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured.
Solution:
is the most probable value of the distance measured.

The angles about point Q have the following observed values: 1300
0 0
of each angle.
Solution:
a. Correction to be Applied
Because the sum of all angles observed about point Q

should be equal to , then we have a discrepancy of
Since we have three (3) observed angles about point Q,

then the correction in each angle should be
Error,
b. Most Probable Values

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The observed interior angles of a triangle are
and . Determine the
discrepancy for the given observation and the most probable value of
each angle.
Solution:
a. Correction to be applied:
Since the sum of all angles in a polygon is given by

, then in a triangle , the sum of all interior
angles is . Further, we have
Error,
b. Most Probable Value:
Measurement of three horizontal angles (see accompanying
figure) about to point P are: , , and
. If the measurement of the single angle APD is
, determine the most probable values of the angles.
Figure 3 Accompanying figure for illustrative example 4

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Solution:
a. Correction to be applied:
Error,
b. Most Probable Value:
2.6 PROBABLE ERROR (La Putt, 1987)

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to detemine the
probable error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the
arrangement, such that one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are
less than it.
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which are derived from the method of least squares.
Where:
probable error of any single measurement
probable error of the mean
summation of the squares of the residual
residual or deviation
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number of observations
The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give
an indication of the precision of a particular measurment. It is often an approximate value
and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are usually
made and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled. For example 235.50
m represents the mean or most probable value of several measurements and 0.10 m
represents the probable error of the mean value, tha chances are even that the true value
lies between 235.40 m and 235.60 m, as it is also probable that the true value lies outside
of these limiting values. Not that the lower and upper limits are determined by
correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to 235.50 meters. To express the probable
limits of precision for this particular case, the quantity should be written as
The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore no
correction can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the actual error, not does it
indicate the error most likely to occur. The probable error is not a subjective guess. It is a
logical estimate based upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of
the observers, and upon the field conditions existing during the measurement.
2.7 RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (La Putt, 1987)

The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude
of the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In surveying
measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to define the degree
of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction
having the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured
quantity in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units,
and the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with
other measurements. For example, if for particular measurement, the probable error of
the mean is 0.10 m and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as
1:2355.

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The following values determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of
the mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement
Solution:
a. Most probable value of the measured length
mpv or
b. Probable Error
Consider the following table for the tabulation of these solutions.

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Solution:
b.
MEASURED RESIDUAL SQ OF RESIDUAL

LENGTH
(x)
1000.58 m
1000.40 0.0025
1000.38 0.0049
1000.48 0.0009
1000.40 0.0025
1000.46 0.0001
(probable error of a single measurement)
(probable error of the mean)

c) Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as
1000.45 m m. This means that there is a 50 percent chance
that the true distance measured probably falls between 1000.43
m and 1000.47 m, and its most probable value is 1000.45 m. There
is also, however, a 50 percent chance that the true distance lies
outside this range.
d)
(the relative precision of a single
measurement)
(the relative precision of the mean)

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2.8 WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under similar
conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and
conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability. The problem often
encountered is how to combine these measurements and determine the most probable
value. For such a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree of reliability (or weight)
for each of the measurements before they are combined and the most probable values
are determined. Consider the following examples:
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18,
284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4,
respectively. Determine the weighted mean.
Solution:
MEASURED ASSIGNED
LENGTH WEIGHT
(x) (W)
284.18 m 1 284.18
284.19 3 852.57
284.22 2 568.44
284.20 4 1136.80
Sums
Weighted Mean (most probable

value of the distance measured)
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle
which has been measured at different times by different observers with
equal care. The values observed were as follows: (in two
measurements), (in four measurements), and (in
six measurements).
Solution:
MEASURED NO. OF PRODUCT OF
VALUE OBSERVATIONS THE TWO
QUANTITIES
2 149
4 298
6
Sums 12
Weighted Mean
(most probable value of the angle measurement)

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Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over
four different routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable
errors are given below. Determine the most probable value of the
elevation of the point.
Solution:
L OBSERVED PROBABLE RELATIVE
I ELEVATION ERROR WEIGHT
N (ELEVEN) (E) (RW)
E
1 219.832 m 0.006 m 0.000 27776 16.00 3517.312
036
2 219.930 0.012 0.000 6944 4.00 879.720
144
3 219.701 0.18 0.000 3086 1.78 391.068
324
4 220.021 0.024 0.000 1736 1.00 220.021
576
22.78 5008.121
Note: A relative weight equal to 1.00 is assigned to line 4 since it has the
smallest weight (W), and the relative weights of lines 1, 2, and 3 are
computed as follows:
Weighted Mean
(most probable value of the

elevation of the point)

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2.9 INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
In some instances it is required to determine how the final result is affected when
a computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product
of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a better understanding of the
propagation of errors.
1. Summation of Errors If several measured quantities are added, each of which is

affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square
root of the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising from the
several sources or
Where:
probable error of the sum
probable error of each measurement
2. Product of Errors For a measured quantity which is determined as the product

of other two independently measured quantities such as and (either their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the
following equation
Where:
probable error of the product
and measured quantities
probable error corresponding to each quantity measured
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land Is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors:
.
Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.
Solution:
(probable error for the sum of the three

measurements)
Note: Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as m. This

means that true length of the perimeter probably falls between 592.43 m and
592.57 m.

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The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: and
. Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in
the resulting calculation.
Solution:
Area
(area of the rectangular lot)
(probable error of the calculated area)
Note: Therefore, the area of the lot would be expressed as

. This means that the true area of the lot probably falls between
and .

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TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
A. Convert the following angular measurements:

Given Angle Centesimal Units Sexagesimal Units
13.349 0
152.6450
133.30
45.3120
B. Determine the number of significant figures:

a. 300
b. 0.003
c. 30.00
d. 0.030
e. 0.303
C. Convert the following linear measurements (show your solutions):

a. 11 furlong __________ rods
b. 3 chains __________ m
c. 2 mph __________ ft/s
d. 5 leagues __________ m
e. 80,000 mil __________ hands
D. Answer the following problems:

1. If three angles of a triangle each have a standard error of ± 2", what is the total
error in the triangle?
2. In measuring a round of angles at a station, the third angle c closing the horizon is
obtained by subtracting the two measured angles a and b from 360°. If angle a has
a standard error of ± 2" and angle b a standard error of ± 3", what is the standard
error of angle c?
3. The interior angles of a hexagon were observed and recorded as follows: A = 1220
0 0 0 0
F= 620
4. Five measurements were made to determine the length of a line and recorded as
follows: 350.33, 350.22, 350.30, 350.27, and 350.30 meters. If these
measurements were given weights of 4, 5, 1, 4, and 6, respectively, the most
probable value of the length measured is __________.
5. The base and altitude of a triangular lot were measured with certain estimated
probable errors as follows: m and m. What
is the true area of the lot?

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6. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and
the probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:
1st Set of Measurements
2nd Set of Measurements
3rd Set of Measurements
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.
ASSESSMENT
Name: __________________________________________ Score: ____________
Course/ Year/ Section: _____________________________ Date: _____________
WORKSHEET NO. 1.1
Assessment on basic calculations on surveying will be done through a long quiz.

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MEASUREMENT OF LESSON
HORIZONTAL
DISTANCE
2
TOPICS
Topic 1: Distance by Pacing, Taping and Tachymetry

Topic 2: Corrections in Taping
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. perform methods in measuring horizontal distance by pacing and
taping though laboratory exercises 1 and 2;
2. discuss and perform operations involving measurement of
horizontal distance;
3. apply corrections in taping;
4. define different corrections in taping; and
5. perform operations and evaluate problems involving corrections
Measurement of horizontal distance or the accurate determination of the

distance between two points on any surface is one of the basic operations in plane
surveying. Discussed in this unit are the methods in measuring horizontal distance along
a smooth surface or sloped ground. Pacing and taping, as the most common used method
in measuring horizontal distance, are also discussed. Corrections in taping are also
elaborated along the discussions within this unit.

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TOPIC 1: DISTANCE BY PACING, TAPING AND TACHYMETRY
SUB-TOPICS
1.1 Distance by Pacing

1.2 Distance by Taping
1.3 Distance by Tachymetry
1.4 Other Means of Measuring Horizontal Distance
1.1 DISTANCE BY PACING

Pacing consists of counting number of steps or paces in a required distance. A pace
is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Paces and Strides
In surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps; and if the steps are counted,
distances can be determined if the length of a step is known. Counting strides instead of
paces is sometimes preferred by surveyors. A stride is equivalent to two paces or a double
step. Because of its many practical applications, it is one of the most valuable things
learned in surveying.
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking measurements taken by other
methods. It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where low
precision of measurement is sufficient. Locating details and small-scale mapping are the
instances where distance by pacing are sufficiently accurate.
Refer to Laboratory Exercise 1 for the methods in pacing distances between two
points. Further, the following examples show the calculations involving distance by
pacing.

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A 45 m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for
the purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each
trial taken are shown in the accompanying tabulation.
REQUIREMENTS:
a) Determine his pace factor.
b) If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769
paces in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length
of the line?
c) Assuming that the taped length line CD is 667.0 m, determine
the relative precision of the measurement performed.
Table 1.1 Pacing Data

TRIAL LINE TAPED DIST NO. OF MEAN
PACES
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
4 BA 45.0 53 52
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
Solution:
a) Determining Pace Factor.
(length of line AB)
(number of trials taken on line AB)
paces
paces (mean number of paces to walk line AB)

paces
m/pace (pace factor of surveyor)

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b) Determining Unknown Distance.
(number of trials taken on line CD)
paces
paces (mean number of paces to walk line CD)
paces (0.865 m/pace)

m (paced length of line CD)
c) Determining Relative Precision.

m (taped distance)
m (paced distance)
say (relative precision of the measurement)

In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground,
a pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides
respectively. He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four
trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 86, and 87 strides.
Determine the following:
a) Pace factor of the pacer.
b) Length of line XY.
c) Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of
XY is 150.5 meters.
Solution:
a) Determining Pace Factor.
(length of course)
(number of trial taken)
strides or 518 paces
paces (mean number of paces to walk the

courses)
paces
m/pace (pace factor of pacer)

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b) Determining Unknown Distance.

(number of trials taken on XY)
strides or 705 paces
paces (mean number of paces to walk line XY)

paces m/pace
m (paced length of line XY)
c) Determining Percentage of Error.

m (taped distance)
m (paced distance
% of Error
1.2 DISTANCE BY TAPING

The use of graduated tape is probably the most common method of measuring or
laying out horizontal distances. Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between
two points and reading the distance indicated on the tape. It is a form of a direct
measurement which is widely used in the construction of buildings, dams, bridges, canals,
and many other engineering as well as non-engineering activities.
The technique used in measurement and the precautions taken will define the
degree of refinement with which tape measurements can be made. Taping may vary from
1:25000 or better. Among the equipment used in taping distances between two points
are the following:
1. Steel Tape
0.5 to 1.0 cm in width, and weighs
0.8 to 1.5 kg per meters. Lengths of 10, 20, 30, 50 and 100 meters are
available. The 30-m tape is most common. Usually steel tapes are wound on
a reel, or done up in loops about 2 meters long. Steel tapes are designed for
most conventional measurements in surveying and engineering works.
Figure 2. Steel Tape
2. Metallic Tape Metallic tapes are sometimes called woven tapes. They are
made of water-proof linen fabric into which are woven longitudinally small
brass, copper, or bronze wires to increase its strength and reduce stretching.
Metallic tapes are usually 30 or 50 meters long, 10 to 15 mm wide, and come
in an enclosed reels. It is used principally for measuring short distances in
locating details for maps, earthwork cross sectioning, and for other
measurements where a light and flexible tape is desirable. This type of tape is
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unsuitable for precise measurements and should not be used around
electrical installations.
3. Non-metallic Tape is a type of tape woven from selected synthetic materials

with strong dimensional stability. The tape is in turn coated with a plastic
material to reduce the effects of moisture, humidity, and abrasion. Non-
metallic tapes are safe to use for any type of work where a metallic tape would
be unsuitable.
4. Invar Tape A special tape made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and steel (65%)
with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (1/30 to 1/60 than that of a
steel tape). Its name was derived from the word
affected by temperature changes than in steel tape. Invar tapes are used only
for precise measurements in geodetic work and for checking the length of
other kinds of tape. They are about ten times as expensive as ordinary steel
tapes. The use of invar tapes will require very careful handling since the alloy
is soft and somewhat unstable. It is a kind of tape which gets easily bent and
damaged.
5. Lovar tape A newer type of measuring tape which has properties and costs
somewhere between those of conventional steel tapes and the invar tape.
6. Fiberglass Tape This tape is made by weaving fiberglass in a longitudinal and

transverse pattern. They are strong and flexible and will not shrink or stretch
appreciably with changes in temperature and humidity. A fiberglass tape is
best suited for use in the vicinity of electrical equipment.
7. Wires Before thin, flat tapes were produced, wires were utilized in
measuring lengths. They are still practical to use in special cases as in
hydrographic surveys.
8. Are tapes having smaller cross-sections and lighter in weight
dimensions in building construction.
9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape A rust-proof tape designed for use in the vicinity of

salt-water.
10. Nylon-coated Steel Tape Is a flexible crack-resistant steel core tape with a
coating of permanently bonded non-conducting nylon. It is designed to be
resistant to corrosion and is immune to rust.
Taping Accessories
The following list and figure are the different accessories used in measuring
distances by taping:
1. Range Pole
2. Tape Clamping Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
8. Leather Thongs
9. Hand level and Clinometer
10. Tape Repair Kit
11. Crayons
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Figure 3 Taping Accessories

Refer to Laboratory Exercise 2 and 3 for the methods in taping between two points
along a smooth and level ground and for determining rectilinear area by tape,
respectively.
1.3 DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY

Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is another procedure of obtaining horizontal
distances. It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed and is an
indirect method of measurement. A transit or a theodolite is used to determine
subtended intervals and angles on a graduated rod or scale from which distances are
computed by trigonometry. Tachymetric measurements are performed either by stadia
method or the subtense bar method.
1. Stadia Method This method provides a rapid means of determining horizontal
distances. It was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at that
time referred to as a micro meter for measuring distances. The precision of the
stadia method depends upon the following factors: the refinement with which the
instrument was manufactured, the skill of the observer, the length of
measurement, and the effects of refraction and parallax. Horizontal distances
determined by this method will yield a relative precision of only between 1/300
to 1/1000. This, apparently, does not conform to the usual precision required in
running lines for most engineering surveys. Because of its low precision, it is
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mostly used in topographic or reconnaissance surveys. It is also employed for
checking measurements obtained by more precise methods.
The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope with two
horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and the graduated rod called stadia rod. The
telescope of most surveying instrument are equipped with stadia hairs which are
placed an equal distance on either side of the horizontal cross hair. The spacing of
the stadia hairs is so designed that at a distance of 100 meters their intercept on
a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. It is important that the line of sight is
horizontal and it intersects the rod at right angles.
The process of taking a stadia measurement consists in observing through
the telescope the apparent locations of the two stadia hairs on a vertical held rod.
From the observed interval read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to
the rod is found by proportional relationships in similar triangles. The equation
is employed in computing horizontal distances from stadia intervals when sights

are horizontal. From the equation above,
stadia constant; the distance from the center of the instrument to the
principal focus
stadia interval factor of the instrument; Most instrument,
stadia interval; determined in the filed by observing the difference between
the upper stadia hair reading and lower stadia hair reading.
2. Subtense Bar Method the subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used
for quick and accurate measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, shown in
Figure 3.4, which is precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube
through which runs a thin invar rod. At each end of the frame, the target marks
are housed. It is mounted horizontally on a tripod and placed perpendicular to the
line of sight by means of sighting device on top of the bar.
Figure 4 Principle of Subtense Bar
The procedure for determining the distance between two points consists
of setting up the subtense bar at the distant station, and measuring the horizontal
angle subtended by the distance between the two targets. A theodolite, set up at
the other end of the line to be measured, is used in measuring the subtending
angle.
Figure 3.4 shows a plan view of a typical subtense measurement. Since
the bar is set up perpendicular to the line of sight, the is horizontal distance
determined from the relationship
and since

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Where:
is the horizontal distance; and
is the angle subtended by the targets
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument
set up at A. the upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as
1.300 m and 0.900 m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100,
and the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the length of line AB
m (length of line AB

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The following subtended angles were read in a 2-m long subtense
bar using a theodolite: , , , and .
Compute the horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position of
the bar.
Solution:
m
A subtense bar 2.000 meters long is set up near the middle of a
traverse line PQ. Using a theodolite set up at P1 the angle subtended reads
. When the theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the
corresponding subtended angle was observed as . Determine
the horizontal length of line PQ.
Figure 5 Attachment to illustrative example 5.

Solution:
m (horizontal length of line PS)
m (horizontal length of line QS)
m (horizontal length of line PQ)
1.3 OTHER MEANS OF MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

1. Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Method
By graphical or mathematical methods, unknown distances may be
determined through their relationship with known distances geometrically. These
methods are widely employed in plane table surveys, and in triangulation work.
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Determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs could also
provide sufficiently accurate results. However, before any distances are
determined, the scale must first be established. Most maps and photo scales are
defined by the relationship with which the distance between any two points on
the map or photograph bears to the corresponding distance on the ground.
2. Distance by Mechanical Devices

There are a few mechanical devices which could also be employed for the
measurement of distances. These devices, however, are only applicable for
low precision surveys or where quick measurements are desired. The more
commonly used among these devices include:
a. Odometer
b. Measuring Wheel
c. Optical Rangefinder
3. Distance by Photogrammetry
The term photogrammetry refers to the measurement of images on a
photograph. The type of photographs used are those taken from n aircraft
with the axis of the camera pointed vertically towards the terrain
photographed. When very precise cameras and photogrammetric
equipment are used, distances can be measured on photographs with a
precision of about 1/3000 to 1/5000.

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TASK
Format:
A-4 Size Bond Paper
A. Define the following in relation to measurement of horizontal distance by taping:

1. Range Pole
2. Tape Clamping Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
8. Leather Thongs
9. Hand level and Clinometer
10. Tape Repair Kit
11. Crayons
B. Answer the following problems:

1. A point sighted from a transit and found to have a stadia intercept of 0.60 m. The
distance of the stadia rod from the transit is 61.2 m. If f + c is 0.3 meters, determine
the stadia constant.
2. A subtense bar is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ. Using a theodolite
set up at P, the angle subtended reads 00
transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding subtended angle was observed as
00
3. In five trials of walking along a 180 m course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a
survey party counted 68, 70, 68, 69, and 70 strides, respectively. He then started
walking an unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as follows: 51,
52.5, 51.5, and 52.5 strides. Determine the following:
a. Pace factor of the pacer
b. Length of line XY
c. Relative precision and percentage error if the taped length of XY is 70
meters.
ASSESSMENT
Name: __________________________________________ Score: ____________
Course/ Year/ Section: _____________________________ Date: _____________
WORKSHEET NO. 3.1
Assessment on distance by pacing, taping and tachymetry will be done through a long
quiz.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 1: PACING
LABORATORY EXERCISE OUTLINE

A. INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES
2 Range Poles
1 Steel Tape
2 Markers (paint, chalk, or crayons)
B. PROCEDURE (La Putt, 1987)

1. Determining Pace Factor
a. Select a straight and level course. On both ends, establish markers at least 90
meters apart. Designate each point as A and B, respectively.
b. Walk over the established course at a natural pace starting with either heel or
toe over point A and count the number of paces to reach point B.
c. For succeeding trials, walk from B to A, then A to B, until 5 trials are completed,
and the number of paces is recorded accordingly.
d. Refer to the following format for the recording of the observed field data.
TAPED MEAN PACE

NUMBER
TRIAL LINE DISTANCE NUMBER FACTOR
OF PACES
(m) OF PACES (m/pace)
1 AB
2 BA
3 AB
4 BA
5 AB
2. Measuring Distance by Pacing

a. Establish different end points of another level course whose length is to be
determined by pacing. Designated end points as C and D.
b. Walk over the course from C to D at a natural pace and record the number of
paces. Then, walk from D to C and again record the number of paces.
c. Repeat the above procedure until all five trials are completed.
d. After the field data is recorded, make an actual taping of the course CD to
determine the taped distance.
e. Refer to the following format for the recording of the observed field data.
NUMBER PACED TAPED RALATIVE

TRIAL LINE MEAN
OF PACES DISTANCE DISTANCE PRECISION
1 CD
2 DC
3 CD
4 DC
5 CD
C. COMPUTATIONS
1. Computing Pace Factor (PF)

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a. Get the sum of the number of paces in five trials performed on course AB and
compute the mean number of paces.
b. Divide the known number or taped length of course AB by the mean number
of paces for AB to determine the Pace Factor.
2. Computing Paced Distance (PD)
a. Get the sum of the number of paces in five trials performed on course CD and
compute the mean number of paces.
b. Multiply the mean number of paces on course CD by the pace factor to obtain
paced distance.
3. Computing Relative Precision (RP)
a. Determine the difference between the taped distance of CD and the paced
distance of CD.
b. Divide the difference by the taped distance of CD and reduce the
numerator to unity to determine the relative precision.
D. REMARKS, HINTS AND PRECAUTIONS (La Putt, 1987)

1. The ends of the assigned course should be marked with the selected marker.
2. Range poles are set or held behind end points to serve as guides or markers during
actual pacing.
3. A steel tape should be used in laying-out or in measuring the actual lengths of
courses assigned for pacing.
4. When taping, two measurements should be made for any line and the mean
recorded as its actual length.
5. The length of a single step is called as pace. It may be measured from heel to heel
or from toe to toe. Also, each two paces or a double step is called a stride.
Figure 1. Paces and Strides
6. Pacing consists of counting the number of steps in a required distance and is best
done by walking with natural steps.
7. A partial pace at the end of the line should be figured out to the nearest one-
fourth pace.
PROBLEM EXERCISES
1. Every morning Joan walks to school and takes only a single route. For five
consecutive days, she tries to count the number of paces she makes. Monday
353 paces; Wednesday, 358 paces; Thursday, 348 paces; and on Friday, 355 paces.
lay out a new drainage piping system, measure the exact route she took and found

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2. Joan tries to measure the perimeter of a small park of his community by pacing
around the area for three consecutive times. The no. of paces was tallied at 535,
543, and 539 respectively, for each trial. If pace factor is 0.74 m/pace,
determine the actual perimeter of the land.
RUBRICS
CRITERIA POINTS
Decorum 10
Illustration or Drawing 10
Data and Computations 40
Analysis of Data 15
Conclusions and Recommendations 15
Problem Exercises 10
TOTAL 100

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TOPIC 2: CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
SUB-TOPICS
2.1 Correction Due to Incorrect Tape Length

2.2 Correction Due to Slope
2.3 Correction Due to Temperature
2.4 Correction Due to Tension
2.5 Sag Correction
2.6 Correction Due to Wind
The required degree of precision in taping will define the procedure of

measurement, equipment and accessories to be used, and the corrections to be
considered. The following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may
require the application of corrections.
1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their
manufacturer, or damaged caused by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the t
inclined or rough terrain surfaces, or when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line during measurement or in
laying out of lengths.
4. Tape is not in nominal length due to the differences in temperature prevailing
during the actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape was
standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due application of a pull on its ends which
differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardization.
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than the
specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind.
2.1 CORRECTIONS DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

Taping operations could either be of the following: taping to determine an
unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length.
Regardless of which of these two categories is involved, there are some corrections which
are applied to the original measurements to determine the correct and more accurate
length.
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:
the observed length by adding.
the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length
to be laid out.
Rule 3: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.
Consider the following table for the summary of corrections to taping. Further,
consider the succeeding examples.

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Table 1 Corrections to taping.
Tape Too Long Tape Too Short
Measuring with tape add subtract
Laying out with tape subtract add
The absolute value for the corrections per tape length ( ) is determined from the
difference between the true or actual length of the tape or actual distance of the line (TD)
and the nominal length of tape or the measured distance (MD):
This discrepancy is normally assumed to be distributed uniformly throughout the

tape and is directly proportional to the fractional segment of the tape used such that,
Where,
error per tape length
number of tape lengths
length of tape
total error
Consider following examples:

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The length of a line AB measured with a 50 m tape is 465.285

m. When the tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is found
to be 0.016 m too long in almost the same conditions of support, tension,
and temperature, and temperature that exist during measurement of the
line. Determine the correct length of AB.
Given:
m (normal or indicated length of tape used)
m (measured length line AB)
m (correction per tape length, with tape being
too long)
Solution:
(total correction to be applied to

measured length of line AB)
(correct length of line AB)

Note: In measuring, when the tape used is too long, the correction is
added to the measured length to determine the correct length of the line.
A building 38 m 45 m is to be laid out with a 50 m long metallic
tape. If during standardization the tape is found to be only 49,950 m,
determine the following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the
building shall have the desired dimensions.
b) Using the same tape what should the diagnosis read?
Given:
(nominal length of tape used)
(width of building to be laid out)
(length of building to be laid out)

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Solution:
a) Determining Desired Dimensions.
(correction per tape length,
with tape being too short)
(total correction to be
applied to the width)
(total correction to be
applied to the length)
(correct width to be laid out)
(correct length to be laid out)
b) Determining Length of Diagonal.
(correct length to read on the tape when

checking the diagonals)
Note: In laying out dimensions, when the tape used is too short, the
correction is added to the length of width to be laid out to obtain the
desired dimensions.
2.2 CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE (NEGATIVE ERROR)

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance
may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope corrections.
Figure 1 Slope correction.

Where:
measured slope distance between points A and B
difference in elevation between A and B
equivalent horizontal distance AC
slope correction or the difference between the slope length and the horizontal
distance, .

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The following summarizes the different slope correction formulas used when
reducing slope measurements to equivalent horizontal distances.
1. Gentle Slope (Less the 20%)
2. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)
3. Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B,
and 10.85 for points B and C. using the approximate slope correction
formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.
Figure 2 Accompanying figure for illustrative example 3.
Given:
m (slope length of AB)
m (difference in elevation between A and B)
m (slope length of BC)
m (difference in elevation between B and C)

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Solution:
m (horizontal length of line AB)
m (horizontal length of line BC)
m (horizontal length of line ABC)

A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction
on line. Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured as 2,400.850
m and 1,320.420 m, respectively. Point C was set at a perpendicular
distance of 155 m from point D on line AB. Using the approximate slope
correction formula for steep slope, determine the length of AB.
Given:
m (slope length of AC)
m (slope length of CB)
m (offset distance form line AB)

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Solution:
m (length of the line AD)
m (length of line DB)
m (length of line AB)
2.3 CORRECTIONS DUE TO TEMPERATURE

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as temperature falls.
Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical when
undertaking precise measurements. It can also be significant even for measurements of
lower precision as in most engineering-type surveys. In ordinary taping of short distances,
it is not usually considered since the amount involved is usually small and negligible.
Tapes used in surveying measurements are standardized at a specific
temperature. Since measurements are taken at temperatures which may vary
significantly from temperature at which the tape was standardized, tapes may either too
long or too short.
The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change in temperature (
is given by the formula:
Where:
temperature during measurement
temperature when tape is of length
coefficient of thermal expansion of tape
for steel

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A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of
0.0000116/1 is known to be 50 m long at 20 . The tape was used to
measure a line which was found to be 523.28 meters long when the
temperature was 35 . Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line
c) Correct length of the line.
Solution:
a)
m (Correction per tape length due to
temperature. The positive sign indicates
that tape is too long)
b)
m (Correction for the measured line due to
temperature
Solution Check (Using ratio and proportion):
m (Checks)
c)
m (Correct length measured line. The
correction is added since the tape is too
long)
(Note: When MEASURING, the correction is ADDED when tape is TOO
LONG and SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO SHORT.)
A steel tape, known to be of standard length at , is used in
laying out runway 2,500.00 m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is
0.0000116/1 , determine the temperature correction and the correct
length to be laid out when the temperature is 42 .
Solution:
m (Correction for the length to be laid

out due to temperature. The positive sign indicates that
tape is too long)
m (Correct length to be laid out. The

correction is subtracted since the tape is too long)

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2.4 DUE TO TENSION
During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is elongated
or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it. If the pull is
greater than that for which it was calibrated, the tape elongates and becomes too long.
Correspondingly, it will stretch less than its standard length when an insufficient pull is
applied thus, making it too short. An error in measurement results whenever tension is
used in calibration.
To account for variations in applied tension, a correction has to be added to or
subtracted from the measured length. This correction for pull is a function of the
difference between the applied pull and the standard pull, the measured length, the
cross-sectional area of the tape, and the modulus of elasticity of the tape material.
The correction in taping due to tension can be found as follows:
Where:
Pull during measurement
Pull when length is of tape
Cross-sectional area of the tape
modulus of elasticity of the tape
GPa for steel
A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 has
been standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If ,
determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.
A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a
pull of 5 kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a
line 938.55 m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg.
Assuming and the unit weight of steel to be
, determine the following:
a) cross-sectional area of the tape
b) correction for increase in tension
c) correct length of the line measured
Solution:
a)

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b)
m (Correction per tape length. The
positive sign indicates that tape is
too long)
m (Total correction for measured line)

c)
m (Correct length at line. The
correction is added since tape is too
long)
2.5 CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the
pull for which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.
The tape takes the form of a catenary when it sags between points of support just as an
electric or telephone wire which hangs and swings loosely between two posts.
The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by
the tape and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed to
be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula:
Where:
weight of tape per linear m or ft, usually, in units of kg/m
unsupported length of tape
pull during measurement
Shown in Figure 2.4 is the effect of sag on different taping operations.

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Figure 4 Effect of sag on taping operations.
A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull
of 8 kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the
correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Given:
(nominal length of tape)
(pull applied on ends of tape)
(total weight of tape)

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Illustrative Example

Solution:
m (Correction due to sag between the end supports)
m (correct distance between the ends of the

tape)
Note: The effect of sad always causes shortening of tape. Hence, the
correct length between the tape ends is determined by subtracting the sag
correction from the indicated or normal length.
A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end
points and at the 8-m and 25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied,
determine the following:
a) Correction due to sag between 0-m a 50-m marks.
b) Correction due to sag for one tape length.
c) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.

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Given:
m (total length of tape)
m (length of 1st span)
m (length of 2nd span)
m (length of 3rd span)
kg (pull applied on ends of tape)
kg/m (unit weight of tape)
Solution:
a) Determining Correction Due to Sag for each Span.
m (correction due to sag between the

0m and 8m marks.)

8m and 25 m marks)

25m and 50m marks)
b) Determining Total Sag Correction for one Tape Length.
c) Determining Correct Distance Between Tape Ends

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2.6 CORRECTION DUE TO WIND

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the
middle and unsupported portion of the tape to one side of the line measured. This
introduces an error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of the sag but is
usually much less. To avoid this type of error, it is preferable not to undertake any taping
work during windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the measurement has to be done on
windy days, efforts should be taken to support the tape from being affected by the
blowing wind.
2.7 COMBINED CORRECTIONS

The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension,
slope, and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length. Each
correction is computed separately and it is important to identify which correction tends
to make the tape too long or too short.
Since the sign of each correction can be determined during computation, it is then
a matter of adding these quantities algebraically to arrive at a single and overall correction
to lengths which are measured or laid out. Combined corrections are usually determined
on the basis of nominal tape length since each correction is relatively small and do not
appreciably affect each other. The resulting net correction per tape length may be used
as long as conditions remain constant during taping. Variation in conditions may be due
to changes in temperature during the day, non-uniformity of pull exerted on the ends of
the tape, the ground may be such that it becomes necessary to support the tape at various
intervals, and some other factors which may affect the taping operation.
A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m
steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a
mean temperature of . Determine the correct length of the line if the
tape used is of standard length at 20 under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-
sectional area of the tape is 0.03 sq cm, its coefficient of linear expansion
is 0.0000116/1 , and the moculus of elasticity of steel is
.
Given:
m
Lo m
kg E

Instructor I
49
Illustrative E
Solution:
a)
m (correction for the measured length
due to temperature. The positive
sign indicates that tape is too long)
b)
m (correction for the measured line
due to tension. The negative sign
indicates that tape is too short)
A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has a
cross-sectional area of 0.04 sq cm, and lining made of steel. Its module of
elasticity is . This tape was used in the field to measure
a distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time the
measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8 kg with the tape
supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length at the line.
Given:
m
Solution:
a)
m (correction for the measured line due to
tension. The positive sign indicates that
tape is too long)
b)
m (correction due to sag per 50-m span. The
effect of sag always make the tape too
short)
m (correction due to sag for the 8.65m span)

Note: Since there are nine 50-m spans and one 8.65m span in measuring
a total distance of 458.650m.

Instructor I
50

Intro To Hor Measurement

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Topic 1: Introduction to Surveying

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1.1 Definition of Surveying

1.1 DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SURVEYING

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

Figure 1 Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

A. Differentiate Plane Survey and Geodetic Survey.

B. Define the following:

C. Research and outline the development of surveying instruments.

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

TOPIC 2: BASIC CALCULATIONS IN SURVEYING

2.1 Units of Measurement

2.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Table 1Units in SI of major corncern to surveying.

Table 2. Prefixes to measurements.

Table 3 Unit Conversions

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

2.3 ERRORS AND MISTAKES

2.5 MOST PROBABLE VALUE

is the most probable value of the distance measured.

Because the sum of all angles observed about point Q

Since we have three (3) observed angles about point Q,

b. Most Probable Values

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

Since the sum of all angles in a polygon is given by

b. Most Probable Value:

Figure 3 Accompanying figure for illustrative example 4

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

b. Most Probable Value:

2.6 PROBABLE ERROR (La Putt, 1987)

2.7 RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (La Putt, 1987)

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

Consider the following table for the tabulation of these solutions.

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

MEASURED RESIDUAL SQ OF RESIDUAL

(probable error of a single measurement)

(probable error of the mean)

(the relative precision of the mean)

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

Weighted Mean (most probable

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

(most probable value of the

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

1. Summation of Errors If several measured quantities are added, each of which is

2. Product of Errors For a measured quantity which is determined as the product

(probable error for the sum of the three

Note: Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as m. This

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

(probable error of the calculated area)

Note: Therefore, the area of the lot would be expressed as

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

A. Convert the following angular measurements:

B. Determine the number of significant figures:

C. Convert the following linear measurements (show your solutions):

D. Answer the following problems:

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA

ENGR. REYMAR S. LEDESMA