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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
 Contents
at a Glan e

c
Preface / xii
How to Use This Textbook / xviii

Sec o 1 griscience in the Information ge / 3

A
A
ti
n
UNIT 1 he cience of iving hings / 4
T
S
L
T
U 2 Better iving through griscience / 19
nit
L
A
UNIT 3 Biotechnology / 48

Sec o 2 You and the ew Millennium / 63

N
ti
n
UNIT 4 Career ptions in griscience / 64
O
­A
UNIT 5 upervised gricultural xperience / 81
S
A
E
UNIT 6 eadership Development in griscience / 107
L
A
Sec o 3 atural Resources Management / 131
N
ti
n
UNIT 7 Maintaining ir Quality / 132
A
U 8 Water and oil Conservation / 151
nit
S
­
U 9 oils and Hydroponics Management / 172
nit
S
U 10 Forest Management / 207
nit
U 11 Wildlife Management / 234
nit
U 12 quaculture / 254
nit
A
Sec o 4 Integrated Pest Management / 271
ti
n
U 13 Biological, Cultural, and Chemical Control
nit

of Pests / 272
U 14 afe Use of Pesticides / 292
nit
S
iii
iv
Contents at a Glan e

c

Sec o 5 he Quest for More and Better Plants! / 317

T
ti
n
U 15 Plant tructures and axonomy / 318

nit
S
T
U 16 Plant Physiology / 338

nit
U 17 Plant Reproduction / 356
nit
Sec o 6 Crop cience / 383
S
ti
n
U 18 Home Gardening / 384
nit
U 19 Vegetable Production / 403
nit
U 20 Fruit and ut Production / 426
nit
N
U 21 Grain, il, and pecialty Field-Crop
nit

O
S
Production / 443
U 22 Forage and Pasture Management / 470
nit
Sec o 7 rnamental Use of Plants / 491
O
ti
n
UNIT 23 Indoor Plants / 492
U 24 urfgrass Use and Management / 514
nit
T
U 25 rees and hrubs / 539
nit
T
S
Sec o 8 nimal ciences / 559
A
S
ti
n
U 26 nimal natomy, Physiology, and utrition / 560
nit
A
A
­
N
UNIT 27 nimal Health / 579
A
UNIT 28 Genetics, Breeding, and Reproduction / 597
UNIT 29 mall nimal Care and Management / 615
S
A
UNIT 30 Dairy and ivestock Management / 636
L
­
UNIT 31 Horse Management / 663

Sec o 9 Wave of the Future / 685

ti
n
UNIT 32 he Food Industry / 686
T
U 33 Food cience / 708
nit
S
 v
Contents at a Glan e

c
Sec o 10 Putting It ll ogether / 737

A
­T
ti
n
U 34 Marketing in griscience / 738

nit
A
UNIT 35 gribusiness Planning / 761

A
UNIT 36 ntrepreneurship in griscience / 781

E
A
Appendix A: Reference Tables / 797
Appendix B: Supervised Agricultural xperience / 801

E
Appendix : Developing a Personal Budget / 813
C
­
Appendix D: Plan Supervised Agricultural xperience / 815

E
References / 823
Glossary / Glosario / 825
Index / 861
 Contents

Preface / xii
How to Use This Textbook / xviii

Sec o 1 griscience in the Information ge / 3

A
A
ti
n
UNIT 1 he cience of iving hings / 4
T
S
L
T
griscience Defined / 6 griscience and ther ciences / 13
A
A
O
S
griscience round U / 11 Place for You in griscience / 16
A
A
S
A
A
U 2 Better iving through griscience / 19
nit
L
A
Variety in iving Conditions / 21 Changing Population Patterns / 33
L
ur hared iving nvironment / 31 Impact of griscience / 35
O
S
L
E
A
griscience in ur Growing World / 32 griscience and the Future / 44
A
O
A
UNIT 3 Biotechnology / 48
Historic pplications of Biotechnology / 49 olving Problems with Microbes / 54
A
S
Improving Plant and nimal Waste Management / 55
A
Performance / 49 afety in Biotechnology / 57
S
Improving Plants and nimals / 54 thics in Biotechnology / 58
A
E
Sec o 2 You and the ew Millennium / 63
N
ti
n
UNIT 4 Career ptions in griscience / 64
O
­A
Definition / 65 he Wheel of Fortune / 66
T
Plenty of pportunities / 65 Preparing for an griscience Career / 73
O
A
UNIT 5 upervised gricultural xperience / 81
S
A
E
upervised gricultural xperience ( ) / 82 griscience kills Plan and Profile / 91
S
A
E
SAE
A
S
Purpose of s / 82 xploring pportunities for the / 91
SAE
E
O
SAE
and the otal griscience Program / 84 electing and Implementing Your / 91
SAE
T
A
S
SAE
ypes of Programs / 87
T
SAE
UNIT 6 eadership Development in griscience / 107
L
A
eadership Defined / 108 Public peaking / 118
L
S
Why eadership in griscience? / 108 Parliamentary Procedure / 122
L
A
raits of Good eaders / 110
T
L
eadership Development
L
pportunities / 110
O
vi
 vii
C

ONTENTS
Sec o 3 atural Resources Management / 131

N
ti
n
UNIT 7 Maintaining ir Quality / 132

A
ir Quality / 133

A
U 8 Water and oil Conservation / 151

nit
S
­
he ature of Water and oil / 153 and rosion and oil
T
N
S
L
E
S
Conserving Water and Improving Conservation / 163
Water Quality / 160

U 9 oils and Hydroponics Management / 172

nit
S
Plant-Growing Media / 173 Making mendments to

A
rigin and Composition of oils / 176 Plant-Growing Media / 188
O
S
oil Classification / 180 oil Chemistry / 191
S
S
Physical, Chemical, and Biological Hydroponics / 197
Characteristics / 183

U 10 Forest Management / 207

nit
Forest Regions of orth merica / 209 ree Growth and Physiology / 221
N
A
T
Relationships between Forests and other Properties of Wood / 223
ational Resources / 213 Woodlot Management / 225
N
ome Important ypes and pecies of easoning umber / 230
S
T
S
S
L
rees in the United tates / 214
T
S
U 11 Wildlife Management / 234
nit
Characteristics of Wildlife / 235 pproved Practices in Wildlife
A
Wildlife Relationships / 236 Management / 242
Relationships Between Humans akes and Ponds Wildlife / 248
L
and Wildlife / 238 he Future of Wildlife in the
T
Classifications of Wildlife United tates / 250
S
Management / 239

U 12 quaculture / 254
nit
A
he quatic nvironment / 255
T
A
E
Sec o 4 Integrated Pest Management / 271
ti
n
U 13 Biological, Cultural, and Chemical Control
nit
of Pests / 272
ypes of Pests / 273 Pest-Control trategies / 285
T
S
Integrated Pest Management / 282

U 14 afe Use of Pesticides / 292

nit
S
History of Pesticide Use / 293 Risk ssessment and Management / 306
A
Herbicides / 294 Pesticide torage / 308
S
Insecticides / 297 Health and nvironmental
E
Fungicides / 298 Concerns / 309
Pesticide abels / 300
L
viii
CONTENTS

Section 5 The Quest for More and Better Plants! / 317

Unit 15 Plant Structures and Taxonomy / 318

The Plant / 319 Leaves / 327
Roots / 320 Flowers / 332
Stems / 324 Plant Taxonomy / 334

Unit 16 Plant Physiology / 338

Photosynthesis / 339 Air / 344
Respiration / 341 Water / 344
Transpiration / 341 Plant Nutrition / 345
Soil / 343 Food Storage / 350

Unit 17 Plant Reproduction / 356

Sexual Propagation / 357 Layering / 367
Asexual Propagation / 361 Tissue Culture / 371

Section 6 Crop Science / 383

Unit 18 Home Gardening / 384

Analyzing a Family’s Gardening Needs / 385
The Garden Plan / 386
Locating the Garden / 386
Preparing the Soil / 386
Common Garden Crops and Varieties / 389
Cultural Practices for Gardens / 393
Harvest and Storage of Garden
Produce / 395
Cold Frames, Hotbeds, and Greenhouses
for Home Production / 397

Unit 19 Vegetable Production / 403

Vegetable Production: Home-Based
Business or Career / 405
Identifying Vegetable Crops / 405
Planning a Vegetable-Production
Enterprise / 406
Preparing a Site for Planting / 413
Planting Vegetable Crops / 415
Cultural Practices / 417
Harvesting, Marketing, and Storing
Vegetables / 420

Unit 20 Fruit and Nut Production / 426

Career Opportunities in Fruit
and Nut Production / 427
Identification of Fruits and Nuts / 427
Types of Nuts / 430
Planning Fruit and Nut
Enterprises / 430
Soil and Site Preparation / 433
Planting Orchards or Small-Fruit
and Nut Gardens / 434
Cultural Practices in Fruit and Nut
Production / 435
Harvest and Storage / 438

Unit 21 Grain, Oil, and Specialty Field-Crop

Production / 443
Major Field Crops in the
United States / 444

Unit 22 Forage and Pasture Management / 470

Forage and Pasture Crops / 471
 ix
CONTENTS

Section 7 Ornamental Use of Plants / 491

UNIT 23 Indoor Plants / 492

Plants that Grow Indoors / 493 Growing Indoor Plants / 502
Selecting Plants for Indoor Use / 499 Interior Landscaping or Plantscaping / 507
Uses of Indoor Plants / 501 Careers in Indoor Plantscaping / 511

Unit 24 Turfgrass Use and Management / 514

The Turfgrass Industry / 515 Turfgrass Varieties / 520
Turfgrass Growth and Development / 515 Turfgrass Cultural Practices / 526
The Turfgrass Plant / 515 Turfgrass Establishment / 530

Unit 25 Trees and Shrubs / 539

Trees and Shrubs for Landscapes / 540 Planting Trees and Shrubs / 549
Forest Resources / 541 Mulching / 550
Plant Selection / 541 Staking and Guying / 551
Use / 541 Fertilizing / 551
Plant Names / 546 Pruning / 553
Obtaining Trees and Shrubs / 547 Insects and Diseases / 554

Section 8 Animal Sciences / 559

Unit 26 Animal Anatomy, ­Physiology, and Nutrition / 560

Nutrition in Human and Animal Symptoms of Nutrient
Health / 561 Deficiencies / 574
Animal Anatomy and Physiology / 562 Feed Additives / 574
Major Classes of Nutrients / 569 Composition of Feeds / 574
Sources of Nutrients / 572 Classification of Feed Materials / 576

UNIT 27 Animal Health / 579

Signs of Good and Poor Animal Animal Diseases and Parasites / 586
Health / 580 Preventing and Treating Animal Health
Signs of Poor Health / 581 Problems / 589
Healthful Environments for Animals / 581 Veterinary Services / 594

UNIT 28 Genetics, Breeding, and Reproduction / 597

Role of Breeding and Selection Systems of Breeding / 607
in ­Animal Improvement / 598 Methods of Breeding / 609
Principles of Genetics / 600 Selection of Animals / 611
Reproductive Systems of Animals / 605

UNIT 29 Small Animal Care and Management / 615

Poultry / 616 Honeybees and Apiculture / 627
Economic Importance / 616 Pet Care and Management / 630
Rabbits / 621

UNIT 30 Dairy and Livestock M

­ anagement / 636
Dairy Cattle / 637 Economic Importance / 651
Approved Practices / 640 Sheep / 654
Beef Cattle / 644 Goats / 658
Swine / 650
x
CONTENTS
UNIT 31 Horse Management / 663
Origin and History / 664
Economic Importance / 665
Types and Breeds / 666
Section 9 Wave of the Future / 685
UNIT 32 The Food Industry / 686
Economic Scope of the Food
Industry / 687
Quality Assurance / 689
Commodity Groups and their
Origins / 690
Unit 33 Food Science / 708
Nutritional Needs / 710
Food Customs of Major World
Populations / 715
Methods of Processing, Preserving, and
Storing Foods / 715
Section 10 Putting It All ­Together / 737
Unit 34 Marketing in Agriscience / 738
Focus on Consumers / 739
Advertising and Promotion / 740
Commodity Pricing / 741
Marketing Strategies for Maximizing
Profits / 743
Retail Marketing / 744
Wholesale Marketing / 746
UNIT 35 Agribusiness Planning / 761
Common Business Structures / 762
Agribusiness Management / 763
Characteristics of Decisions in
Agribusiness / 764
UNIT 36 Entrepreneurship in Agriscience / 781
The Entrepreneur / 782
Entrepreneurship / 782
Selecting a Product or Service / 785
Organization and Management / 785
Riding Horses / 669
Horse Safety Rules / 675
Approved Practices for Horses / 678
Operations within the Food
Industry / 696
Career Opportunities in the Food
Industry / 704
The Food Industry of the Future / 704
Food Preparation Techniques / 720
Food Products from Crops / 720
Food Products from Animals / 721
New Food Products on the
Horizon / 733
Marketing Fees and Commissions / 750
Marketing Procedures / 750
Grades and Market Classes of ­
Animals / 750
Marketing Trends and Cycles / 752
Global Marketing in Agriculture / 755
Export Marketing / 758
Fundamental Principles of
Economics / 767
Agribusiness Finance / 769
Small-Business Financial Records / 787
Self-Employment versus Other Forms
of Employment / 792
 xi
CONTENTS

Appendix A: Reference Tables / 797

Appendix B: Supervised Agricultural Experience / 801
Appendix C: Developing a Personal ­Budget / 813
Appendix D: Plan Supervised Agricultural
Experience / 815
References / 823
Glossary / Glosario / 825
Index / 861
 Preface

elcome to the agriscience world of the twenty-first century! Agri-

W science: Fundamentals and Applications, Sixth Edition is about a
new century of agricultural and agriscience developments.
This textbook will be used by a generation of students whose lives may
span two different centuries and two different millennia. It is interesting to
consider that in all of the ages since humans first engaged in agricultural
pursuits, nearly all of the agricultural innovations and technologies ever
known to humankind have evolved in fewer than 100 years.
It is to the agriscience students of the new millennium that this
textbook is dedicated, for the agriculturists, scientists, and innovators of
tomorrow are today’s high school students. The “millennium generation”
will be called on to feed the world as the human population nearly doubles
to 10 billion people. To do this, they must learn more than any other gene­
ration has ever learned, and they need to discover more ways to increase
food production than any other generation has ever discovered. They must
accomplish this using marginal land because many of our fertile farms have
been swallowed up to build cities and towns. Agriscience: Fundamentals
and Applications, Sixth Edition is the modern agriscience textbook that will
introduce the “millennium generation” to agricultural careers. This genera-
tion will also lead the industry that the people of the United States depend
on to feed and clothe them and to export surplus agricultural products to
other regions of the world.
This edition of the book expands on the original text and the ideas of
earlier editions. The science component has been strengthened with some
new lab exercises. Statistics and text have been modified to reflect changes
that have occurred since the last edition was published, and new examples
of agricultural applications of science and technology have been added. The
book is intended for introductory-level agriscience classes in the ninth and
tenth grades.

Need for an Introductory Textbook

This book is an introductory textbook in a series of modern secondary
agr­i­­cultural textbooks published by Cengage. It addresses the most basic
levels of agriscience using language and examples that are matched to the
needs of beginning students in the natural science career pathway.

xii
 xiii
Preface

Revisions in this new edition are the work of current Cengage agri-
science author L. DeVere Burton. He is also the author of three other
textbooks in the agriscience series: Agriscience & Technology, Second Edi-
tion; Fish and Wildlife: Principles of Zoology and Ecology, Third Edition; and
Introduction to Forestry Science, Third Edition. He also edited a new textbook
titled Environmental Science Fundamentals and Applications. Each of these
works, including this edition of Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications,
reflects the premise on which agricultural education was founded—that
most students learn best as they apply the principles of science and agricul-
ture to real-life problems.

Organization
This edition of Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications is organized
into 10 sections and 36 units. Each section introduces the subjects that
will be covered in the individual units. The text and illustrations for each
section have been revised. Each unit begins with a stated objective and
a list of competencies to be developed. Important terms are listed at the
beginning of each unit and highlighted in the text. They are also included
in the glossary at the end of the book. Each unit contains profiles on sci-
ence, careers, and agriculture and concludes with student activities and
a section on self-evaluation. The book includes a complete and thorough
index.

New and Enhanced Content

The Precision Exams Edition of Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications,
6E combines current top notch content with new information aligned to
Precision Exams’ Agricultural Science exam, part of the Agriculture, Food
and Natural Resources Career Cluster. The Agriculture, Food and Natural
Resources pathway connects industry with skills taught in the classroom
to help students successfully transition from high school to college and/
or career. For more information on how to administer the Agricultural
­Science exam or any of the 1701 exams available to your students, contact
your local NGL/Cengage Sales Consultant.
Features that remain in this enhanced text, and continue to engage
and educate students, include the following:
■■ “Suggested Class Activities” in each unit give both the student and
the instructor an innovative way to become actively involved with
the content of each unit.
■■ “Hot Topics in Agriscience” is a standard unit feature that describes
recent scientific discoveries for which an agricultural application
has been identified.
■■ Internet icons are placed throughout each unit. These icons include
key search terms that will help students and instructors explore
agriscience topics beyond the scope of the textbook.
xiv
Preface

■■ Broad applications to science, math, agriculture, natural resources,

and the environment provide the appropriate balance for the evolv-
ing agriscience curriculum.
■■ Hundreds of updated full-color photos and illustrations help stimu-
late interest and enhance learning. Photos now reflect today’s digi-
tal student, and dozens of illustrations have been redrawn in full
color to improve quality for the visual learner.

Extensive Teaching/
Learning Materials
A complete supplemental package is provided with this textbook. It is
­intended to assist teachers as they plan their teaching strategies by provid-
ing materials that are up to date and efficiently organized. These materials
are also intended to assist students who want to explore beyond the con-
fines of the textbook. They include the following resources:

Lab Manual
ISBN: 978-1-13368-689-7
The lab manual has been updated to correlate to the content updates made
in the textbook. This comprehensive lab manual reinforces the text content. It
is recommended that students complete each lab to confirm understanding
of essential science content. Great care has been taken to provide instructors
with low-cost, strongly science-focused labs to help meet the science-based
curriculum needs of the Introductory Agriscience course in secondary schools.
New to this edition, optional Internet supplements offer additional
­research opportunities and educational resources to learn more about top-
ics covered in the lab exercises. Each lab exercise has been enhanced with
new photos and illustrations to help stimulate visual learning.

Classmaster CD-ROM
ISBN: 978-1-13368-734-4
This technology supplement provides the instructor with valuable
resources to simplify the planning and implementation of the instruction-
al program. It has been expanded for this edition to include the following
support materials:
■■ Performance Objectives, Competencies to Be Developed, and
Terms to Know lists with definitions for each unit
■■ A PDF version of the Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual
has been expanded for the sixth edition to provide the following
materials for instructors:
■■ Teaching Aids and Suggested Resources, including Suggested
Class Activities and ideas for Supervised Agricultural Experiences
■■ Lesson Plans for each unit
 xv
Preface

■■ Answers to the Self-Evaluation questions at the end of each unit

■■ Suggested essay/discussion questions
■■ New! Correlation guides map textbook content to the National
Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources (AFNR) Career Cluster
Content Standards and identify Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics (STEM) focused content
■■ An Image Library with all the illustrations from the textbook; use
in slide presentations or as part of classroom discussion
■■ A PDF of the Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide, which provides
answers to lab manual exercises and additional guidance for the
instructor.
®
■■ A computerized test bank created in ExamView makes generat-
ing tests and quizzes a snap. With 1500+ questions and different
question formats from which to choose, you can create custom-
ized assessments for your students with the click of a button. Add
your own unique questions and print rationales for easy class
­preparation.
■■ Instructor support slide presentations that can be customized

®
in PowerPoint format focusing on key points for each chapter.
Approximately 700 slides (about 20–25 slides per unit) are available
to accompany the textbook.

Instructor Companion Web Site

New! The instructor companion Web site provides online access to many
of the instructor support materials provided on the ClassMaster CD-ROM,
including the Instructor’s Manual, Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide, comput-
erized test bank files, correlation guides, and support slides. To access the
available materials, sign up for a faculty account at login.cengage.com. Add
the core textbook to your bookshelf using the 13-digit ISBN that appears
on the back cover of the textbook.

MindTap for Agriscience: Fundamentals

and Applications, 6e, Precision
Exams Edition
The MindTap for Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications, 6e, ­Precision
Exams Edition features an integrated course offering a complete digi-
tal ­experience for the student and teacher. This MindTap is highly cus-
tomizable and combines an enhanced, interactive e-book along with a
­multitude of engaging activities and assignments, including PowerPoint,
videos, matching, image labeling, crossword puzzles, lab exercises, and
­auto-graded quizzing to enable students to directly analyze and apply
what they are learning and allow teachers to measure skills and outcomes
with ease.
xvi
Preface

Acknowledgments
The author and publisher wish to express their appreciation to the many
individuals, FFA associations, and organizations that have supplied
photographs and information necessary for the creation of this text. A
very special thank you goes to all the folks at the National FFA organi-
zation and the USDA photo libraries, who provided many of the excel-
lent photographs found in this textbook. Because of their efforts, this is a
­better book.
The author and publisher also gratefully acknowledge the unique
­expertise provided by the contributing authors to the text. Their work
­provided the core material upon which successive editions have expanded.
The contributing authors are the following:
Robert S. DeLauder,
Agriscience Instructor, Damascus, Maryland;
Thomas S. Handwerker, PhD,
Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland at Princess Anne;
Curtis F. Henry,
Business Manager, College of Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park;
Dr. David R. Hershey,
Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, University of Maryland at College Park;
Robert G. Keenan,
Agriscience Instructor, Landsdowne High School, Baltimore, Maryland;
J. Kevin Mathias, PhD,
Institute of Applied Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park;
Renee Peugh,
Biological Science Consultant, Boise, Idaho;
Regina A. Smick, EdD,
Academic Advisor and Instructor, College of Agriculture, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; and
Gail P. Yeiser,
Instructor, Institute of Applied Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park.

It is most appropriate to remember the work of the late Elmer L.

­ ooper, who authored the early editions of this textbook and whose imprint
C
will always remain on its contents. He will be remembered as a forward-
looking agriscience educator who left his indelible mark on his profession
and on the lives of innumerable agriscience students.
Appreciation is expressed to Renee Peugh, who consulted with the
author on various sections of the text. She also provided information
on science lab materials and student activities for recent editions of
Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications.
A special thank you is also extended to the reviewers of this sixth
­edition. Their content expertise and suggestions for updates and improve-
ments greatly enhanced the overall text.
 xvii
Preface

Christina Griffith
Agriculture Instructor
Milan High School
Milan, TN
Mary Handrich
Grades 8–12 Teacher/Agriculture
Fall Creek School District
Fall Creek, WI
Elizabeth Harper
Agriscience Teacher
NAAE member
New Smyrna Beach, FL
Lowell E. Hurst
Agricultural Educator Emeritus
Watsonville High School, Ret.
Watsonville, CA
Jim Satterfield
Agriculture Teacher
Jefferson County High School
Dandridge, TN
Tom Willingham
Instructor
Blythewood High School
Blythewood, SC
 How to Use This
Textbook

elcome to the world of agriscience! This section highlights impor-

W tant features of this textbook. In this textbook, content is broken
into units, each of which explores an important aspect of agri-
science. Each unit begins with the following tools:
■■ A core objective explains
the purpose of the unit.
■■ Competencies to be devel- UNIT 33
oped lists specific goals Food science
to meet as you read and
review the unit.
■■ A materials list identifies oBJeCtIVe CoMPetenCIes to Be DeVeloPeD

items you will need to to explore the nutrient

requirements for human
health and the processes
after studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss nutritional needs of humans and the food groups that
meet these needs.

complete the unit. used in food science to

ensure an adequate and
• categorize foods in the U.s. Department of agriculture MyPlate
nutrition initiative.
wholesome food supply. • discuss food customs of major world populations.

■■ Suggested class activities • relate methods used in processing and preserving foods.
99
UnIt 5 sUPerVIseD aGrICUltUral eXPerIenCe
MaterIals lIst • list the major steps used in slaughtering meat animals.

provide you and your • bulletin board materials

• Internet access
• list the major cuts of red-meat animals.
PREPARING
• identify methodsFORofTHE JOB INTERVIEW
processing fish.
• describe techniques used to enhance retail sales of

instructor with hands- What Employers Look for in an Employee

food commodities.
• Attitude—The prospective employee should have a positive attitude about the job. He/she should show
enthusiasm and a willingness to learn and work. Employers stress this as being one of the most important

on ways to explore criti- qualities they look for in prospective employees.

• Experience—Previous experience sUGGesteD
of the prospective
willing to train the person with a positive attitude.
Class
employeeaCtIVItIes
is important. However, employers are usually
1. Conduct a class competition to identify the greatest number of

cal concepts discussed in

• Appearance—The prospective employee should be neat and clean, have hair combed, and be well dressed. It is
better to be overdressed than underdressed for an interview. Divide the class into teams of four to
processed food products.
• Posture—It is important to standfive andstudents. assign
sit up straight. Theeach teamwill
employer tobe
make a collage
observing ofyou
the way photos
carry yourself
or graphics that depict food items, using magazines and other
and will make judgments accordingly.

each unit. • Mannerisms—Mannerisms are gestures that are made

printed materials.
However, one should be aware of mannerisms. Do you:
eachthatfood
may item
be annoying
must beor a
could be welcomed.
completely
ent product, not just different brand names of the same thing.
1. Yawn a lot? If so, others will think you’re bored or worse—lazy.
differ-

2. Fidget? Squirming may indicate tenlack

points are scored
of confidence when theinproduct
or disinterest the job. is represented in the

■■ A list of Terms to Know

collage
3. Daydream? Give your full attention by interviewer.
to the a graphic from its package. five points are earned
• Handshake—Have a firm handshake; whennot thebone
product is represented
crushing and not limp. in the collage by a picture
from an advertisement. one point is scored when the product

identifies key vocabu-

What Questions Should Be Asked?
name is printed. only the highest category is scored for each
The following questions may be asked if the information is not provided by the interviewer.
• What type of jobs or tasks are to be done?

lary to master.
• What are the policies and procedures for workers?
708• What are the working hours?
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®.

• What is the rate of pay?

• What arrangements are needed for time off?
• If you are uncertain about something that has been discussed in the interview, you should ask the employer to
clarify or explain.
• IN SUMMARY, BE POLITE AND ATTENTIVE DURING YOUR JOB INTERVIEW.
274
seCtIon 4 InteGrateD Pest ManaGeMent Throughout each unit: fIGURe 5-16 Preparation for the job interview will permit you to relax and give your total attention to the interviewer.

type of Pest ■■ Hot Topics in Agriscience

Class of Pesticide
HoT ToPIcS IN AGRIScIeNce SAe—INSIDe THe DAIRy
mites, ticks
birds
acaricide
avicide
features describe recent BUSINeSS

T
he Dairy Heifer replacement Project is a program that is in place in many areas of the United states. It is

fungi
weeds
fungicide
herbicide
scientific discoveries for designed to increase the knowledge and interest of young people in the dairy industry. the goal is to enhance
life skills of its youth participants. the project begins when the participant purchases a heifer calf from a
program-approved seller. for the next few months, the participant cares for the animal. specific care must be provided,

which an agricultural appli-

vaccinations must be given, and a magnet needs to be administered. Quality feed must be provided to ensure proper
insects insecticide weight and good health. the participant is required to keep detailed records on the animal. In some instances, the heifer
is bred to an approved sire, and the project culminates in the sale of the pregnant heifer when she is presented for show
nematodes nematacide and sale. the Dairy replacement Project is a challenging sae that allows each participant to gain an understanding of

rodents rodenticide cation has been identified. a crucial part of the dairy industry. Contact the agriculture teacher in your high school or your local extension office for
more information about such a program in your area.

INTERNET Damage by pests to agricultural crops in the United States has been esti-
KeY WorDs: mated to be one-third of the total crop-production potential. Therefore, an under-
weeds
annual weed
biennial weed
standing of the major pest groups and their biology is required to ensure success
in reducing crop losses caused by pests. ■■ Internet Key Words icons are placed through-
perennial weed
noxious weed weeds
out each unit. These icons include key search
Weeds are plants that are considered to be growing out of place (Figure 13-3).
Such plants are undesirable because they interfere with plants grown for crops.
terms that will help students and instructors
The word weed is therefore a relative term. Corn plants growing in a soybean field
or white clover growing in a field of turfgrass are examples of weeds, just as crab-
explore agriscience topics beyond the scope of
grass is considered a weed when it grows in a yard or garden.
Weeds can be considered undesirable for any of the following reasons:
the textbook.
■ They compete for water, nutrients, light, and space, resulting in reduced

xviii crop yields.

■ They decrease crop quality.
■ They reduce aesthetic value.
■ They interfere with maintenance along rights-of-way.
■ They harbor insects and disease pathogens (organisms that cause
disease).
Weeds can be divided into three categories—annual, biennial, and
 378
seCtIon 5 tHe QUest for More anD Better Plants!

ScIeNce coNNecTIoN THe SeARcH foR

■■ S cience Connection features
T
PeRfecT PLANTS
he plants we use today for food, clothing, fiber, and ornamental use are
quite different from those found in the wild. Domestic plants or plants
profile important science-
grown for a specific use have generally been selected or bred to survive
better, grow faster, look different, or in some way perform differently from their
related aspects of agriculture.
Courtesy of USDA/ARS #K2492-13

ancestors in the wild. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent to plant

breeders that we must have wild plants that are not closely related to our favorite

Key terms are indicated in

Plant geneticist Keith Schertz exam-
ines grain sorghum bred for tropical
climates. Bags prevent the sorghum
flowers from cross-pollinating, so
the plant breeder can control which
plants provide the male pollen to
fertilize the female part of any given
domestic species to inject new characteristics into our favored domestic plants.
Pest resistance is an area that requires a continuous reserve of foreign
genetic sources. this is to be expected because the very pests that we breed ■■
plants to resist are constantly adapting to our plants through survival of the fit-
test among their kind. Insects and disease-causing pathogens have an amazing
capacity to adapt to and eventually break crop resistance. resistant varieties usu-
ally become obsolete in 3 to 10 years. It generally takes 8 to 11 years to breed
color to alert you when an
important vocabu-
a new variety to resist the changing individuals of a given pest. therefore, plant

lary word is used.

plant.

10. Store in the dark for about 1 week, and then place where the fragments

Hundreds of full-
have a daily light cycle and 68° to 77° F (20° to 25° C) temperatures.
Mature leaf
11. Observe weekly. If part of a plate becomes contaminated, transfer healthy
fragments to a fresh plate. Even with a commercial hood with sterile air,
■■
color photographs
only about 50 percent of the plates remain completely free of contaminants.
12. Plantlets will appear on some fragments after about 8 weeks. When plantlet
leaves grow to about 0.5 cm, aseptically remove the fragment. Separate its

and illustrations help

plantlets and return the plate to incubate. Gently cut the plantlets, being
sure to have some root and some shoot. Place the individual plantlets in
growing medium to develop under aseptic conditions.
Youngest leaf

you visualize the

13. After about a month, the plants should be large enough to transplant into a
pot in sterile potting medium.

topics discussed.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
Oldest leaf
1. Write the Terms to Know and their meanings in your notebook.
2. List the crops that are grown commercially in your area. Visit a site or sites where plants are Node
propagated, and ask the grower to discuss the propagation methods used.
3. List the prevalent crops that are grown from seed in your area and the popular varieties of each. Study a
seed catalog and determine the requirements for germination of each variety and why the varieties are
popular in your community.
Shoot growth
4. Plant a seed in a jar filled with medium. Place the seed near the edge of the jar so that you can see what
is happening. Keep a journal of daily observations as the seed or plant changes. You may want to do this
Crown Internode
Note your observations and the conditions regarding each seed. Write your conclusions about what is
best for maximum germination results.
At the end of each unit, Student
with several seeds in different jars with different amounts of water, light, air, or temperature in each jar.
Auxillary bud

­Activities provide additional hands- Root

Node

on activities to help you master the

content. Some activities provide ideas for Super-
vised Agricultural Experiences for you to explore
556
with your instructor.
seCtIon 7 ornaMental Use of Plants

SELF-EVALUATION

A. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. An acre of plant material can produce enough oxygen to keep
a. 5 to 10 people alive each year. c. 16 to 20 people alive each year.
b. 10 to 16 people alive each year. d. nobody alive. It does not produce enough
oxygen to be of any value.
2. A border planting
a. is used as a single plant to highlight a c. is a number of trees or shrubs planted
fence or some other special feature of the together as a point of interest.
landscape.
b. is used to separate some part of the d. is a collection of plants that are placed in
landscape from another. the landscape as needed.
3. When planning the location for planting trees and shrubs, which is not a major consideration?
a. fruit size and type c. other structures
b. flower color d. bare-root plants
4. The term Cornus florida rubra is a
a. common name. c. name that was developed in Florida.
Self-Evaluations allow you to ­review
the unit content using multiple choice,
b. scientific name. d. type of annual deciduous plant.
5. Planting of trees and shrubs may be done
a. in spring, summer, or fall. c. in fall only.
b. in spring only.
6. Mulch should be applied
a. 1 to 2 inches deep.
d. in spring and summer.

c. 3 to 4 inches deep.
matching, and completion question.
b. 2 to 2.5 inches deep. d. 6 inches deep to keep out the weeds.

B. MATCHING
__________ 1. Urban foresters a. The removal of dead, broken, unwanted, diseased,
__________ 2. Shrubs and insect-infested wood
__________ 3. Specimen plant b. Used as a single plant to highlight it or some other
__________ 4. Nomenclature special feature of the landscape
__________ 5. Pruning c. A systematic method of naming plants
__________ 6. Canopy d. Woody plants that normally grow low and produce
many stems or shoots from the base
e. The top of the plant; has the framework and leaves
f. Help install and maintain trees in large cities

C. COMPLETION
1. Plant material can cut noise pollution by __________.
2. A rule of thumb is that 1 cubic yard of mulch can be spread over a(n) __________ square-feet area.
3. Newly planted trees may have to be __________ to prevent wind damage.
4. Plants should be fertilized every __________ to __________ years, starting with the growing season
after the first year. xix
Section
Better Living Through Research
1
Science and technology are modern miracles that have opened the
doors to new areas of research, turning the dreams of humankind
into realities. Space station research, new frontiers to investigate,
and our never-ending quest for knowledge have exploded into
many new and exciting careers.
You could become one of the people growing plants or
animals in a space station high above the Earth. Or, you might
become an engineer who designs the animal- or plant-growing
module of the space station, or a molecular geneticist or plant
breeder designing new plants to grow well in low gravity, or a food
scientist developing packaging for space-grown produce. Closer
to home, you might discover ways to prevent plant or animal
diseases. Perhaps you will become a researcher who discovers a
better way to preserve food or a safe way to sanitize fresh fruits
and vegetables. You may have personal attributes and skills that
will propel you to become a teacher of agriscience, giving you
an opportunity to have a positive influence on the lives of many
students.
One career area in ever-expanding demand is plant science.
As you will learn, plants are “green machines” that capture, package,
and store energy from the sun through photosynthesis. They supply
food and fiber for animals and humans to help sustain life. But,
human knowledge and energy are required to help plants function
in the overall “green machine” that constitutes our food, fiber, and
natural resources system. Students of the twenty-first century
will become the agricultural professionals of the twenty-first
century. They will become the agricultural producers, processors,
marketers, and scientists who discover new ways to feed the citizens
of the United States and the world. This will be accomplished by
conducting basic research and applying it to the agricultural
food system.
Agriscience in the
Information Age
Whether you choose a career in plant or animal science,
sales and marketing, mechanics, or processing, it is certain to be
rewarding. By studying agriscience, you are opening the door
to exciting educational programs and careers that contribute to
better living conditions for people everywhere. What role will you
play in the challenging task of producing the food and fiber that
will be required by future generations?

© iStockphoto/Andrey Pavlov.

Biosphere 2
 UNIT 1
The Science of Living
Things

Objective Competencies to be Developed

To recognize the major After studying this unit, you should be able to:
sciences contributing to • define agriscience.
the development, exis- • discover agriscience in the world around us.
tence, and improvement • relate agriscience to agriculture, agribusiness, and renewable
of living things. natural resources.
• name the major sciences that support agriscience.
Materials List • describe basic and applied sciences that relate to agriscience.
• writing materials
• newspapers and
­magazines Suggested Class Activities
• online encyclopedias 1. Invite a retired farmer to be a guest speaker on the topic of
• Internet connection improvements or advances in the science and technology of agri-
cultural production that he or she has experienced during his or
her career. Have the students make a list of the agricultural tech-
nologies that are discussed. Speculate on new ­agricultural tech-
nologies that the students may experience ­during their careers.
2. Obtain a copy of the application process for the National
FFA Agriscience Student Award. This award offers excellent
scholarship opportunities to students who plan and carry out
agriscience research projects. Discuss some local agricultural
problems that might be addressed by students who express
interest in planning a research project in agriscience.
3. Create a team competition based on measurements and
math. Develop a set of problems addressing standard and
metric measurements OR determining length, area, or volume
­measurements. Two or more teams compete in a game show
format with the teacher acting as moderator. Allow the stu-
dents to add some creative elements to the competition. This
activity can be used as a fun way to conduct a unit review.
4
Terms to Know 4. In groups of four or five students, research “organic farming” on
the Internet. Compare and contrast organic farming and traditional
agriscience
farming. In your search, you may include factors such as cost
agriculture
agribusiness versus yield, consumer demand, or any other factor that drives
renewable natural production.
resources
technology
high technology ife in the United States and throughout the world is changing every

L
aquaculture moment of our lives. The space we occupy, as well as the people we work
agricultural engineering and play with, may be constant for a brief time. However, these are quick
animal science technology
to change with time and circumstances. The things we need to know and
crop science
the resources we have available to use are constantly shifting as the world turns.
soil science
Humans have the gift of intelligence—the ability to learn and to know
biotechnology
­(Figure 1-1). This permits us to compete successfully with the millions of other
integrated pest
­management
creatures that share the Earth with us (Figure 1-2). In ages past, humans have
water resources
not always fared well in this competition. Wild animals had the advantages of
environment
speed, strength, numbers, hunting skills, and superior senses over humans. These
biology superior senses of sight, smell, hearing, heat sensing, and reproduction all helped
chemistry certain animals, plants, and microbes to exercise control over humans to meet
biochemistry their own needs.
entomology The cave of the cave dweller, lake of the lake dweller, and cliff of the cliff
agronomy dweller indicate early human reliance on natural surroundings for basic needs
horticulture (food, clothing, and shelter) (Figure 1-3). Those early homes gave humans some
ornamentals protection from animals and unfavorable weather. However, they were still
animal sciences exposed to diseases, the pangs of hunger, the stings of cold, and the oppressions
mathematics of heat.
statistics The world of agriscience has changed the comfort, convenience, and safety
sociology of people today. According to the USDA/Economic Research Service, Americans
geography spent only 9.4 percent of our wages to feed ourselves in 2010 (Figure 1-4). Despite
agricultural economics fluctuations in the percentage of income that is spent for food, the percentage of
agricultural education annual income spent for food in the United States has tended to decrease. People
in many nations spend more than half of their incomes on food. We are fortunate

Photo by Scott Bauer. USDA/ARS K7102-12.

© iStockphoto/Christopher Futcher.

Figure 1-2 The gift of intelligence has permitted

Figure 1-1 Humans have the gift of intelligence—the humans to compete with and benefit from animals, even
ability to learn and to know. though most animals are superior to humans in other ways.
5
6
Section 1 Agriscience in the Information Age

© Barbara Dudzinski/Shutterstock.com.
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®.
Figure 1-4 Americans spend
only 9.4 percent of their disposable
income on food.

Figure 1-3 Early humans had to rely on features in their natural

environment to shield them from danger and the elements.

that our scientists have discovered new ways to produce greater amounts of food
and fiber (such as cotton) from each acre of agricultural land. They have done this
by finding ways to stimulate growth and production of animals and plants and to
reduce losses from diseases, insects, parasites, and storage. We have learned to pre-
serve our food from one production cycle until the next without excessive waste;
however, spoilage of stored food remains high among agriscience research priori-
ties. The agriscience, agribusiness, and renewable natural resources of the nation
provide materials for clothing, housing, and industry at an equally attractive price.

Agriscience Defined
Agriscience is a relatively new term that you may not find in your dictionary.
Agriscience is the application of scientific principles and new technologies to
agriculture. Agriculture is defined as the activities involved with the produc-
tion of plants and animals and related supplies, services, mechanics, products,
processing, and marketing (Figure 1-5). Actually, modern agriculture covers so

What Is Agriculture?
Animal
Production
Marketing Products
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®.

Services Agriculture Related Supplies

Mechanics Processing
Crop
Production

Figure 1-5 Agriculture consists of all the steps involved

in producing a plant or animal and getting the plant or
­animal products to the people who consume them.
 7
UNIT 1 The Science of Living Things

Courtesy of DeVere Burton.

© Nate A./Shutterstock.com.
Figure 1-7 Agricultural education teachers and agricul-
tural extension educators are among those whose careers are
related to agriculture.

Figure 1-6 Farming and ranching

account for approximately 12 percent of
the agricultural jobs in the United States.

many activities that a simple definition is not possible. Therefore, the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education has used the phrase agriculture/agribusiness and renewable
natural resources to refer to the broad range of activities in agriculture.
Agriculture generally has some tie-in or tieback to animals or plants.
­However, production agriculture, or farming and ranching, accounts for only
12 percent of the total jobs in agriculture (Figure 1-6). The other 88 percent of the
jobs in agriculture are nonfarm and nonranch jobs, such as sales of farm equip-
ment and supplies, plant and animal research, processing of agricultural products
(Figures 1-7 and 1-8), agricultural education, and maintaining the health of plants
and animals. Agribusiness refers to commercial firms that have developed in
support of agriculture (Figure 1-9).
© iStockphoto/Chris Fertnig.

© iStockphoto/David Sucsy.

Figure 1-8 Veterinarians and veterinary technicians are

people whose careers relate to agriculture in the field of Figure 1-9 Agribusinesses are important to the people
animal health. and the stability of most communities.
8
Section 1 Agriscience in the Information Age

Hot Topics in Agriscience World Food Crisis

A
serious food issue surfaced in late 2007 as the world supply of rice, wheat,
and corn dropped to dangerously low levels. The result was a substantial
worldwide increase in the purchase price for all grains. This crisis continues
© iStockphoto/james steidl.

to this day, and prices have increased far beyond expectations. In the United States
and other nations, the cost of bread and other grain products increased as food
processors adjusted the price of their products to compensate for the high cost of
raw materials and transportation. The cost of grain and energy has also affected
the price of meats, eggs, milk, and other foods, driving the price upward.
Unemployment and high food Political turmoil across the world as a result of economic recessions and in
prices drive those who are most the form of revolutions has become a serious deterrent to affordable food prices
affected to seek food from in other ways. The price of oil has been driven up by reduction in the production
charitable organizations. of crude oil, which is often associated with military conflicts in many oil-producing
nations. This has raised production costs for most food items because the cost of
fuel has increased and remained high.
Among the poor nations of the world and among those living on fixed incomes or in poverty here at home, obtain-
ing enough food to meet the needs of individuals and families has become difficult. What should be done to overcome
and resolve a world food crisis?

Internet Renewable natural resources are the resources provided by nature

Tips: that can replace or renew themselves. Examples of such resources are wildlife, trees,
Forming your search and fish (Figure 1-10). Some occupations in renewable natural resources are game
into a question will
trapper, forester, and fisher (someone who harvests fish, oysters, and other seafood).
narrow the results.
Example: What is
Technology is defined as the application of science to solve a problem.
agriscience? The application of science to an industrial use is called industrial technology.
­Agriscience was coined to describe the application of high technology to agri-
Internet culture. High technology refers to the use of electronics and state-of-the-art
Key Words: equipment to perform tasks and control machinery and processes (Figure 1-11).
renewable natural It plays an important role in the industry of agriculture.
resources
Courtesy of DeVere Burton.

© digitalbalance/Shutterstock.com.

Figure 1-10 As mature trees

are harvested, sunlight on the forest
floor stimulates the growth of seeds Figure 1-11 Advances in technology make it possible
and seedlings, providing a renew- to create identical cloned animals by dividing the cell mass
able source of wood for the future. of a growing embryo.
 9
UNIT 1 The Science of Living Things

Hot Topics in Agriscience Agricultural

Research: Feeding
A Hungry World

T
he world’s population reached 7 billion people in 2011, and it is projected
that it will reach 8 billion in 2025. During the same period, the amount
of land and fresh water per person will decrease. Food production must
become much more efficient if the people of the world are to have enough food to
eat. ­During the past 50 years, food production has increased at a rate that is greater
than the increases in the domestic population; however, food shortages and famine
still exist in the world. Agricultural production is driven by a worldwide market. Agri-
cultural research has resulted in greater productivity of food, plants, and animals,
and new technologies have made it possible for farmers to perform their work with
© Garsya/Shutterstock.com.

greater efficiency. The key to an adequate food supply for the growing human popu-
lation in the new millennium is agricultural research. New agricultural technologies
that lead to the development of more efficient plants and animals and more efficient
agricultural machinery will be needed. In addition, we will need to discover new
food sources and maintain a healthy environment as the population approaches
10 billion people.
Environment refers to all the
conditions, circumstances,
and influences surrounding
and affecting an organism
or group of organisms.

Agriscience includes many endeavors. Some of these are aquaculture, agricultural

engineering, animal science technology, crop science, soil science, biotechnology,
integrated pest management, organic foods, water resources, and environment.
Aquaculture means the growing and management of living things in water,
such as fish or oysters. Agricultural engineering consists of the application
of mechanical and other engineering principles in agricultural uses. ­Animal
science technology refers to the use of modern principles and practices
for animal growth, production, and management (Figure 1-12). Crop science
Photo by Scott Bauer. USDA/ARS K5441-1.

Figure 1-12 Veterinarians use animal sciences to help keep our

pets and production animals healthy.
10
Section 1 Agriscience in the Information Age

Agri-Profile Career Area:

Agriscientist

S
cience plays an increasing role in the lives of plants and animals and the
people around them. These living bodies include plants ranging in size from
microscopic bacteria to the huge redwood and giant sequoia trees. They
include animals from the one-celled amoeba to elephants and whales.
Only recently has science identified the nature of viruses and permitted
humans to observe the submicroscopic world in which they exist. The electron micro-
scope, radioactive tracers, computers, electronics, robotics, nanotechnology, and
biotechnology are just a few of the developments that have revolutionized the world
Courtesy of USDA/ARS K5304-17.

Students experience the
­wonder of living things.
of living things. We call this the world of science. Agriscience is a part of this world.
Through agriscience, humans can control their destinies better than at any time in
known history.
Agriscience spans many of the major industries of the world today. Some
examples are food production, processing, transportation, sales, distribution, recre-
ation, environmental management, and professional services. Study of and experi-
ences in a wide array of basic and applied sciences are appropriate preparations
for careers in agriscience.

refers to the use of scientific principles in growing and managing crops. Soil sci-
ence refers to the study of the properties and management of soil to grow plants.
Biotechnology refers to the management of the genetic characteristics trans-
mitted from one generation to another and its application to our needs. It may
be defined as the use of cells or components of cells to produce products and
processes (Figure 1-13).
The phrase integrated pest management refers to combining two
or more different control methods to control insects, diseases, rodents, and
other pests. Organic food is a term used for foods that have been grown without
the use of chemical pesticides. Water resources cover all aspects of water
conservation and management. Finally, environment refers to all the condi-
tions, circumstances, and influences surrounding and affecting an organism or
group of organisms (Figure 1-14). This generally means air, water, and soil, but it

ENVIRONMENT

CONDITIONS INFLUENCES

ORGANISM
Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®.
Courtesy of USDA/ARS K-5011-19.

CIRCUMSTANCES

Figure 1-13 Genetic engineering and other forms of Figure 1-14 The term environment refers to all the
biotechnology have become some of the most impor- conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding
tant priorities in research today. and affecting an organism or group of organisms.
 11
UNIT 1 The Science of Living Things

may also include such things as temperature, presence of pollutants, intensity of

light, and other influences.

Agriscience Around US
Agriscience and technologies have helped humans change their living conditions
from dependence on hand labor to a highly mechanized society. In the process,
food and fiber production has become much more efficient. Many members of
the U.S. society have become free to pursue new careers in business, industry, or
the arts because they are no longer required to spend all of their time finding
or ­producing food for themselves and their families. Fewer than 2 percent of the
­people in the United States are farmers. On average, each farmer produces enough
food for approximately 167 people. The large surplus of food that is produced in
the United States is shipped to many other countries in the world.
Whether you live in the city, town, or country, you are surrounded by the
world of agriscience. Plants use water and nutrients from the soil and release water
and oxygen into the air. Animals provide companionship as pets and assistance
with work. Both plants and animals are sources of food. Many microscopic plants
and animals are silent garbage disposals (Figure 1-15). They assist in the process of
decay of the unused plant and animal residue around us. This process returns nutri-
ents to the soil and has many other benefits to our environment and our well-being.
Agriscience encompasses the wildlife of our cities and rural areas, and the
fish and other life in streams, ponds, lakes, and oceans. Plants are used extensively
to decorate homes, businesses, shopping malls, buildings, and grounds. When the
use of one crop is lessened, another takes its place. This occurs even where the
land resource changes from farm use to suburban and urban uses.
Corn has long been referred to as king among crops in the United States.
Yet, in some states, including Texas and Virginia, turf grass is the number-one
agricultural crop. Turf is a grass that is used for decorative as well as soil-holding
purposes. This change has occurred as more land is used for roads, housing, busi-
nesses, institutions, recreation, and other nonfarm uses (Figure 1-16).
Agriculture and the agriscience activities that support it extend far beyond
the borders of the United States. Many nations throughout the world depend
on agriscience to improve the production of their crop and livestock industries.
Agriculture is a global industry, and although the United States exports many of
© Photoroller/Shutterstock.com.

Courtesy of DeVere Burton.

Figure 1-15B The material that remains when the

Figure 1-15A  The process of composting uses bacteria composting process is complete is used to provide
in moist and aerated conditions to break down plant residue. ­nutrients to crops and gardens.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
every Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, to appease the wrath of
Heaven for sins, adding that the papal household would also abstain
from flesh on Mondays.
The entire ritual of worship became infected with militarism and fear
of the common enemy beyond the sea. In 1188 the Pope ordained
that prayer against the Saracens should be offered everywhere daily.
In the Church of St. Paul a recognition of the distressful condition
was introduced into the liturgy. On Sundays there was read the
psalm beginning, “Why do the heathen rage?” On Mondays, “Save
us, O God, by Thy name.” On Tuesdays, “O God, why hast Thou
forsaken us?” On Wednesdays, “O God, why hast Thou cast us off
forever?” On Thursdays, “O God, the heathen are come into Thine
inheritance.” On Fridays, “God standeth in the congregation of the
mighty.” On Saturdays, “O Lord God, to whom vengeance belongeth,
show Thyself.”
The peace between Henry II. and Philip Augustus made under the
crusader enthusiasm, like other sudden excitements of religious
emotion, did not long continue. A believer in the doctrine of the
perseverance of the saints would hardly expect to find its proof in the
house of Anjou, save by its exceptions. The recklessness of Richard
again embroiled his father and the French king in war. An attempt to
restore the truce on the same “sacred field” of Gisors where it had
been solemnly enacted failed, and Philip Augustus cut down the elm-
tree under which they had sworn it, that nature might not taunt them
with their perjury. Saladin’s tithe was first devoted not against the
Infidels, but to the infidelity of Christians in warring with one another,
and was ominous of much of the subsequent use of that treasure.
Rome excommunicated Richard, who drew his sword upon the papal
legate that announced to him the decree. Philip as quickly repelled
the interference of the spiritual power with what he deemed the more
sacred right of conducting his own quarrels. It required the opportune
intervention of a thunder-storm to shake the worldly purpose of
Henry II., who, in genuine terror at the voice of heaven, at length
agreed to peace.
In the meanwhile William of Tyre had electrified Germany with his
appeals. The old emperor, Frederick I., took the cross, together with
many of his chief nobles, including his son, Frederick, Duke of
Swabia.
Frederick I., called Barbarossa by his Italian enemies because of his
red beard, was the most astute statesman, the most experienced
general, and the most powerful of the crowned heads of Europe
during the twelfth century. He had been thirty-seven years on the
throne of Germany. Though not altogether successful in his strifes
with the popes, he had been able to consolidate his empire and
extend its prestige. Now, at sixty-seven years of age, the peace of
his dominion offered him the most envied imperial honors and the
quiet ending of his days; but his heroic soul forgot the fatigue of age;
he spurned the enjoyments of his palace when he heard the call for
new adventures. He was the first en route for Palestine; indeed, had
completed his ill-fated expedition before the younger princes of the
West were afield.
The array of Frederick reflected the dignity of its commander. It was
under careful, even stringent discipline; camp followers were
unwelcome; no women were allowed in the expedition. This was a
grievance to many of the fair sex, whose love would have led them
to accompany their husbands, or whose adventurous instinct
prompted them to put on armor; but the order rid the army of the
throng of immoral creatures who were accustomed to attach
themselves to the crusading masses. The usual crowd of paupers
who became soldiers only to better their condition, and bands of
pilgrims who sought safe convoy to the sacred shrines, were ordered
out of the ranks, only those being allowed to start who showed
possession of sufficient money to maintain themselves for two years.
In true chivalric spirit, the veteran warrior of the West sent to Saladin
his royal challenge before proceeding to battle. His letter was true to
the times also in that it showed the customary bravado of the knight,
entering the lists with self-laudation, and hurling scorn at the visor of
his antagonist. “We, Frederick, by the grace of God, Emperor of the
Romans, ever August, the Magnificent Triumpher over the enemies
of the empire, to the Illustrious Saladin, Governor of the Saracens....
Thou hast profaned the Holy Land, over which we, by the authority of
the eternal King, bear rule.... God willing, you shall learn by
experience the might of our victorious eagles.” Then Frederick lists
the nations in his following: “The towering Bavarian, the cunning
Swabian, the cautious Franconian, Saxony that sports with the
sword, the active Brabantine, the Lorrainer, unused to peace, the
fiery Burgundian, the nimble mountaineer of the Alps, the Friesian,
with his javelin and thong, the Bohemian, ever ready to brave death,
Polonia, fiercer than her own fierce beasts,” etc. “And, lastly, also,
you shall be taught how our own right hand, which you suppose to
be enfeebled by old age, can still wield the sword.”
Saladin, in turn, outdid his challenger in courtesy if not in bravado.
“To the Great King, his sincere friend, the Illustrious Frederick, ... in
the name of God the merciful.... You enumerate those who are
leagued with you, but if we wished to enumerate those with us, the
list could not be reduced to writing. With us are the Bedouins, alone
sufficient to cope with you; the Turkomans, unaided able to destroy
you; our peasants, able to despoil and exterminate you; the warlike
Soldarii, by whom we have already beaten you. These and all the
kings of Islam are with me; Babylon, with its dependencies, the land
of Damascus, and Jerusalem on the sea-coast, ... and the land of
Sudia, with its provinces. If you wish for war, we will meet you in the
power of the Lord; but if you wish for peace, we will restore to you
the holy cross, and liberate all Christian captives, and permit pilgrims
to come freely and do them good. And may Allah give us counsel!” A
rumor was current, based, doubtless, upon the clemency of Saladin
to the Christians, that he was himself contemplating conversion to
the faith of Europe. His letter to Frederick was its sufficient refutation,
even without its closing invocation, “May God save our Prophet,
Mohammed!” He emulates the conceit of his antagonist by signing
himself, possibly with a touch of sarcasm, “Saladin, Illustrious Lord,
Victorious King, Adorner of the standard of truth, Corrector of the
world,” etc.
This seeming bombast was not peculiar to these potentates. The
Greek emperor, Isaac Angelus, styled himself “The Most Sublime,
Most Powerful Emperor, the Angel of the whole earth.” Isaac,
however, possessed no personal qualities worthy of commendation.
He inherited, together with the conceit, the cowardice and treachery
of the whole line of Greek monarchs. He wrote to Frederick,
promising aid, and at the same time made alliance with Saladin.
Nicetas, the Greek historian of this period, admits against his nation
that Isaac broke the treaties, impeded the roads, and diverted
provisions from his German allies. At Adrianople he laid ambush for
their scouts. The veteran Frederick, incensed at this treatment, made
a bloody retaliation upon a detachment of Greeks. This brought
Isaac to terms. His friendship was measured by a flotilla of fifteen
hundred ships and twenty-six galleys, which he prepared for the
speedy transportation of the Germans beyond the Marmora and out
of menacing distance of his capital.
Kilidge-Arslan had sent fifty Moslem knights to meet Frederick on the
way, and to pledge his friendship, but when the army reached
Iconium it was discovered that this had been only a device to delay
the emperor. Frederick taught the Moslems that he was in no mood
to be trifled with, by suddenly assaulting and capturing the city.
Pressing onward, the Germans had daily to meet the guerilla attacks
of the Infidels. Their provisions were destroyed as fast as gathered.
Water was scarce, only the stagnant pools in fever-impregnated
marshes affording palliation to thirst. The soldiers at times killed their
horses and drank their blood. Yet the discipline was strictly
maintained. No crime went unpunished. It was evident that a
stronger hand was guiding the crusaders than had before been felt.
The Armenian patriarch wrote to his friend Saladin, warning him of
the extraordinary type of man with whom he had to deal. Christian
and Turk awaited the issue of the campaign with respective hope
and solicitude.
In spite of all obstacles, the Germans made a triumphant march
almost to the borders of Syria. The pure water of the river Selef,
which flows by the walls of Seleucia, tempted the conqueror to
bathe. Seized with cramps, he was carried away by the hurrying
current. At length he was dragged from the water, but was in dying
condition. Tradition says that on a rock near this spot was carved this
prediction: “Hic hominum maximus peribit.” If the omen be fabulous,
the description is correct, for Frederick Barbarossa remains in history
as one of the “greatest of men.” William of Tyre, in his eulogy,
translates his spirit to heaven, while the Arabian historian, Omad,
tells us with equal confidence that the angel of death carried his soul
to hell.
The German host, now led by the feebler hand of his son, Frederick
of Swabia, succeeded in reaching Antioch with less than seven
hundred horse and five thousand foot, a retinue scarcely sufficient to
do honor to the remains of the grand old hero, which they there
buried in the Church of St. Peter.
In June, 1190, the English and French made preparation to follow
their unfortunate forerunner. It was not, however, until a year later
that they arrived in Palestine.
The movements of Saladin, in the meanwhile, engrossed the fears of
the Christian world. After capturing Jerusalem he attacked Tyre. The
bravery of the defence was supplemented by the timely arrival of
Conrad, whose father, the Marquis of Montferrat, Saladin held
prisoner. Conrad had already made his name famous for valor. For
his assistance of the Greek emperor against seditions in
Constantinople he had won the title of Cæsar and the hand of the
emperor’s sister. Saladin endeavored to divert him by threatening to
kill his father unless he relinquished the defence of Tyre. Conrad’s
reply was noteworthy: “The life of my father is less dear to me and to
him than the cause we both serve.” Saladin was forced to give up
the siege. He turned against Tripoli. Aided by Admiral Margarit,
whom the King of Sicily had sent with a fleet and who had won the
titles of “King of the Sea” and the “New Neptune,” the Tripolitans
successfully resisted. Saladin then assailed Carac, which was forced
to yield to the Moslem chief. He granted its defenders their liberty,
and restored to them their wives and children, whom, in an hour of
deathly fear, they had sold as slaves to Saladin rather than see them
the victims of such ravages as usually followed the capture by the
common soldiery. King Guy of Jerusalem had been released from
imprisonment by Saladin on condition that he would leave Palestine
and return to Europe. Guy paid no respect to his oath, but, gathering
the loyal remnant of his kingdom, laid siege to Ptolemaïs (Acre),
there inaugurating a contest which, for its duration and the fame of
the great chieftains engaged in it, was the most noted in the sad
annals of the third crusade.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
SIEGE OF ACRE.

The plain of Acre is surrounded by great natural defences. On the

north is Mount Saron, the narrow pathway over which is called the
“Ladder of Tyre”; on the south rises the bulwark of Mount Carmel,
touching the sea; on the east lie the mountains of Galilee; on the
west the plain is washed by the Mediterranean. Within this seemingly
impregnable district lay the strongly fortified city of Acre. Its port
rivalled those of Tyre, Sidon, and Jaffa. High walls, guarded by deep
moats, bent in shape of a horseshoe from the crags on the north to a
fortress on the south, which rose from a rock in the waves. With the
water front these enclosed the place.
Into the plain beyond the wall Guy collected nine thousand men. The
rapid arrivals from Europe augmented this force to eighty thousand,
even before the kings of England and France had started from
home. The Infidels already occupied the city, and when Saladin
seized the mountains about, the besiegers were themselves
besieged. By a sudden dash Saladin penetrated their hosts, entered
Acre, and reconnoitred the Christian armies from the towers. Conrad
hastened from Tyre; two fleets brought new bands of German and
Danish crusaders. The Christians gave battle, and drove the
Moslems from the field with such slaughter that Saladin was left
almost alone amid the wreck of his forces. But he quickly
recuperated his strength, and a few days later returned the assault.
No fury of fight could blind the eyes of this commander. Ten times he
cut through the Christian lines, leading in person his swift riders. By
night the crusaders were driven back and huddled impotently in their
camps. The morrow revealed the plain strewn with the débris of both
armies.
Though Saladin had fully avenged his first discomfiture, he had
learned more of the sharpness of the Christians’ swords, and was
too wise to risk another immediate engagement. He therefore
withdrew to his fastnesses in the rear of the Christian encampment.
During the entire winter (1189-90) the Christians were unmolested,
and prosecuted the siege unremittingly. More than once the city
barely escaped becoming the prize of the Christians’ daring or
stratagem.
In the spring (1190) Saladin returned. Every attack made upon Acre
by the crusaders was foiled by a counter-attack by the Moslems
upon their rear. Egypt sent ships to succor the city, and Europe sent
ships to succor its soldiers. Masts bearing the cross and those flying
the pennant of its adversaries seemed at times to be mingled in
confusion over the bay. The Moslem and Christian armies often
manned their fortifications and stood as spectators of naval duels,
where they were impotent to help their coreligionists. The
enthusiasm of the observers, not having sufficient expression in
shouts and cheers, often found vent in supplementary fights in the
field. In the battles which raged on land the Christians were ordinarily
victors during the morning, the Saracens in the latter part of the day.
This was due, doubtless, to the fact that the discipline of Saladin’s
men was superior, and that the self-command of their great general
patiently waited for the first ardor of the crusaders to spend itself, or
for their cupidity to divert their attention from the foe to the plunder
which they had already taken.
Saladin’s forces had been weakened at the time by the ravages of
Frederick Barbarossa in Asia Minor, which we have described, and
which drew off many of the Moslem leaders to defend their own
possessions in that quarter. The Christians took advantage of this to
give the foe what they hoped to be a decisive engagement. Their
impetuosity could not be resisted; they broke through even to the
tent of Saladin. As usual, they paused for the prey, and received the
usual punishment for their greed. Off guard, they were massacred by
thousands, even amid the camps they were looting. An Arabian
writer says: “The Christians fell under the swords of the conquerors
as the wicked will fall into the abode of fire at the last day. Nine ranks
of dead covered the ground, and each rank was of a thousand
warriors.”
The besieged in Acre sallied forth and gave the Christians a double
defeat. Then came the news of Frederick Barbarossa’s death. In the
deep depression wrought by these tidings, a treaty of peace with
Saladin would doubtless have been at once concluded, had not the
Christians’ spirit been raised by the timely arrival of European fleets.
Frederick of Swabia’s appearance with the remnant of his father’s
army was signalled by new adventures, only to be met with new
failures. The Christians, having no support from the surrounding
country, were reduced almost to starvation, feeding upon horses and
making soup of their harness. The plain, inundated by the
overflowing river, bred epidemic, which carried away multitudes,
three or four hundred being buried daily. Frederick of Swabia, the
heir of the German throne, sickened and passed away, and many of
his men returned to the West.
Queen Sibylla of Jerusalem also died at this juncture, and the
Christians were divided into the hostile camps of those who were
seeking to possess themselves of the shadows of the kingship.
Humphrey had married Sibylla’s sister, and put forth his claim to the
throne. Conrad gained the favor of the bishop, who forcibly dissolved
Humphrey’s marriage and gave his wife to Conrad, though that
worthy had already a spouse, the sister of the Greek emperor. King
Guy, however, maintained his own rights to the empty sceptre. A civil
war, which would surely have brought the Christian cause to ruin,
was diverted only by the expected arrival of the kings of England and
France, to whom it was agreed that the dispute should be referred.
 CHAPTER XXX.
THE COMING OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS AND
RICHARD—FALL OF ACRE.

Richard I. was crowned King of England in September, 1189. In

October there arrived in England a messenger from Philip of France,
reminding the king of their mutual oaths to make the crusade. The
adventurous spirit of Richard did not need this appeal. He drained
the resources of his realm in gathering means. All the money left him
by his father, Henry II., was first appropriated. He then sold the
manors and prospective income of the crown. Next the chief offices
of honor and responsibility went to the highest bidder who had ready
cash. Thus Hugh de Puzas, Bishop of Durham, became chief justice
of England for a thousand marks. Having abundant soldiery at his
command, Richard then allowed any one to purchase the privilege of
staying at home; he even declared that he would sell the City of
London for a reasonable price. The vassalage of Scotland went for a
thousand marks, together with the fortresses of Roxburgh and
Berwick. When he had nothing more to sell he forced his richer
subjects to make him loans, which they knew he never would repay.
A plain-spoken preacher advised him, before he set out on an
expedition in the name of religion, to dispose of some of his
notorious vices, naming especially his pride, avarice, and
voluptuousness. Richard replied, “You counsel well, and I hereby
dispose of the first to the Templars, of the second to the Benedictine
monks, and of the third to my prelates.”
Consigning the administration of England to Hugh, Bishop of
Durham, and an unsavory Frenchman, Longchamp, Bishop of Ely,
he left England, accompanied by a turbulent crowd of adventurers.
He made his rendezvous with the French king at Vezelay (June,
1190). Here the monarchs swore fraternity and to sacredly respect
each other’s domains during the crusade. They invoked upon
themselves the curses of Heaven and the church if they should
prove unfaithful. The joint armies numbered a hundred thousand
men. Warned by the reverses experienced by their predecessors in
crusading overland, they chose the sea route to Palestine.
Philip sailed from Genoa for Sicily. He entered the port of Messina,
September 16, 1190. Richard sailed from Marseilles, hugging the
Italian coast, according to the sea travel of the day, visiting port
towns en route, and paying worship at the shrines of the various
local saints. He reached Messina a few days later than Philip
(September 23d).
The main English fleet, leaving England and Normandy, had gone
southward along the coast of France and Spain. The lands they
passed in sight of were strange to the navigators, so little was known
of the geography of even the countries of Europe. At Lisbon they
could not resist the temptation to help the Portuguese Christians in a
war with the Saracens, nor of indulging a less laudable sort of
prowess, which Hovenden describes: “Disembarking from their
ships, they made their way into the city, and as they went through
streets and lanes talked to the people, giving themselves airs and
committing violence upon the wives and daughters of the citizens;
they drove away pagans and Jews, plundered their property, and
burned their houses. They then stripped their vineyards, leaving
them not so much as a grape.” This faithful chronicler also narrates
that during a storm at sea St. Thomas à Becket appeared to them
and calmed the waves. “They passed the city of Silva(?), which was
the most remote of all the cities of Christendom.” At Marseilles they
missed King Richard, who already had departed; but they were
compensated for their disappointment in being enabled to worship
the identical “rods with which our Lord was scourged, the jaw-bone
of Lazarus, and one of the ribs of Lawrence.” Approaching Sicily,
they saw the marvellous fish of St. Agatha, the story of which they
believed: how that the heat of the volcano of Mount Gebel
(Stromboli?) once threatened the town of Catana; but the people
took the veil of St. Agatha from her tomb, “carried it before them,
facing the fire, on which the flames returned to the sea and, parching
it, dried it up for nearly a mile, and scorched the fish, many of which
were half burned; and there are to this day many fish there of the
same kind.” But the marvels of that voyage are too many for our
pages, if not for the credulity of the reader.
Richard himself remained six months in Marseilles, a delay that
nearly caused the destruction of his enterprise. A quarrel was started
with Tancred, ruler of Sicily, about certain rights of Richard’s sister
Joanna, who was the widow of Tancred’s predecessor. Says the
chronicler: “Quicker than priest could chant matins did King Richard
take the city.” Philip resented Richard’s audacity and forced him to
take down his standard. Richard had once solicited and gained from
Philip the hand of the French princess Alice; but, his advantage now
blowing from another direction, he preferred Berengaria, a princess
of Navarre. Berengaria, through the connivance of Eleanor, was
brought to Messina. Only at the entreaty of utmost piety and
discretion could Philip be persuaded to lay aside his rage at this new
insult. He sailed at once for the East.
Richard followed eleven days later (April, 1191), taking with him
Berengaria and Joanna, ex-Queen of Sicily. Three ships of the
English fleet were wrecked on Cyprus, and their crews imprisoned
by the inhabitants. Isaac, the king of the island, refused to redress
the wrong. Richard administered swift punishment. Within three
weeks he conquered the entire country, and, binding its ruler in a
chain of silver, took him along on an involuntary pilgrimage to
Palestine. Richard had celebrated his prowess at Cyprus by his
nuptials with Berengaria. The new queen took with her as
companion the daughter of Isaac, whose constant presence is said
to have disturbed the already uncertain marital habits of her
husband.
The French welcomed the arrival of their English allies with great
bonfires, which were designed to proclaim the joy of the Christians
and to flash dismay to the Moslem camps. The plain of Acre was
soon filled with the tents of a host which represented the strength of
combined Europe. Peoples strange to one another in speech,
manners, and arms were one only in their cause. It is not to be
wondered at if, at times, these races more sharply accentuated their
differences than their unity. The contention between Guy and Conrad
for the kingship of Jerusalem, which was referred to Philip and
Richard for settlement, only gave opportunity for renewed hostility
between these monarchs, Philip declaring for Conrad, and Richard
for Guy. The matter was finally settled by agreement that Guy should
reign and that Conrad should be his successor.
The jealousy of French and English prevented mutual help in the
battles daily occurring, wherefore it was agreed that but one army
should fight at a time against the walls of Acre, while the other
should guard against a rear attack by Saladin. Thus the honors were
easy, as the tasks assigned were equally hazardous. The courtesies
of the camp were more readily extended to their enemy than to one
another. Saladin, during the sickness of both sovereigns, sent to
them his own physicians, and such luxuries as the East provided.
While they received these from their foe without suspicion, Philip and
Richard each attributed his sickness to the poisoning of the other,
and each accused his Christian associate with using Saladin’s favors
with a view to treasonable alliance.
Often tournaments were arranged between Moslem and Christian in
the sight of both armies. Knight and emir entered the lists, abusing
each other with their tongues like twin Thersiteses, then fighting with
the valor of Hector and Achilles. Women did not disdain rivalry for
the palm in swordcraft, and bands of children from either side fought
to the death in the presence of their parents. The Infidel played for
the dance of the Christian, and the minstrel of Europe gave the
rhythm to the feet of the Saracen. The table of Saladin was
sometimes graced by the presence of the foremost European
knights, and in turn emirs feasted at the board of those whom they
most dreaded to meet on the field. Saladin so respected the courtesy
and devotion of the true Christian knight that he willingly wore the
decoration of Chivalry, while Richard rode into battle one of the two
splendid steeds which were the gift of the sultan’s brother. The
lowest vices of the East and the West became the open indulgence
of the camps of both. But each party maintained the utmost outward
reverence to the symbols of his own religion; Saladin pausing in the
midst of battle to read a chapter of the Koran, and the King of
Jerusalem advancing to fight with the Gospels borne aloft before
him.
The besieged in Acre were reduced to extremities, the Christians
completely investing the city on the land side in spite of the forays of
Saladin from the hills, and their fleets cutting off all succor from the
sea. At length, after two years of incessant fighting, during which
nine great battles were fought, the standard of the cross was seen
floating from the ramparts of the city (July 12, 1191). The besieged
had capitulated upon condition that their lives should be spared, and
that Saladin should pay their ransom in two hundred pieces of gold.
In the original proposal it was agreed to surrender the wood of the
True Cross, the possession of which by the Infidels was imagined to
be the cause of all sorts of disasters to the Christian world; among
the least of which, if we are to believe a chronicler of the time, was
that all children born in Christendom since the capture of the cross at
Hattîn had but twenty-two instead of thirty-two teeth. Richard was not
religious enough to insist upon the restoration of this precious
symbol.
Saladin, after the city had fallen, delayed in fulfilling the condition
that the defenders of Acre had put upon him relative to their ransom
money. Richard avenged this assumed breach of faith by
massacring five thousand unarmed Moslems before the city wall.
Philip, in disgust at this action, turned over his army to the Duke of
Burgundy and returned to France.
Richard, thus left in sole command, crossed Mount Carmel and
proceeded southward, keeping close to the shore that he might have
timely assistance from his fleet. At every stream and sand-dune he
met the omnipresent Saladin. The Christians’ march was under an
incessant rain of arrows, which covered the frequent dashes of the
Moslem squadrons. At the banks of the Arsur (Nahr Falik) the
Christians encountered the entire army of their contestants
(September 7, 1191). Though Richard led sixty thousand, the
Oriental historian Omad, secretary to Saladin, says that the
Mussulmans surrounded them as the eyelashes surround the eye.
The cry “Allah! Allah!” was echoed by “Deus vult!” as the mighty
hosts sprang upon each other. The Christian infantry, leading the
assault, suddenly opened its ranks; the cavalry poured through and
made the first attack. Richard followed with the main body. Nothing
could withstand the fury of his onset. The Moslems were swept
before him; but they as quickly gathered in his rear, compelling him
to return and fight over again the battle he had already won. The
plain was too small for the multitude to marshal in orderly array. The
armies were intertwined as the many folds of two serpents of hostile
breed. It is said that more than once Richard and Saladin tested
each other’s qualities by personal encounter; the only doubt cast
upon this story by Christian writers being from the fact that Saladin
survived, the Arabic chroniclers rejecting it on the ground that
Richard still lived.
At nightfall the Moslems extricated themselves from the mêlée and
disappeared in the forests of Saron, the Christians being wary
enough not to follow them. Had Richard pursued his advantage the
Arabian historians admit that he might have secured Jerusalem; but
the impulsive temper of this leader suffered from sudden reaction.
He repaired to Jaffa with the women of his household, and there
established a brilliant and festive court. One day while hunting he
was surrounded by a troop of Moslems. When he was on the point of
being captured a French knight cried out, “I am the king; spare me.”
The Moslems, thus diverted, allowed Richard to escape, and brought
the knight a captive to Saladin.
Richard soon tired of his rest, and even of revelry, at Jaffa, and
projected the siege of Ascalon. Saladin, made aware of that
enterprise, burned the city. Richard set about its rebuilding; his
orders were disobeyed. Many echoed the words of Leopold of
Austria, who declared that he was a warrior, but neither a carpenter
nor a mason.
The resentment of this prince had been kindled against the
Englishman by an outrage on the part of Richard in ordering the
standard of Austria to be thrown from the walls of Acre, where
Leopold had presumptuously planted it after the capture of that
place. Conrad of Montferrat had also taken umbrage at Richard’s
lordly treatment of him, and was detected in courting alliance with
Saladin for the restitution of Acre. Richard foiled him with deeper
play. He proposed to give his sister, the ex-Queen of Sicily, as wife to
Malek-Ahdel, brother of Saladin, that there might be erected at
Jerusalem a mongrel empire of Christians and Moslems. Saladin
toyed with the proposition sufficiently to delay Richard’s attack upon
Jerusalem until that city had been greatly strengthened. Thousands
of Christian captives were set to work upon the walls and in the
ditches, under threat of being massacred, as were the Moslems by
Richard’s order at Acre. Realizing that his scheme of alliance with
Saladin had failed, Richard endeavored to engage his antagonist in
battle in the open country; but the astute Moslem was too discreet to
risk his cimeters against heavy swords, except when necessary. He
had also some less martial schemes on foot; he seduced Conrad at
least from whole-hearted loyalty to the cross, by promising to defend
him in permanent possession of whatever cities he might take from
his fellow-Christians. Conrad was soon assassinated by two
Moslems. Richard was quickly accused of being accessory to this
deed. The suspicion grew in plausibility when he forced Isabella,
widow of Conrad, to marry his nephew, the Count of Champagne,
who thus, through Isabella’s rights as sister of Sibylla, became titular
King of Jerusalem. King Guy was compensated for the loss of his
throne by the gift of the government of Cyprus, where his
descendants reigned for two hundred years, until the Moslem wave
had ingulfed the entire eastern Mediterranean.
Saladin was also thought to have connived at the murder of Conrad.
One of the murderers, however, confessed to having been the agent
of the Old Man of the Mountain, the chief of the sect of Assassins,
who also avowed himself responsible for the deed.
This sect, whose name has given to European languages their word
for the most atrocious crime, is one of the many divisions of the
Moslem peoples. Their sheik regarded himself as the lineal
successor of Hassan, and thus the inheritor of the Imam or Holy
Spirit, whose possession is the inner sign of the caliphate. Hassan,
after various adventures, retired to Altamont, a strong castle in the
mountains of Persia, whence his title, and that of his successors, of
“Old Man of the Mountain.” He attempted to enforce his spiritual
authority by inspiring universal dread of his vengeance. His
successors and agents became adept in the use of poisons, the
dagger, and all methods of secretly disposing of human life. So wide
were the ramifications of this brotherhood that, not only throughout
the Moslem world, but in Christian Europe, sudden death, otherwise
unaccountable, was accredited to the Assassins, whose dusky forms
were imagined to move unseen in the bedchambers of princes and
to stand behind thrones. The name “Assassin” is apparently from
“hashish,” the drug with which the murderer stimulated his courage
when accepting the desperate commission from his chief.
Richard, thus relieved of his rival, Conrad, again showed his superior
powers of command. With marvellous celerity he swept over the
country, even to the southern extreme of Palestine, where he
captured Dârôm, at the entrance to Egypt. Saladin was apparently
forced to retire within the walls of Jerusalem. Richard pressed
towards the sacred city (June, 1192). Rumors of Saracen destitution
and fright came upon every wind. The crusaders were eager to pluck
again the prize of Jerusalem, which Providence seemed to hang
within their reach; but Richard was incredulous of the weakness of a
foe he had always found as strong as himself, and whom he knew to
be his superior in craft. He pointed out to his followers that at that
very moment the Moslem armies, scattered everywhere among the
Judean foot-hills, actually surrounded their own; that the roads to the
city were in places but narrow defiles guarded by precipitous heights,
from which a few could hurl destruction upon many. To carry siege
apparatus through such a country, facing the menace of a Saladin,
was to invoke certain disaster. If repulse should come, what relief
could they find so far away from the coast? How could they ever
hope to make good a retreat to their ships?
The council of knights to whom the matter was referred agreed with
their chief. Richard, with undoubted affliction of his martial pride, if
not of his pious spirit, gave one longing look towards the distant
domes of Jerusalem. He then covered his face with his shield and
turned away, declaring that he was unwilling to gaze upon that which
he was unable to conquer.
The retreat from Jerusalem destroyed Richard’s prestige as a
strategist and capable leader of great enterprises; but nothing ever
lessened his lustre for personal bravery. The lion may be outwitted
by the fox; and it is no deep disgrace to Cœur de Lion that he could
not circumvent a Saladin. Richard vented his disappointment and
rage upon many parts of the Moslem host. Like a wounded lion, he
destroyed whatever came within his reach. One day he annihilated a
squadron of seven thousand Infidels; another time he captured as
many camels laden with provision.
Saladin had outgeneralled him at Jaffa and captured that city, with
the exception of the citadel, which promised surrender if succor did
not come within a day. Richard in turn outplayed his rival; he slipped
from the harbor of Acre with a few galleys and surprised the garrison
at Jaffa. Such was the celerity of his approach that the Moslems fled
from the city without having time to strike another blow in its defence.
Having obtained all the glory that was possible from his Eastern
adventure, Richard proposed peace with Saladin. His emirs, equally
wearied with war, urged the reluctant Saladin to accede to the
crusaders’ terms. These were that the Christians should possess all
the coast, except Ascalon, which should remain unoccupied, and
that Jerusalem should be free for the feet of all pilgrims. The
compact was made in the presence of the Koran and the Bible, the
silent witnesses of the oaths taken respectively in the names of Allah
and Jehovah. It was to be faithfully observed, according to some
chroniclers, for the space of three years, three months, three weeks,
three days, and three hours—a suggestion that came from the
crusaders’ reverence for the Trinity. The peace was celebrated by a
friendly tournament between chosen Christian and Moslem
champions, in which lances clave through armor and swords drew
life-blood in mere play. The gates of Jerusalem were thrown open
that the warriors of the cross might kneel at the spot where the
symbol of their faith had stood when their God hung upon it, and so
return to Europe having accomplished a holy pilgrimage, if not a
successful warfare.
Thus ended the third crusade, marked by the loss of perhaps a half-
million Europeans, the foremost of emperors, an inestimable amount
of treasure, and the prestige of Christendom as against the onrolling
power of the Moslem world.
Richard returned to Europe (October 9, 1192). He was led to this
purpose not more by his evident inability to found a kingdom in
Palestine than by the necessity of maintaining his kingdom at home.
Philip Augustus was menacing his domain. When this fellow-
crusader left Palestine he renewed his oath with Richard not to
commence any hostilities against him during his absence. It is said
that he applied to the Pope for a dispensation from this vow. If this
was not so, his actions showed that its restrictions were irksome to
him. Longchamp, whom Richard had left in charge of the English
government conjointly with the Bishop of Durham, endeavored to
exercise limitless control. Even the mandates of Richard were
disregarded by him. Compelled to flee the country, Longchamp
became the open promoter of Philip’s designs. Philip made war upon
Richard’s possessions in Normandy, and seduced from his
allegiance Prince John, the king’s younger brother, destined to be his
successor on the throne.
Richard, not daring to pass through France lest Philip should lay
violent hands upon his person, sailed up the Adriatic. He was
shipwrecked near Aquileia, and in disguise made his way northward
through Austria. But no need of caution could restrain the
impulsiveness of Richard, either in war or in pleasure. Dressed as a
pilgrim, he lived as a prince; his prodigality easily led to his
identification. Duke Leopold of Austria, whose banner he had thrown
into the ditch at Acre, now took occasion to avenge that insult. He
arrested Richard and threw him into prison (1193). The German
emperor, Henry VI., also claimed the royal captive, and secured his
person by paying to Leopold sixty thousand pieces of silver. The
chronicler remarks, in the spirit of that age: “Forewarnings of this
calamity had appeared in unusual seasons, inundations of rivers,
awful storms of thunder and rain, with dreadful lightning.”
England, through Richard’s mother, Eleanor, appealed in vain to the
Pope to intervene, inasmuch as the holy see had guaranteed the
humblest—and surely the noblest—crusader against any detriment
from Christians. But the priests of Rome were politicians, and made
no sign. Philip of France, now in league with Prince John, and
relieved of his dread of Richard, boldly made war in Normandy,
where, however, he was repulsed by Robert of Leicester, a crusader
who, more fortunate than his king, had reached home. Prince John
also made an unsuccessful attempt to seat himself on his brother’s
throne.
In the meanwhile Richard chafed in a dungeon where he was loaded
with irons. His perpetual incarceration, or his assassination, being
fraught with too much danger to his captors, it was determined to
bring him to judicial disgrace. He was therefore summoned before
the Diet of the Empire at Worms, and formally accused of crimes of
all sorts, such as having insulted the Duke of Austria, having
assassinated Conrad of Montferrat, having concluded a disgraceful
treaty with Saladin. The royal captive, with marvellous self-restraint
for him, deigned to explain these matters; then he burst out into
indignant denunciation of his captors. The princes of Germany were
made ashamed of the ignominy that in their name had been thrust
upon the foremost hero of the age. Even prelates at length
remembered that Richard had remained alone in Palestine when
others were wearied with the defence of the faith.
Henry VI. was forced to release his royal captive. Yet he managed to
fix as his ransom a hundred and fifty thousand marks. This large
amount it was difficult to raise. The churches of England melted their
plate; prelates paid a fourth of their income, the lower clergy a tenth,
and all ranks a commensurate tax. Queen Eleanor in person bore
the sum thus collected to Mayence (1194). Henry, however, could not
yet brook his victim’s escape. Having received the ransom, he
ordered Richard’s rearrest; but the English ship that bore him slipped
from the mouth of the Schelde before the officers could overtake it.
Philip of France sent this ungraceful but timely warning to Prince
John: “Take care of yourself; the devil is broken loose.” One
chronicler notes that at the very hour in which the king landed in
England there appeared “a brilliant and unusual splendor in the
heavens, of a very white and red color, about the length and breadth
of a human body.” He also observes that Duke Leopold of Austria
was horribly punished for his cruelty to Richard. Infernal fires were
kindled in his limbs, whose progress he in vain tried to stay by
amputating his own foot with an axe, and at length expired in