Diesel Generator

Handbook

L L J Mahon
CEng,
CEng, FlE
FlEE,
E, FBIM,
FBIM, FI
FIOA,
OA, CDipAF
CDipAF

AMSTERDAM. BOSTON· HEIDELBERG· LONDON • NEW YORK· OXFORD

PARIS. SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO· SI N
NG
GAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinem
Butterworth-Heinemann
ann
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Linacre
e Hou
House,
se, Jordan
Jordan Hill,
Hill, Ox
Oxfor
ford
d OX2 8DP
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ngton,
on, MA 01803
01803

Fir
First
st publish
published
ed 1992
1992
Reprinted
Reprin ted 1995,
1995, 1996,
1996, 199
1998,
8, 1999, 2000
2000,, 200
2001,
1, 2003, 200
2004
4

Copyright © 1992,
1992, L. L. J
J.. Mahon.
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British
Britis h Library
Library Cat
Catalo
aloguing
guing in Pub
Publica
lication
tion Da
Data
ta
Mahon, L. L. J.
Mahon,
Diesell generator
Diese generator handb
handbook.
ook.
I. Title
621.3121

ISBN 0750611472

Library
Libra ry of C
Congre
ongress ss Catal
Cataloguing
oguing in Publica
Publication
tion Da
Data
ta
Mahon, L. L. J.
Mahon, J.
Die
Diesel
sel genera
generator
tor handbo
handbook/
ok/L.
L. L. J. Mah
Mahon
on
p. cm.
Includ
Includes
es biblio
bibliogra
graphi
phical
cal refere
reference
nces
s and ind
index.
ex.

ISBN 0750611472
0750611472
1. Di
Dies
esel
el e
ele
lect
ctri
ric
c pow
power
er-p
-pla
lant
nts
s 2. Di
Dies
esel
el-m
-mot
otor
or.. I. Titl
Title
e
TK1075.M34 1992 91-45348
621.31'2133-dc20 CIP

Pri
Printe
nted
d and bound in G
Grea
reatt Bri
Britai
tain
n by Ant
Antony
ony Row
Rowe
e Ltd,
Ltd, Chip
Chippen
penham
ham,, Wiltsh
Wiltshire
ire
Contents

Preface vi i 5 Loa
Load
d conside
considerat
rations
ions 135

1 Recipr
Reciproca
ocatin
ting
g inter
interna
nall com
combust
bustion
ion engine
engines
s 1 Introduction 137
Load assess
assessments
ments 138
Introduction 3 Planni
Planning
ng capaci
capacity
ty of gene
generat
rating
ing plants
plants 143
Classifica
Class ification
tion of engines 3 Load
Loa d ele
elemen
ments
ts affect
affecting
ing plant
plant size
size and
Working cycles 4 147
performance
Piston
Piston action
action and piston
piston conn
connect
ection
ion 6 172
Related
Related sstandar
tandards
ds
Cylinder
Cylind er arrange
arrangements
ments 7 References
References and biblio
bibliography
graphy 174
Fuels
Fue ls and oper
operati
ating
ng mode
modess 8 Appe
Appendix
ndix 1 - Select
Selection
ion of pow
powerer plant for lload
oad
Engine featur
features
es 10
conditions 176
Waste
Was te hea
heatt recover
recovery y 23 Appendix
Appendix 2 - Wave-f
Wave-form
orm analys
analysis
is of a typi
typical
cal
Referenced
Refere nced standar
standards
ds 27 182
generator
References
Refere nces and bibli
bibliography
ography 27

6 Engin
Engine
e gove
governin
rning
g 183
2 Powe
Powerr ratin
rating
g and
and perfo
performa
rmance
nce 29
Introduction 185
Introduction 31 Basic Terminology 185
Generator
Generat or applic
applications
ations 31
Governor selec
selection
tion 188
Related
Related termi
terminology
nology 33
Fundame
Fundamental
ntal operating princi
principles
ples 189
Servicee power ratin
Servic ratings
gs 36
Typica
Typicall governors 198
Perform
Performanc
ancee factors
factors affe
affecti
cting
ng plant
plant sizing
sizing 39
Recent
Recent trends in adva
advance
nced
d cont
control
rol syste
systems
ms 212
Referenced
Refere nced standa
standards
rds 40
References 213
References 41

43 7 A
Autom
utomat
atic
ic voltag
voltage
e regula
regulation
tion 215
3 A.
A.C.
C. generat
generators
ors - gene
general
ral
45 Introduction 217
Introduction
Generator
Genera tor excit
excitation
ation charac
characteris
teristics
tics 45 Voltag
Voltagee regula
regulation
tion 217
47 Basic excit
excitation
ation syste
systems
ms 218
Some typical arrange
arrangements
ments
73 The bbasi
asicc AVR cir circui
cuitt 219
Insulation
Machine
Mac hine vent
ventila
ilatio
tion
n and coolin
coolingg sys
system
tem 80 The AVR in exc excita
itatio
tion
n system
systemss 221
83 Prot
Protect
ection
ion agains
againstt syst
system
em co
compon
mponent
ent fai
failure
luress 224
Machine
Machi ne enclos
enclosures
ures
84 Dual-c
Dual-channel
hannel regregulators
ulators 226
Power rating
Typica
Typicall propriet
proprietary
ary system
systemss 226
Typica
Typical
edl brushle
Related
Relat brushless
standa ss genera
standards
rds generators
tors 86
87 Rec
Recent
ent trends and futu future
re devel
developme
opments
nts 238
89 Refere
Referenced
nced StStandards
andards 242
References
Refere nces and biblio
bibliography
graphy
References 242

4 A.
A.C.
C. generat
generators
ors - performa
performance
nce
characteristics 91 8 Pa
Para
ralle
llell oper
operat
ation
ion of gene
genera
rating
ting sets
sets 245

Introduction 93 Introduction 247

Steady-stat
Steady -statee operati
operation
on 93 The synchroni
synchronizing
zing of genera
generators
tors 247
Transient
Transi ent operat
operation
ion 122 Phase sequenc
sequencee testing 252
Related
Rela ted standa
standards
rds 130 Oper
Operati
ation
on char
charts
ts 252
References
Refer ences and bibli
bibliography
ography 130 Sync
Synchron
hronizi
izing
ng curre
current,
nt, powe
powerr and to
torque
rque 255
Appendi
Appe ndix
x 1P Phas
hasor
or diagram
diagramss and conve
conventi
ntions
ons 131 Load sharin
sharing g 257
Appendi
Appe ndix
x 2 T The
he per-
per-unit
unit sys
system
tem 132 Circul
Circulating
ating current
currentss 263
vi Contents

Reactive
React ive power equalizat
equalization
ion in paparalle
ralleled
led Refere
References
nces standa
standards
rds 453
generators 263 References
References and biblio
bibliography
graphy 454
Automat
Auto matic
ic mul
multi-
ti-gene
generat
rator
or plant
plant 268
System busbar arrange
arrangements
ments 275 13 In
Instal
stallati
lation
on and commissioning
commissioning 457
Int
Interc
erconne
onnecti
ction
on of gegenera
nerator
tor neut
neutral
ralss 276 459
Introduction
Electromecha
Electromechanical
nical transi
transients
ents 277 459
Plant categ
categories
ories
References
Refere nces and biblio
bibliography
graphy 282 467
Ventila
Vent ilatio
tion
n and aspi
aspirat
ration
ion air requi
requirem
rement
entss
Noise and vibration attenuation 470
9 Sw i t c h g ear an d c o n t r o l g ear 283 470
Foundations
Auxiliary
Auxiliary system
systemss 472
Introduction
Planning 285
285 Switchgear
Switchgear an andd control
controlgear
gear 493
Busbar system
systemss 286 Cabling 494
Busbars 289 Health
Health and ssafeafety
ty aaspec
spects
ts 506
Po
Powe
werr supp
supplyly fa
faul
ultt curr
curren
entt de
dete
term
rmin
inat
atio
ion
n 29
293
3 Commissioning 526
Short-circuit
Short-c ircuit current calcul
calculations
ations 294 Referenced
Referenced sta standards
ndards 530
Power switc
switching
hing apparat
apparatus
us 301 References
References and biblio
bibliography
graphy 531
The current
current-bre
-breaki
aking
ng proc
process
ess 305
Air-break circuit breakers 308 14 P
Plant
lant noise
noise reduction
reduction 535
Vacuum circuicircuitt breaker
breakerss 314 Introduction 537
Sulphur
hur hexhexafluorioride circui
rcuitt br
breeakers 318 The phys
physics
ics of soun
sound d 537
Discrimination and co-ordination 323 Noise evaluation 544
Enclosures 326 Instrume
Instrumenta
ntatio
tion
n and noise measur
measuremeement nt
Power supplie
suppliess 328 555
techniques
Ins
Instrum
trumententati
ation
on and met meteri
ering
ng 328 Principles
Principles of noise control 562
Control system
systemss 330 Vibrati
Vibr ation
on cont
control
rol - pri
princi
nciple
pless and pract
practiceice 585
Related
Rela ted standar
standardsds 338 Sources
Sources of noise
noise in eng
engine
ine-gen
-genera
erator
tor plant
plant 595
Certificat
Certi fication
ion of swi switchgea
tchgearr and equipm
equipment
ent 343 Plant
Plant nois
noisee con
control
trol in prac
practic
ticee 596
References 343 Noise masking 599
Referenced
Referenced standa
standards
rds 599
10 Prime
Prime mover
mover and g
gen
ener
erat
ator
or prot
protec
ection
tion 345
345
References
Refere nces and biblio
bibliography
graphy 599
Introduction 347 Appendix
Appendix 1 - TypicTypicalal cal
calcul
culati
ations
ons for m mult
ulti-
i-
Prime mover protect
protection
ion 347 mount configu
configurations
rations 601
Protective
Protec tive relay
relaying
ing 359 Appendix
Appendix 2 - MethoMethod d of cal
calcul
culati
ating
ng loads
loads on
Generator
Genera tor protec
protection
tion 368 mounts
mounts at stated
stated loc
locati
ations
ons 602
Typicall protective relayi
Typica relaying
ng scheme
schemess 388 Appendix
Appendix 3 - Proper
Propertie
tiess of a vertic
vertical
al
Related
Rela ted standa
standards
rds 392 mounting
mounting arrange
arrangement
ment 602
References
Refer ences and bibli
bibliography
ography 392
15 Operati
Operation
on and mainte
maintenanc
nance
e 603
11 Emer
Emergegency
ncy and
and sta
standby
ndby A.
A.C.
C. power
power 605
Introduction
supplies 395 Technical manual
Technical manualss 605
Introduction 397 Plant operati
operation
on 606
Plant categ
categories
ories 397 Maintenance 609
Short-break
Short-break system
systemss 397 Staff instruc
instruction
tion and train
training
ing 619
620
No-break
encessystems
References
Refer and bibli
bibliography
ography 409
430 Refere
Referenced
Referenced and
References
nces st
standards
andards
biblio
bibliography
graphy 620

12 Fuels
Fuels and
and lubr
lubrica
icating
ting oils 433 Appendix
Appendix A Conve
Conversio
rsion
n fa
facto
ctors
rs and
formulae 623
Introduction 435
Petroleum 435
Ap pen di x B Bat ter ies 627
Oil refining 435
Liquid fuel specif
specificati
ications
ons 436
Ap pen di x C Soi l res is ti vi ty meas ur emen ts
Propert
Prop erties
ies of fuel oils 437 631
and surveys
surveys
The eff
effect
ect of fuel proper
propertie
tiess on performanc
performancee 441
Harmful
Har mful cons
constit
tituent
uentss in fu
fuel
el oils 442 Ap pen di x D Devi ce fu nc ti on nu mb ers 633
Gaseou
Gas eouss fuel
fuelss 443
Lubricating
Lubric ating oil 447
Corrosi
Cor rosion
on inhi
inhibit
bition
ion in tr
trans
ansit
it and stora
storage
ge 452 Index 635
Preface

I fir
fir~t
~t gogott invo
involv lved
ed witwith h die
diesesell gegenenera
rato
torsrs in the the to eng
engininee po powewer;r; and
and the the acce
accept pted
ed meth method odss of
Middle
Midd le E Easast,
t, in the
the m mid
id 195
1950s0s.. As a youngyoung en engi
gine
neerer,, sp
spec
ecif
ifyi
ying
ng rati rating
ngs.s. TheThe genegenera rall fefeat
atur
ures
es an and d the the
with
withou outt an anyy pr prev
evioious
us ex expeperi
rien
ence
ce or kn knowowle ledge
dge of perf
perfor
orma
manc ncee ch chararac
acte
teri
rist
stic
icss of sy sync
nchrhrononous
ous genegene--
di
dies
esel
el engin
engines es,, I w wasas reresp
spon
onsisibl
blee for for the ope operarati
tion
on rato
rators
rs are
are then
then discdiscus
ussesedd in some
some det detaiail.
l. The
The te tech
ch--
an
andd ma main inte
tena
nancncee of a n num
umbeberr of ssma mallll p pow
owerer sta-
sta- niqu
niqueses use
used d in lo load
ad asasse
sess
ssme
ment nt,, an
and d the mos mostt suisuit-t-
ti
tion
onss em empl ploy
oyin
ing g memedi dium
um-- an andd slslow
ow-s -spe
peeded eng enginines
es.. ab
able
le waways ys of comb combin inin
ingg andand operoperatatiningg mult
multip iple
le
Fo
Fortrtun
unatatel
ely,
y, as aan n exex-B
-BTHTH traitraine
nee,e, I hadhad a re reas
ason
on-- gene
generarato
tors
rs areare exexam
aminined
ed.. Thos
Thosee loadloadss wh whicichh ha
haveve a
ab
able
le groun
groundi ding
ng in el elec
ectr
tric
ical
al mamach chin ines
es,, swswit itch
chge
gearar,, dire
direct
ct bear
bearin ingg on the siz sizin
ing g of pl plan
ant,t, anand d on th thee
an
andd con
contr trol
olge
gearar.. Tw Two o ye
yeararss lat
later
er,, I wa wass eng
engag aged
ed in qual
qualitity
y of su supp
pplyly,, ar
aree rerevi
view
eweded in Cha Chapt pter
er 5. T Thehe
preparing estimates and submitting proposals for next three chapters consider the principles used in
tu
turn
rnke
key y dies
dieselel ge genenera
rato
torr po powe
werr pr proj
ojec
ectsts,, to m meeeett the
the cont
controroll of en engigine
ness andand genegenera rato
tors
rs - iin n both
both
consul
con sultan
tants'
ts' specif
specifica icatio
tions.
ns. OveOverr the ne next
xt 3 30
0 years,
years, I single
single-ru
-runni
nningng and parallparallel-el-run
runnin
ning g modmodes; es; and d des-
es-
wa
wass to be invo involv lved
ed witwith h the des desig ign,n, deve
develo lopm
pmenent,t, crib
cribee prop
propririet
etar
aryy gove
govern rnor
orss an and d exci
excita tati
tion
on co contntro
roll
ma
manunufafact
cturure,
e, inst instalalla
lati
tion
on an andd co comm mmis issi
siononin
ingg of sy
syst
stem
ems.s. ChChap apte
terr 9 outl
outlinines
es the prin princiciplples
es aff
affec
ectiting
ng
both stationary and highly-specialis
highly-specialised ed mobile plants the choice and application of switchgear and con-
for a var
varie iety
ty of appappli licat
cation
ions.s. Whe
When n I was starti
startingng out trolge
trolgear;
ar; and Cha Chaptepterr 10 eexam xamineiness the pro protec
tectio
tionn
in this
this ca carereer
er,, I ne neededed
ed a boo book k wh whic ich
h wou
would ld have that
that nee
needsds to be aapp ppli
lied
ed to en engi
gine
ness anand d gegene
nera
rato
torsrs..
gi
give
venn me a si sing
nglele-s
-sou
ourc
rcee re refe
fere
renc
ncee on th thee prac
practi tica
call Th
Thee mamanyny form
formss of eeme merg rgen
encycy an andd ststan
andbdbyy powe
powerr
desi
designgn an and d ap appl
plicicat
atio
ionn of die diesesell gene
generarati
ting
ng plan
plant. t. av
avai
aila
labl
blee to tthe he use
user,r, who ha hass neneed
ed for aan n al
alte
tern
rna-a-
Th
Thereree wasn
wasn't 't one
one.. I re reso
solvlved
ed to ffil illl the
the ga
gap p one
one d day
ay.. tive
tive or ad addi
ditition
onalal elelec
ectrtric
ical
al powe
powerr sour source ce to that that
Thi
Thiss thethen n is that
that book, con concei
ceived
ved 35 yea years rs ag
ago,
o, the whi
whichch is norm
normall allyy obtain
obtained ed from a p publ
ublic ic uti
utilit
lity,
y, are
wri
writiting
ng of whi which ch was deferr
deferred ed somsomee 2 288 yea
years.rs. Dur
Duringing deline
delineate
atedd in Ch Chapt
apter
er 11. The rele relevan
vance,ce, to eng engineine
th
thee 'ges
'gestatati
tion
on'' peri
period od,, I accaccumumul ulat
ateded an ext exten
ensisive
ve perf
perfor
orma
manc nce,
e, of ce cert
rtai
ainn key
key pr prop
opererti
ties
es in fu fuel
elss an
and d
co
coll
llec
ectition
on of lear learne nedd pape
papers rs an and d arti
articl
cles
es on the the lubr
lubric
icat
atin
ingg oils ar aree eexa
xamiminenedd in Ch Chap
apteterr 12. Th Thee llas astt
to
topi
pics
cs cocoveverered.
d. Ma Many ny of the these
se areare incl
includudeded in tthe he thre
threee ch
chapapte
ters
rs then
then deadeall wi withth th
thee im
impoportrtan
antt asaspe
pectctss
refere
referencencess and bib biblio
liogra
graphi
phies es given
given aatt thethe end of the of pow
power er plan
plantt inst
install
allati
ation
on and com commi missi
ssioni
oning;
ng; noinoise se
chapte
chapters. rs. TheThese se list
listss are
are not o only
nly an acknowacknowle ledge
dge-- reduct
reduction
ion;; and plant plant ope operat
ration
ion and m main
ainten
tenanc
ance. e.
ment
ment o off my soursource cess of info
inform rmatatio
ionn bu butt als
also o sser
erve
ve to It is qu quit
itee popossssib
ible
le that
that some
some of the the prod
produc ucts ts
au
augm
gmen
genera
gen ent
erall tout
the
thline,
outliene,
tex
texttfor
whi
whichochla
sso ccan
large
rgean,,a at b
bes
ssubjest,
ubjec t,t, pro
ect, provi
vide
in thedesp only
on
aceelyofa
spac desc
descri
ribe
seded,
sed ed,bed d the
in ma
mayy
ti
timehave
have
me thattbee
tha been
it nhasmodi
mo difi
taken
tak fied
ened, , m
fro
from or com
ev
even
enpositi
compos supe
super-
ition
onr-
a single volume. to publication of a book of this size. Every effort has
Th
Thee bookbook is iint ntenende
ded d to se serv
rvee as an eeng ngin
inee
eeri
ring
ng been
been ma madede to en ensusure
re that
that info
inform rmat
atioionn on natio
nationa
nall
gu
guididee to allall thos
thosee who may may be conc concer erne
nedd with
with the the and
and inte
intern
rnat
atio
iona
nall st stan
anda
dardrdss is as up-t up-to-
o-da
date
te as
sele
selectctio
ion,
n, sp spececif
ific
icat
atio
ion,
n, te teststin
ing,
g, co comm
mmis issi
sion
onin
ing,g, poss
possib
ible
le,, at th
thee ttim
imee of going
going to pres press. s. Th
Thee pra
pract
ctic
icee
op
oper
eratatio
ionn and and main mainte tena
nancncee of di diesesel
el gen
genererat
ator
or of dedesi
sign
gnat
atin
ing
g st stan
andadard
rdss by re refe
fererenc
ncee to the theirir
plant. It should therefore be valuable to: the plant numbers only (and not always by date) has been
or servi
services
ces eengi
nginee
neer;r; to n non-
on-spe
specia
cialis
listt eng
engine
ineers
ers and largel
largelyy ad
adopt
opted.
ed. ExtExtrac
racts
ts fro
fromm BrBriti
itish
sh Sta
Standa
ndards
rds are
user
users;s; an and d to youn young g te tech
chniniCi
Cian
anss an andd enengigine
neererss repro
reprodu
ducecedd with
with thethe p per
ermimiss
ssio
ionn of BS BSI.I. C
Comompl
plet
etee
(espec
(especialially
ly in indust
industria
rialllly
y devel
developi oping
ng count
countrie
ries)
s) who cop
copies
ies of the standar
standards ds can be obtain obtained, ed, by po post,
st,
aree emb
ar embar arki
king
ng on a care careerer in the the sup
suppl ply
y ind
indus
ustrtry.
y. from
from BSI BSI Sa Sale
les,
s, Linf
Linforord d WoWood od,, Mil ilto
ton
n Keyn
Keynes es
The
The st star
arti
ting
ng poinpointt is th thee pr prim
imee move moverr - in its its MK
MK14 14 6L
6LE E (F(Fax
ax 090908
08 3208
320856 56).).
co
comp
mpre ress
ssio
ionn igni
ignitition
on aand nd sspaparkrk igigni
nitition
on form
forms.s. An I am gre great
atly
ly inde
indebtbted
ed to th thos
osee ma manunufa
fact
ctur
urer
ers,
s,
explan
exp lanat
ation
ion fol follow
lowss of the sig signif
nifica
icantnt tterm
ermss rela
relatin
tingg pub
publis
lisher
herss and lea learne
rnedd bod bodie
iess who hav havee provi
provided
ded
viii
viii Pref
Prefac
ace
e

me with
with info
inform
rmat
atio
ion n and
and asassi
sist
stan
ancece;; and
and whoswhosee Arth
Arthur
ur All
Allen
en (P & B Engine
Engineeri
ering);
ng); Mic
Michae
haell Webb
ma
mate
teri
rial
al help
help is ac
ackno
knowlwled
edge
gedd ben
beneaeathth thethe ilillu
lust
stra
ra-- (Wo
(Woodw
odward
ard Gov
Gover
ernor
nor (UK
(UK»;»; De
Derri
rrick
ck Barb
Barber
er (Pet
(Pet--
tions
tions cconc
oncer
erne
ned.
d. I aalslso
o ha
have
ve to ttha
hanknk the fol follo
lowi
wing
ng bow
bow);
); Be
Ben n Hick
Hickss (T Ma
Matt Engine
Engineer
erin
ing);
g); an
andd Le
Lesl
slie
ie
indiv
individ
idua
uals
ls for ththei
eirr ad
advi
vice
ce,, co
const
nstruc
ructitive
ve crit
critic
icis
ism,
m, Mi
Mini
niki
kin
n (Br
(Brii
iiel
el & Kjrer (UK».
and invalu
invaluabl
ablee help
help on point
pointss of det
detail
ail..
Dere
Derekk Jone
Joness (D(Dororma
mann DiDies
esel
els)
s),, John
John Yarr Yarrow
ow
(Hawke
(Ha wkerr Sidde
Siddele
ley
y Group
Group);); Co
Colilin
n HudHudson son,, ToTonyny L. L. J. Mahon
Montriou
Mont riou and BriBrian
an BeeBeech
ch (GEC Alsthom
Alsthom Grou Group);p); Yelvertoft
 Reciprocating
1 internal
combustion
•

engines

Contents

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of engines
1.3 Work
Working
ing cycles
1.4 Pist
Piston
on acti
action
on and piston connect
connection
ion
1.5 Cylinder arrangements
1.6 Fuel
Fuelss and operati
operating
ng modes
modes
1.7 Engine features
1.8 Waste heat recove
recovery
ry
1.9 Refer
Reference
enced
d standards
standards
1.10 References and bibliograph
References bibliography
y
 Classif
Classifica
icatio
tion
n of eng
engine
ines
s 3

1.
1.1
1 Introduction Industri
Industrial
al engines are genera
generally
lly accept
accepted
ed as being
divided into
divided into thre
threee spe
speed
ed cla
classe
sses:
s:
The purp
purpose
ose of thi thiss chap
chapter
ter is to give tthe
he reade
readerr an (a)
(a) High
High spee
speedd over 1000 rev/min
introdu
introducti
ction
on to the subj subject
ect of reci
reciproc
procati
ating
ng interna
internall (b) Med
Medium
ium spee
speed
d 400---1000 rev/min
combust
com bustion
ion engi
engines.
nes. It disc
discusse
ussess the variou
variouss ways (c)
(c) Low sspe
peed
ed up to 400 rev/min
use
usedd to claclassi
ssify
fy engi
enginesnes.. In descri
describing
bing the workin
working g
principles, and the salient features, of both the In the cont
context
ext of alt
altern
ernati
ating
ng current
current,, gene
generat
rating
ing set
setss
engine itsel
itselff and its pri principal
ncipal auxili
auxiliary
ary equipme
equipments,nts, are cons
construc
tructed
ted to ope
operat
ratee at one ooff the appr
appropri
opriate
ate
the meanings
meanings of te terms
rms and phras
phraseses in ccommo
ommon n usag
usagee sync
synchron
hronous
ous spee
speeds
ds gover
governed
ned by the eexpre
xpressi
ssion:
on:
are explaine
explained. d. The factor
factorss aff
affect
ecting
ing choi
choice
ce of prim- =

ary and an ancicill

llar
aryy sysyst
stem
emss araree discu
discuss
ssed
ed and the the n f.60/p
ma
majojorr dec
decis
isio
ion
n ararea
eass araree exa
exami
mine
ned.
d. Final
Finallyly,, basi
basicc Where n is the speed
speed of th
thee genera
generator
tor shaft,
shaft, in rpm
informat
info rmation
ion is giv given
en on the increa
increasin
singly
gly impimporta
ortant
nt f is the frequ
frequenc
ency
y of the genegenerat
rated
ed supp
supply,
ly,
subje
sub ject
ct of co-gco-gen
ener
eratatio
ion,
n, in the co cont
ntex
extt of tottotal
al in Hz (or cycles
cycles/se
/second
cond),
), and
energy conversion
conversion system systems.s. P is the
the num
number
ber of (fi
(fiel
eld)
d) pole
pole pairs
pairs on the
generator.
Typical
Typical sync
synchron
hronous
ous speeds
speeds (rpm
(rpm)) for 50 Hz and
1.
1.2
2 Classifica
Classification
tion of engines 60 Hz
Hz applic
applications
ations are:

There are severa

There severall ways of cla
classi
ssifyin
fying
g recipro
reciprocat
cating
ing 50 Hz 60 Hz
intern
internal
al com
combust
bustion
ion (RIC)
(RIC) eng
engine
ines.
s. The more usual -- --
are: 3000 3600
1500 1800
1. by use; 1000 1200
2. by speed; 750 900
3. by design; and
design; 600 720
4. by size. 500 600
428 514
1. By use 300 360
Here, engi
Here, engines
nes are categori
categorized
zed by the
theirir appl
applica
icatio
tion.
n. See Sub-sec tion 4.2.2 of Cha
Sub-section pterr 4 for
Chapte for a fu full
ller
er
For exampl
example:e: treatm
treatment
ent of the spee
speed-fr
d-frequ
equenc
encyy relati
relationsh
onship.
ip.
(a) mar
marine
ine for shi
ship
p propu
propulsi
lsion
on and auxil
auxiliar
iaries
ies;; Th
Thee cchoi
hoice
ce b bet
etwe
ween
en low, me medi
dium
um or high
high speed
speed
(b) indust
industrial
rial for generators, compressors, engi
engine
ness must
must be relarelate
ted
d to ev eval
alua
uati
tion
on of po powewerr
pumps, etc.; supply securi
security
ty agains
againstt operat
operational
ional economy
economy.. Secur-
(c
(c)) automo
automoti tive
ve for lland
and tran
transpo
sport
rt,, bot
both
h on and ity
ity is eess
ssent
entia
iall
llyy a fun
funct
ction
ion of th thee av
avai
aila
labi
bili
lity
ty of
off highways;
highways; and engi
engines;
nes; and the numb
numberer of unit
unitss and spar
sparee capaci
capacity ty
(d) tracti
traction
on for loco
locomot
motive
ivess and rail cacars.
rs. instal
installed,
led, in relat
relation averagee load demand [3].
ion to the averag

Rigid grou
Rigid grouping
pingss of this kind can be too restri restricti
ctive.
ve.
In America,
America, with
with its sstron
trongg tradit
tradition
ion of auto
automot
motive
ive 3. By design:
and locomoti
locomotiveve diesel
diesel engi
engines,
nes, use
users
rs have founfoundd it Engine
Eng iness may be sub-
sub-cla
classi
ssifie
fied
d with
with respec
respectt to their
advan
adv anta
tage
geous
ous to adapadaptt en engi
gine
ness of the
these
se type
typess to des
design
ign featu
features
res.. The
These
se woul
wouldd include
include::
industr
indu strial
ial use
use,, rather
rather than
than seek
seek purp
purpose
ose-bui
-built
lt unit
units.
s.
On an inteinterna
rnati
tiona
onall scal
scale,
e, RI
RICC eng
engin
ines
es for powe
powerr (a) work
working
ing cycle
cycle (fou
(four-s
r-strok
trokee or two-two-str
stroke)
oke);;
generat
gene ration
ion will
will conti
continue
nue to be adaadapta
ptatio
tions
ns from the (b) pis
piston
ton action
action and/
and/or
or pi
pisto
ston n co
connec
nnectio
tion;
n;
high prod
product
uction
ion manmanufac
ufacture
turers
rs of automot
automotiveive,, trac-
trac- (c) cylinde
cylinderr arrange
arrangement;
ment;
tio
tion,
n, and marine eng iness [1].
engine (d) type
type of fue
fuell used
used (e(e.g
.g.. liliqui
quid,
d, gase
gaseous
ous,, dua
duall
fuel, etc.)
etc.);;
and
2. By speed: (e)
(e) the
the mann
manner er in whwhic
ich
h aiairr is ffed
ed into
into the
the cyl-
cyl-
Be
Becacaus
usee speed
speed of cranks haftt rotation basically
crankshaf inde
inders
rs ((ei
eithther
er at ambi
ambien entt pre
pressssur
uree or wiwith
th
de
dete
term
rmin
ines
es the
the we
weig
ight
ht and
and sisize
ze of an engengin
inee in overpres
overpressure)
sure) .
relati
relation
on to its outpu
outputt powe
power,
r, this
this type of clas
classif
sifica
ica--
tio
tion
n is the one most wid widely
ely ado
adopte
pted.
d. The weigh
weightt of 4. By size:
an engine
engine is a g good
ood gui
guide
de to its first co
cost
st and its llife
ife..
First
First cost is rough
roughlyly prop
proporti
ortional
onal to weig
weight;
ht; and life Thi
Thiss is perh
perhaps
aps the mos
mostt cont
content
entious
ious of tthe
he cl
class
assifi
ifi--
is prop
propororti
tion
onal
al to the the ra
rati
tio
o of wei
weigh
ghtt to po
powewerr cation
cation meth
methods
ods since
since ''siz
size'
e' inte
interrel
rrelate
atess with
with man
manyy
output [2]. differe
different
nt factor
factorss suc
such
h as: cylind
cylinder
er dim
dimensi
ensions;
ons; the
 4 Reciproca
Reciprocatingint
tinginterna
ernall combusti
combustion
on engines
engines

numbe
num berr of cylcylind
inder
ers;
s; spe
speed;
ed; anand
d me
mean
an effec
effecti
tive
ve
pressure (see Chapter 2). In acknowledging this,
Ka
Kate
tess an
and
d Luc
Luckk [4
[4]] ha
have
ve atte
attempt
mpted
ed to giv
givee som
somee
idea
idea of siz
sizee by using
using hors
horsep
epowe
owerr per cycyli
linde
nder,
r, at
rated
rated spe
speed,
ed, to arriv
arrivee at the follow
following
ing rough defi
defini-
ni-
tions. The figures in parenthe
parentheses
ses are the correspon
correspond- d-
ing value
valuess in kilow
kilowatt
attss mec
mechani
hanical
cal (kWm).
Sm
Smal
alll siz
size belo
below
w 25 hp/c
hp/cyl
yl (19)
(19)
Medi
Medium
um sizsizee 25 to 20
200
0 hp
hp/c
/cyl
yl (1
(19-
9-14
149)
9)
La
Larg
rgee size
size ab
abov
ovee 202000 hp/c
hp/cylyl (149
(149))
Most manufactu
manufacturer rerss have 'type series series'' of eng
engineines.
s.
This
This mean
meanss thatthat they
they limi
limitt thei
theirr pr
prod
oduc
ucti
tion
on to a
seri
series
es of type types,
s, each
each us usin
ing
g vavari
riou
ouss nunumb
mbererss of
cy
cyli
linde
nders rs of simsimililar
ar dime
dimens nsio
ions.
ns. The output
output of a
multi
mul ti-c
-cyl
ylin
inde
derr enengigine,
ne, of a givengiven type
type,, is th
then
en the the
output of tthe he single
single-cylin
-cylinder
der model multipmultiplied
lied by tthe he
number
numb er of cylcylind
inders
ers of tha
thatt engi
engine.
ne. Engines
Engines may be
ap
appl
plie
iedd to a wide ran range
ge of powpowerer requi
require
reme
mentntss by
simply changi
changingng the number of cylinde cylinders,
rs, and engine
operati
oper ating
ng spe
speed.
ed. The manufmanufact acturer
urer's
's aim tthrou
hrough-gh-
out
out,, is tto o ma
maxiximi
mizeze the
the numbe
numberr of co comm
mmonon partpartss
used
used withwithin
in a type seri series
es.. Thi
This,
s, in tur
turn,
n, ca
call
llss for
ra
rati
tiona
onaliliza
zati
tion
on of as many item itemss of the en engi
gine
ne as
possible; and also for maximum utilization of tooling
for the economic
economic manu manufac
factur
turee of tthe
he engine
engines.s. ThiThiss
philosophy certainly applies to all manufacturers of
small- and medium
small- medium-size
-size units.
The user who intends
intends purc
purchasi
hasing
ng gene
generat
rating
ing sets
sets
of vari
variou
ouss capa
capaciciti
ties
es woul
wouldd be we well
ll advi
advise
sedd to
choose engines from a typetype series where
wherever
ver possibl
possible.
e.
This is benefici
beneficial
al both in serv
servicing
icing and in spare parts
stocking
stocking.. See Ch
Chapt
apter
er 15.

1.
1.3
3 Working
Working cycle
cycles
s

RIC engi
engines
nes may be of the self igni ignitio
tion n (com
(comprepres-
s-
sion ignitio
ignition,n, c.i.)
c.i.) or of the indire indirect
ct igni
ignitio
tionn (spa
(spark
rk
ignitio
igni tion,
n, s.i.)
s.i.) type.
type. The salien salientt differe
difference
ncess betbetwee
ween n
their
their com
combust
bustion
ion proc
processesses
es are expla
explaine
ined d later.
later.
Compre
Com pressi
ssion
on igniti
ignitionon and spa spark
rk igniti
ignitionon engi
engines
nes
can
can be ar arra
rangnged
ed to ru runn in one of two ope opera rati
ting
ng
cyc
cycles
les.. These are diag diagram
rammatmatica
ically
lly repr
represe
esente
ntedd in
Figures
Figures 1.1 an andd 1.2;
1.2; toge
togethe
therr with
with the appr appropri
opriate
ate
indicat
indi cator
or diagram
diagrams, s, whic
which h portray
portray the eventeventss within
within as the four
four-cyc
-cycle
le eng
engine
ine,, it will prod
produce
uce twice
twice the
the eng
engine
ine cylind
cylinder er duri
duringng each
each cycle.
cycle. power.
In the four-stroke (or two-r two-revol
evoluti
ution)
on) cyc cycle,
le, fuel Th
Thee dow
down n ststrok
rokee of the tw two-c
o-cycl
yclee engengin
inee com
com--
igniti
ignition
on takes
takes place
place in everevery y other
other revolut
revolution ion of the bines both power and exhaust strokes. As the intake
cr
cran
anks
kshaf
haft.
t. An eng engininee usi
usingng this
this cycyclclee gets wor work k an
andd ex
exha
haust
ust ports
ports ar aree cl
clea
eare
redd by th thee pist
piston,
on, some
some
from its fuel
fuel duri
during
ng one stroke in fo four
ur (Fi(Figure
gure 1.1 1.1),
), mixi
mixingng of fr fres
eshh ai
airr ch
chararge
ge and burned
burned gases
gases ta take
kess
i.
i.e.
e. its
its work
workin ing
g stro
stroke
ke oc occucurs
rs ononce
ce in eve everyry two
two place (scavenging). Not all the burned gases are
re
revol
voluti
utions
ons.. In co cont
ntra
rast
st,, two-stroke (o (orr oneone- exhaust
exha usted;
ed; whiwhichch preve
preventsnts a la large
rgerr fres
fresh h charge
charge of
revolut
revo lution
ion cycle)
cycle) engi
engines
nes have a worki working ng stroke
stroke in air
air being
being induc
induced ed into
into the
the cycyli
linde
nder.
r. The re resul
sulti
ting
ng
eac
each h revo
revolut
lution
ion of th thee crank
crankshaf
shaftt (Fi
(Figure
gure 1.2).
1.2). power stroke therefore has less thrust.
While
Whi le twtwo-o-st
strok
rokee en engi
gines
nes areare gene
generaralllly
y light
lighter
er In the
the four-
four-st strok
rokee enengin
gine,e, near
nearly
ly alalll the
the burne
burned d
and smaller
smaller in si size
ze tha
thann four
four-st
-stroke
roke engi
enginesnes of the gas
gases
es are forc
forceded out of th thee combust
combustion ion chamber
chamber by
sa
same
me outoutput
put,, it do does
es not fol follow
low ththat
at,, beca
becaususee the
the the
the up-
up-st
strok
rokin ing
g pist
piston.
on. Thi Thiss al
allo
lows
ws al almo
mostst a full
two-str
two- stroke
oke engengine
ine has twic twicee as ma manyny powe
powerr stroke
strokess air
air/fu
/fuel
el mixt
mixtureure to ente
enterr the cylin
cylinder;
der; since
since a com-
 Wo
Worrking
king cyc
cyclles 5

2. heat
heat is tthe
henn adadde
ded,
d, part
partly
ly at con
const
stan
antt volum
volumee
(B-C) anandd par
partly
tly at const
constant
ant pre ssuree (C-D);
pressur
3. adiaba
adiabati
ticc exp
expanansi
sion
on then
then occu
occurs
rs fr
from
om D to E;
4. the cycle iiss cl
closed
osed at consta
constant
nt volu me (E-A), and
volume
heat
heat is re
rejec
jected
ted to exhaus
exhaust.
t.
This theo
This theore
reti
tica
call cycycl
clee does not re repre
prese
sent
nt what
what ac ac--
tual
tually
ly happe
happe.n.nss in the
the cylin
cylinder
der.. For
For exa
examplmple,
e, the
the
co
compr
mpres essi
sion
on an andd exexpan
pansi sion
on ststrok
rokes
es are not trulytruly
ad
adia
iabat
batic
ic sinc
sincee there
there is hea heatt loss
loss to the
the cycyli
linde
nderr
wall
walls.
s. In pra
practctic
ice,
e, the
the diagdiagra
rams
ms for ac actutual
al dies
diesel
el
cyc
cycles
les appro
approach
ach those
those ill illust
ustrat
rated
ed in Figu
Figures
res 1.1 anandd
1.2.
For high speed
speed engengineiness it is mor
moree usua
usuall to use an
indica
indicator
tor diagram
diagram bas based ed on cran
crankk angl
angle.
e. A typic
typical
al
gra
graphic
phicalal repres
represent
entati
ation
on of th thee com
combust
bustion
ion proc
process
ess
plete piston stroke is devoted to induction of the would
woul d then
then be as shown in Figure 1.4. It is pos possib
sible
le
mi
mixt
xture
ure.. Th
Thee pow
power
er strok
stroke,
e, ther
theref
efore
ore,, pro
produc
duces
es to derive
derive a ststroke-bas
roke-based ed indica
indicator
tor diagra
diagram
m from this,
relatively
relatively more power than its two-cycl
two-cyclee counterpart by transposition [6].
[3].
On
Onee impo
importrtan
antt adva
advantntag
agee of thethe fofour
ur-s
-str
trok
okee
enginee is tha
engin thatt it
itss lubri
lubrica
cati
ting
ng sy
syst
stem
em is sisimp
mple
le an
and
d
reliab
reliable,
le, maki
making ng it ththee better
better cho
choice
ice for unat
unatten
tended
ded
or partia
partially-ma
lly-manned
nned generat
generator
or instal
installatio
lations.
ns.
The theoretic
theoretical al air st stand
andard
ard cycle
cycle on whwhich
ich mo-
dern
dern c.i.
c.i. eng
engine
iness work is rrepreepresent
sented
ed by the dia diagram
gram
of Figure 1.3. It is kn known
own as the dua dual-cl-combu
ombusti
stion,
on,
mixed,
mix ed, or compos
composite ite cycle
cycle anandd is a comb
combina inatio
tionn of
th
thee cocons
nsta
tant
nt vol
volum
umee (Ot (Otto)
to) anandd ththee cocons
nsta
tant
nt prepres-
s-
sure
sure (die(diese
sel)
l) comb
combus usti
tion
on cy cycl
cles
es.. It is use usefu
full for
for
co
compa
mpari rison
son with
with ac actu
tual
al dies
diesel
el cyc
cycle less ope
opera
rati
ting
ng in
th
thei
eirr mid-
mid-toto-f
-ful
ulll load
load ra rang
ngee [5[5].
]. The area area of the the
di
diag
agra ram,
m, to a suitsuitab able
le scal
scale,
e, repre
represesentntss the
the wor
work k
done on the pist piston
on duri
duringng one cycle
cycle..
Fuell may be inj
Fue inject
ected
ed at two poin pointsts onl
only:
y: eithe
eitherr at
B or at C (Fig (Figururee 1.3)
1.3).. St
Star
arti
ting
ng at point point A, the the
events
events in the cyclecycle are as foll follows:
ows:
1. adi
adiaba
abatic
tic com
compres
pressio
sion
n of air ta
takes
kes place
place betwee
between
n
A and B;
6 Reci
Reciprocat
procating
ing inter
internal
nal com
combusti
bustion
on engin
engines
es

The comcombus
bustio
tion
n proc
process
ess in a highigh
h spe
speed
ed eng
engine
ine 1.3
1.3.1
.1 Th
Thee fou
four-s
r-stro
troke
ke cycle
cycle
may be descri
described
bed as ta takin
king
g place
place in severa
severall stages
stages..
In the
the four
four-s-str
trok
okee cyclcycle,
e, aiairr is dr draw
awn n into
into the
the
Firs
Firstl
tly,
y, ther
theree is a very
very shor
shortt de
dela
lay
y peperi
riod
od (the
(the
cy
cyli
lind
nder
er thro
through
ugh an inle inlett valv
valve(e(s)
s) as the pist piston
on
'injectio
'injectionn lag') betw
between
een the comm
commencem
encementent of dedeliv-
liv-
move
movess do downwn in its suction str strok
okee (d (dia
iagr
gram
am 1 of
ery by the fuel pump and the start of fuel ent entry
ry into
into
Figu
Figurere 1.1.1)
1).. Th
Thee inle
inlett valv
valvee then
then cl clos
oseses anand
d the
the
the combust
combustion
ion space.
space. Thi
Thiss is foll
followe
owedd by an 'ig'igni-
ni-
piston moves upwards to compress the air in the
ti
tion
on dela
delay'
y' peri
period
od (ph
(phas
asee 1) ddur
urin
ing
g wh
whicich
h the
the fue
fuell
cylinder.
cylin der. This is th thee compression stroke (diagram 2).
does not ignite instantane
instantaneously,
ously, becau
becausese it must first
At or near the end of this str stroke
oke,, fue
fuell is sspra
prayed
yed into
into
be heated to its spontaneous ignition temperature.
the cylinder
cylinder.. The pressu
pressurere to whic
which h the air is ccom-
om-
The speeof
speed
number
num ber d with
wit
fa h rs
factowhic
which
ctors h this hap
[7]: happen
penss dep
depend
endss upon a pressed ensures that a sufficiently high temperature
is atta
attained
ined in the cylicylinder
nder to give rap rapid
id sponta
spontaneous
neous
1. the igniti
ignition
on qua
qualit
lity
y of the fue
fuel;
l; ignit
ignition
ion of the inje
injected
cted fuel. As combus
combustion tion sprea
spreads,
ds,
2. the fine
finenes
nesss of at
atomi
omizat
zation
ion;; and cyl
cylind
inder
er pre
pressu
ssure
re ris
rises
es rap
rapidl
idly
y to forcforcee the piston
piston
3. the
the ra
rate
te of heheat
at tr
tran
ansf
sfer
er from
from air
air to fue
fuel.
l. dow
down n on its working str stroke
oke (di
(diagr
agram
am 3). Whi Whilele the
piston
piston m move
ovess up
up on the exhaust stroke, stroke, the exhaust
The last of these fact factorsors is affect
affected
ed by: the diffe
difference
rence
val
valve
ve open
opens,s, all
allowi
owingng the burnt gases gases to be pushe pushedd
in ttemp
empera
eratur
turee betwee
between n the aiairr and the fue fuel;
l; the air
out
out of the cyl cylin
inde
derr (d(dia
iagra
gramm 4). At the the enend
d of the
densit
den sity;
y; and the relatrelative
ive mov
moveme
ement nt of fue
fuell and air.
air.
strok
strokee the
the ex exha
haus
ustt valv
valvee clclose
oses,s, the
the inle
inlett valv
valvee
When
Wh en igni
ignitition
on occu
occurs rs it takes
takes placplacee at sevesevera
rall
opens,
ope ns, and the four-s
four-stro
troke
ke cycle
cycle is re repea
peated
ted..
points. After combustion has commenced, there is a
'flame
'flame-sp
-sprea
read'
d' period
period (ph (phase
ase.. 2)
2),, duri
during
ng which
which the
combustion
combus tion sprea
spreadsds rapid
rapidly
ly throug
throughout
hout the cchambe
hamberr
vol
volum
ume.e. ThThis
is resu
result
ltss in a very
very rapirapid
d libe
libera
rati
tion
on of 1.3
1.3.2
.2 The two
two-st
-strok
rokee cycle
cycle
hea
heat,t, and a rapi
rapid d increa
increasese in pr
press
essure
ure.. As the pisto
piston
n Two-stroke
Two-st roke engengine
iness may empl employoy valves
valves (in unitlow
is almo
almostst stat
statio
iona
nary
ry at thisthis po
poinintt in the cycl cycle,
e, a engine
eng ines)
s) or they
they may use port portss in th
thee cylind
cylinder er wal
walls.
ls.
sud
sudden
den shock
shock load may be impo imposedsed on the workinworking g A cyl
cylind
inderer of ththee latte
latterr type
type is shown
shown diag diagram
ramma-
ma-
parts of the engine, resulting in very rough running. tic
ticall
allyy in Figure
Figure 1.2. T The
he dowdownwa
nwardrd mov
moveme ementnt of
Also,
Also, a phe phenom
nomeno enon n knoknownwn as 'diesel knock' or 'fuel the p pist
iston
on in the w work
orking
ing stro
stroke,
ke, unc
uncove
oversrs both
both the
knock' (bec (becauause
se of the shar sharp p knoc
knocki king
ng sosound
undss it ex
exha
haus
ustt anandd inle
inlett port
portss (d(dia
iagr
gram
am 1). Th Thisis all
allow
owss
produces) results from the sudden increase in pres- scavenging air, which has previously previously been admit admitted
ted
sure caused
caused by th thee rapid burnburning
ing of fuelfuel - whiwhich
ch has tG the lowlowerer sid
sidee of tthe
he pist
piston
on via tthe
he inle
inlett port,
port, to
accumulat
accum ulateded during the igniti ignition
on delay period (phase expel
expel the eexha xhaust
ust gase
gasess thr
throug
ough
h the eexha xhaust
ust port.
1)
1).. Dies
Diesel
el kno
knock ck is wo worsrsee at high spe speed
eds;s; at low Th
Thee risi
rising
ng p pis
isto
tonn (i(in
n the charging and combustion
compre
com pressi
ssionon ratios
ratios (see(see Chapte
Chapterr 2); at low amb ambien
ientt stro
stroke
ke - d dia
iagra
gramm 2) ccove overs rs both port
ports.
s. The
The ai airr is
temper
tem peratu
atures
res;; and with fuels re resis
sistan
tantt to ignit
ignition
ion.. compre
compressedssed and q quickl
uicklyy hea
heated;
ted; and fuel is injecinjected,
ted,
Curee is eeffe
Cur ffecte
ctedd by either
either reduci
reducing ng the dela delayy per
period
iod as in the fo four-
ur-str
stroke
oke cycle.
cycle. The wor workin
king
g strok
strokee then
then
or reducing
reducing the rate of inj inject
ection
ion dur
during
ing that
that per
period
iod begi
beginsns.. Note
Note,, that
that some fre fresh
sh fue
fuell is llos
ostt wit
withh the
[8]. spent gases
gases;; and that some of the gases remai remain n in the
Impro
Improvi ving
ng thethe igniignitition
on quaqualility
ty of the fuel fuel (by cy
cyli
linde
nder,r, to co cont
ntam
amininat
atee a subssubseq
eque
uent
nt fr fres
esh
h fue
fuell
us
usin
ingg a fuelfuel with
with a high higherer ceta
cetanene nu numbmberer - see charge.
Chapte
Cha pterr 12) rresuesultslts in earearlie
lierr igniti
ignitionon and reducereducess Two-st
Two-strokeroke engines may be subdiv subdivided
ided int into
o those
the delay
delay perio
period.d. The short shorterer the deladelay y period
period,, the types which emplo employ: y:
less
less the qua quanti
ntity
ty of acc accumu
umulat lated
ed fue fuel;l; and
and,, con
conse-
se-
quentl
que ntly,
y, the less fu fuel
el avai
availab
lable
le to burn rapidl rapidly y and 1. crankc
crankcase
ase scaven
scavengin
gingg (i.
(i.e.
e. using
using the under
undersid
sidee of
cause
cause diesel
diesel knock [4]. the
the pist
piston
on and
and the
the cr
cran
ankc
kcas
asee as an aiairr com-
com-
The third
third pha
phase se in the comb combust ustion
ion pro proces
cesss is one pre
presso
ssor);
r); or
in which
which a lower rate of com combusbustio
tionn occ
occurs
urs.. It is the 2. pump, or bl blowe
ower,
r, scaven
scavengin
gingg (i.e. usin
using
g di
discr
screte
ete
period during which fresh fuel is being delivered into pump
pumpss or blower
blowerss to pro
provid
videe the scaven
scavengin
gingg air
air).
).
th
thee comb
combus usti
tion
on cham chambe ber,r, to mix mix withwith a high highly
ly--
hea
heated
ted and burnin
burning g mas
masss of accumu
accumulat lated
ed fue
fuel.
l. The
fres
fresh h fu
fuel
el is tthe hererefo
fore
re im imme
medidiat
atel
ely
y igniignite
tedd as it 1.4
1.4 Piston
Piston action
action and
and piston
piston
leaves
leav es the injec
injectortor nozzl
nozzle. e.
connection
Aft
After
er fue
fuell injecti
injection on has be been
en compl
complete eted,
d, the rate
of combustion
combustion tails tails off. A high rate of heat transfe transfer,r,
Piston
Piston acti
action
on is cclassi
lassified
fied as:
by radiation, occurs during this and the previous
stage [8]. I. single-ac
single-acting;
ting;
2. dou
double
ble-ac
-actin
ting;
g; or
3. oppo
opposed
sed piston
piston..
 Pis
Piston
ton act
actio
ion
n an
and
d pis
piston
ton c
conn
onnec
ecti
tion
on 7

Singl
Single-
e-ac
acti
ting
ng en
engi
gines
nes use onl only
y one en endd of the cy cyl-
l- the effect
effect of spread
spreading
ing the side thru
thrust
st over a gre
greate
aterr
inderr and one face
inde face of the piston
piston to deve
develop
lop powe
power; r; area;
area; so rereduci
ducing
ng the unit pres
pressure
sure [5].
whereas
wher eas doub
double-
le-act
acting
ing engi
engines
nes use bot
both
h ends of the In the alternati
alternative
ve arrange
arrangement
ment (see Fi Figure
gure 1.6), the
cyli
cylind
nder
er and
and both
both faface
cess of the pistpiston
on (o
(on
n the
the up up-- piston is indirectly connected to the connecting rod
stroke
stroke and on the downs
downstrotroke).
ke). Engi
Engines
nes of the latt
latter
er throu
through
gh a crosshead, whi whichch slid
slideses up and down in
ty
type
pe araree memech
chan
anic
ical
ally
ly co compl
mplexex in co const
nstruc
ructition.
on. gui
guide
des.
s. The bigbig adva
advant
ntag
agee of thi
thiss syst
system
em is ttha
hatt it
They
The y are confi
confined
ned to very larglarge,
e, low sspee
peedd unit
unitss that
that remov
removeses pist
piston
on side
side thrus
thrust;
t; and thertheref
efore
ore re
reduc
duces
es
were primaril
primarilyy designe
designedd for mar
marine
ine prop
propuls
ulsion
ion dutdut-- cy
cyli
linde
nderr an
andd liner
liner we
wear
ar.. Thi
Thiss is off
offse
sett by grea
greateterr
ie
ies,
s, but have
have alalso
so been ap appl
plie
iedd to land
land-ba
-base
sedd gen
gen-- co
compl
mplexi
exity
ty,, add
addeded enengi
gine
ne heig
heightht an
andd weig
weight
ht,, an
andd

erating plant.
erating the
thruct
e ctio
stru
st need
ne ed
ionn isforge
genecar
caref
neraeful
rallul
lly adjust
adjdustme
y used
use ment
ynt..whe
only
onl Cr
Cros
whenn osshe
itshead
ad
cannottcon
canno con-
be-
The opp oppose
osed-p
d-pis
isto
tonn en engin
ginee uses
uses twtwo o pist
pistons
ons in
ea
each
ch cycyli
linde
nderr - the
the cocombu
mbust stio
ionn spaspace
ce bein
beingg in the avoided;
avoi ded; such as on doubldouble-a
e-acti
cting
ng engengine
iness [5].
middle
mid dle of the cylincylinder.
der. The
Therere is n no
o cyli
cylinder
nder heahead; d; Examples
Exampl es of very large slow-sslow-speed,
peed, single
single-acti
-acting,
ng,
and each piston is single single-acti
-acting
ng [4]. T The
he commonest tw
two-s
o-str
troke
oke enengi
gine
nes,
s, whi
which
ch alalso
so useuse the
the crcross
osshe
head
ad
ar
arra
range
ngemementnt em emplploys
oys tw twoo cr crank
anksha
shaft
ftss coconne
nnect cted
ed principle are given in [6].
togethe
toge therr (typic
(typicall
ally
y through
through bev bevelel gears
gears and flexiflexibly
bly
coup
uplled pi pini
nion
on shafts, as in the American
Fairba
Fairbanks-
nks-Mors
Morsee two- two-str
stroke
oke 38TD
38TD8V2 8V2 engi
enginene ser-
ser-
ie
ies).
s). The upp upper er pist
pistons
ons dridrive
ve one cra cranks
nkshaf
haft,t, anand d
the lower pistons
pistons the othe otherr (se(seee Figu
Figurere 1.5).
1.5). Other
configur
conf igurati
ations
ons usin
using g a sin
single
gle crank
crankshaf
shaftt hav
havee either
either
cross-c
cros s-conne
onnecte
ctedd rod lin linkk syste
systems,
ms, or lever connecconnec--
tio
tions,
ns, or they may emp employloy three
three cracranks
nks per cyli
cylinder
nder..
A classic
classic exa
example
mple of the last-me
last-mentioned
ntioned type was tthe he
very
very low spe speeded Doxf
Doxfordord J-tJ-type
ype engengine
ine des
descri
cribed
bed by
Wall
Wa llac
acee [5];
[5]; anandd now
now out out of pro produ
duct
ctio
ion.
n. It was
capabl
capablee of dev develo
eloping
ping abou
aboutt 20 MWm'
On
Onee of tw two o meth
method odss may
may be use usedd to coconnnnecectt a
piston to the upper end of the connecting rod. In the
trunk-piston arr arrange
angemenment,t, the con connec
nectin
tingg rod act actss
direct
directlyly on the piston.
piston. The geome geometry try is suc
suchh that the
piston exerts side thrust against the cylinder wall.
Most
Mo st of the we wear
ar cacause
usedd by thi thiss thrus
thrustt is n nea
earr thethe
mi
middl
ddlee of the strok
stroke.e. MaMakiking
ng thethe pist
piston
on skskir
irtt (i.e
(i.e..
the lower section
section of the pist piston)
on) relati
relativel
velyy long
long,, has

1.5
1.5 Cylinder arrangeme
arrangements
nts

The RIC engine may have it

itss cyl
cylind
inders
ers arr
arrange
anged
d in
one of sevesevera rall wa
ways.
ys. In the
the co conte
ntextxt of gen
genererat
atin
ingg
plants, the most commonly used engines are those in
which
whi ch the
the cy cylilinde
nderr axe
axess araree eieith
ther
er perpe
perpendi
ndicu
cula
larr
(ve
(verti
rtical
cal)) and in-lin
in-line;
e; or are arra
arranged
nged in a vee vee-for
-form.
m.
The
The ge genenerarall de
defi
fini
niti
tion
on of the si sing
ngle
le ba
bank
nk,, or
in-lin
in-linee engi
engine,ne, is one 'hav'having
ing a numbe
numberr of wor workin
king g
cyl
cylind
inders
ers all lo locat
cated
ed on one side side of the cranksh
crankshaft
aft,,
and in which all the cylinde cylinderr centre
centre lin lines
es lie in one
and
and the
the samesame plan plane,
e, whic
which h usua
usuall lly
y cont
contai
ains
ns thethe
cran
cranksh
kshafaft'
t' (B
(BS56
S5673:
73:197
1979/
9/ISO
ISO 120 1205-1
5-1972
972).). ThiThiss
form of constr
constructuction
ion may be used for engine enginess of up
to 9 cylind
cylinders. ers. The opposed-pi
opposed-piston ston engine describe
described d
in Se
Sectctio
ionn 1. 1.44 woul
wouldd be cl clas
assi
sifi
fied
ed as an in-l in-lin
inee
engine.
8 Reci
Reciproc
procatin
atingintern
ginternal
al combusti
combustion
on engines
engines

Above
Above a to tota
tall of 9 cy cyli
linde
nders
rs,, it bbec
ecom
omes es diffi
difficu
cult
lt Th
Thee de
desi signa
gnatition
on of eaeach
ch ccylylin
inde
derr in an RIRICC enengigine
ne
to make
make a suff suffic
icie
ient
ntly
ly rigi
rigidd fram
framee andand cran
cranks
ksha
haft
ft for is effe
effect
cteded by ei eith
ther
er a nu numb
mber er alalon
one,
e, or by a
an in-
in-liline
ne ararra
rang
ngememenent.
t. Also
Also,, thethe engin
enginee beco
becomemess co
comb
mbininat
atioionn of a ca capi
pita
tall le
lett
tter
er and
and a nu numb
mber er.. On
qui
quite
te long
long and tak takes
es up co consi
nsider
derabl
ablee spa
spacece [6]. For sin
single
gle-ba
-bank nk eng
engine
ines,
s, inclu
includindingg thos
thosee of the o oppo
pposedsed--
this
this rereas
ason,
on, it is usua
usuall ffor
or memedi
diumum-- and highhigh-s
-spe
peed
ed pist
piston
on vari
variet ety,
y, thethe cy cylilinde
nders
rs ar aree desi
designa
gnatetedd by
en
engi
gine
ness to eemp mploloyy a vee-
vee-foform
rm arra
arrang
ngem
emen ent,
t, whwhereree numb
numberer;; st star
arti
ting
ng wiwith
th 1 at tthe he cycyli
lind
nder
er near
nearesestt the
the
ther
theree ar aree more
more tha thann 10 cyli cylind
nderers.
s. By usi using
ng twtwo o ob
obse
serv
rver
er..
iden
identitica
call coconne
nnect
ctin
ing
g rod
rodss run
runni
ningng on eeac ach
h cra
crank
nkpi
pin
n Co
Comb
mbin inatatio
ions
ns of lelett
tter
erss and numbnumber erss ar
aree uuse
sed d fo
forr
(i
(in
n a 's'sid
ide-
e-by-
by-si
side
de'' ar
arra
rang
ngem
emenent)
t),, a stif
stifff cran
cranks
ksha
haft
ft is the
the cy
cyli
lind
ndererss of mult
multi- i-ba
banknk en engi
gine
nes.
s. Le
Letttter
erss araree
obta
obtain ined
ed;; an and d thethe frfram
amee is mu much ch more rigi rigid.d. The as
assi
signe
gned d to tthe he ba bank
nks,s, whic
which h araree de defifine
ned d as group
groupss
overalll lengt
overal length h of the eengi nginene isjust ove overr oneone-ha
-half lf that of cyl
cylind
indersers arra
arrangenged d in a com common mon plan planee paral
parallellel to
of anan equequiva
ivalenlentt in-lin
in-linee engin
engine. e. This make makess it com com-- the ax axis
is of the ccran ranksh
kshaft
aft.. BS 567 5673 3 uses
uses th thee conc
conceptept
pact, easy to install, and suitable for trailer-mounted of an imaginary semi-plane P, centred upon the axis
and
and ttra rans
nspo
port rtab
able
le genegenera rato
torr plan
plants ts.. The
The iinc nclu lude
ded d of the the driv drivining
g cr cran
anksksha
haft ft.. This This se semi
mi-p -pla
lane
ne is
angle
ang le of the vee betwee between n the b bank
ankss of ccyli ylinde
nders rs may assume
assumed d to be rrota otatin
tingg in a clockw
clockwise ise dir
direct
ection
ion;; and
ra
rang
ngee fro fromm ab abou outt 30°
30° to 120° 120°.. In Inci
cidedent
ntalally
ly,, a fla flatt the
the crcran
anksksha
haftft in a horihorizozontntal
al pos posit itio
ion.
n. ThThee sta start
rtin
ingg
engine
eng ine (al (also
so re refer
ferred
red to aass a hori horizonzontaltally
ly opp
opposeosed d or point
point on the semi- semi-pla planene is in its its 9 o'cloc
o'clock k pospositi
ition-
on-
vis-
vis-a-
a-viviss enengiginene)) is a vee- vee-en engigine
ne whos whosee an anglglee be-
be- as seen
seen b byy the
the ob obseserve
rverr (s(seeee Figu
Figure re 1.
1.7).
7). ThThee ba bank
nk at
twee
tween n banbanks ks ha hass bebeenen inincrcrea
ease
sed d to 18 180°0°.. It shou
should ld this
this po poinintt on the the se semi
mi-p
-plalanene,, or the the fi firs
rstt babank
nk
not
not be conf confus useded wi with
th an op oppoposesed-d-pipist
ston
on engiengine ne.. thro
througugh h whic
which h the se semi
mi-p
-plalane
ne move moves, s, is give
given n th
thee
Anot
Anothe herr forform m of mu multlti-
i-ba
banknk en engigine
ne is tthe he do doubl
ublee ca
capi
pita
tall lett
letter
er A. The follo followi wing ng ba banknk is as assisign
gneded the
bank (twin bank) unit, which has its cylinders letter B; and so on. Each individual cylinder il}the il} the
grou
groupe ped d in tw two o vert
vertic
ical
al bank
banks; s; ea eachch with it itss own en
engi
gine
ne is givegiven n an al alph
pha-
a-nunumemeri ricc symb
symbol ol:: AIAI,, B8 B8,,
cr
cran
anks
kshahaftft.. GeGear ar wh
whee eels
ls,, of su suit itab
able
le st step
ep-u
-up p rati
ratio,
o, etc.
etc.
ar
aree fit
fittetedd on tthe he crcran
anks
kshahaftftss and
and dr drivivee a ccom ommo mon n The
The cyl cylininde
dersrs in each
each ro roww of the the babanknk ar aree nu
num-m-
outp
output ut sh shaf
aft.t. EnEngigine
ness of tthi hiss tytype
pe,, ma manu nufafact
ctur
ureded in bere
bered d in tthe he samsamee way as fo forr a si sing
nglele-ba
-banknk engienginene,,
Eu
Europ
ropee by Sulz Sulzer er an
andd LLisiste
ter-B
r-Bla lack
ckst ston
onee in the the 1951950s0s i.e.
i.e. star
starti
ting
ng wi withth 1, fromfrom the the row nea nearerestst the
the ob-
an
andd 1960
1960s, s, fofoun
und d wide
wide aappl pplic icat
atio
ion n in loco locomo moti tive
ves;
s; serve
server. r. A ro roww is defi define
nedd as a gr group
oup of cy cylilind
nder
erss
an
andd were suc succe cessssful
fully
ly emp
emplo loye
yed d on sta stati
tiona
onary ry gen-gen- arra
arrangngeded in a ccom ommomon n plan
planee at rrig ight
ht anangl gles
es to tthehe
erator duties. axis of the crankshaft; so that cylinders having
Th
Thee inte interna
rnatitiona
onall co conv
nven enti
tion
on for the num numbe beriring
ng simi
similalarr num
numbe bersrs for
formm a rrow ow.. For eexa xampmple le,, A 1 an and d
and
and iden identitifi
fica
catition
on of the the ba banknkss of cyli cylind
nder ers,s, of B 1 are
are in one one ro row,w, aandnd A 6 and and B 6 ar aree in anot
anotheherr
vari
variou
ouss en engi
gine
neforformsms,, isgive
isgiven n in ISO ISO 1205(BS
1205(BS 5673) 5673).. (see
(see FiguFigure re 1.7)1.7).. In the the ca case se of the the tw twinin-ba
-bank
nk
Th
Thisis sp spececif
ifie
iess thethe me meththod
od of desi designagnati ting
ng the the cy cy-- en
engi
gine
ne,, the
the axi
axiss of rrot otat
atio
ion n of the the se semi
mi-p-plalane
ne is thethe
li
linde
nders rs of R RICIC eng engin
ines
es for ma mari rine
ne,, loco
locomo moti tive
ve an and d ce
cent
ntra
rall liline
ne bebetwtweeeenn thethe tw two o cran
cranks kshahaftftss (t(the
he liline
ne
stationary use. coinciding with the arrow V in Figure 1.7).
The
The 'p 'pos
osititio
ion n of the the o obs
bser
ervever'r',, in relarelatition
on to an The
The dire directctio
ionn of ccra rank
nkshshaf aftt rotarotatition
on does does no nott
en
engi
gine
ne,, is d def
efin
ineded in th thee stan
standadard rd as be beining:
g: 'in'in an affe
affect
ct the
the cycyli
lind
nderer de
desisigna
gnati tions
ons.. Cy Cyli lind
ndererss shou
should ld be
extens
extension ion of the aaxis xis of the sshaf haftt whiwhich ch pro
provid
vides es the mar
marked
ked with with thetheirir lette
letters
rs and num number bers.s.
driv
driviningg ex extrtrem
emit ity,
y, the
the obse
observe rverr dire directctin
ingg hishis vi view
ew Singl
Single- e-babank
nk engin
engines es araree als
alsoo saidsaid to be 'handed'.
toward
tow ardss thisthis shaft extre extremitmity'.
y'. The position eequ qualally
ly Ha
Handndiningg is dete
determ rminined
ed by tthe he lo loca
cati
tion
on of tthe he exex--
applie
app liess to sin singlegle-ba
-bank
nk and mult multi-b i-bank
ank eng engineines;s; and hau
haustst pi
pipes
pes on the side side of an eng engine ine - ref referr
erred
ed to the
to thos
thosee uni units,ts, suc
suchh as the ttwin win-ba-bank nk engengineine,, whiwhichch obs
observ
erver'
er'ss pos
positiition.
on. Thus, a righ right-ht-hand
and,, single
single-ba-bank
nk
ha
have
ve aan n iint
ntegegrarall gear
gear.. If the the eeng ngin inee has more more ttha han n engi
enginene wo woululdd be one one wh whos osee exha exhaus ustt pipepipess ar aree
one driv
driving
ing shaft,
shaft, the man manufa
ufactu
cturer
rer mus
mustt sstattatee whi
whichch locate
locatedd to th
thee right of the pla plane
ne which ccont
ontain
ainss the
sh
shaf
aftt eext
xtre
remi
mity
ty is used
used as thethe dat
datum
um whewhen n de
desisign
gnat
at-- cy
cyli
lind
nder
er cecent
ntre
res,
s, as viewviewed
ed fr from
om the
the obse
observe
rver'
r'ss
ing the cylinders. position. See the illustrations in Figure 1.8, repro-
Th
Thee te term
rmss prprim
imararyy driv
drivin
ing
g en endd and free (or du
duce
cedd from
from ththee rel
relat
ated
ed BrBrit
itis
ish
h Stan
Standa
dard
rd BS 56755675::
secondary) driving end w wer
eree in use
use bef
befororee the
the with
with-- 197
1979 9 (ISO
(ISO 2276
2276:: 1972
1972).). N
Not
ote,
e, that
that the hand
handining
g defi
defi--
dra
drawal
wal of BS 159 1599 9 in 191979,
79, and may sstil tilll be
be found in nition
nitionss onl
onlyy apply whewherere the loca
locatio
tion
n of th
thee exhau
exhaustst
so
some
me en engi
gine
ne spspec
ecifific
icat
atio
ions
ns.. Th
Thee prim
primarary y enend d wawass pipe
pipess is on oone
ne ssid
idee of the
the eng
engin ine.
e.
define
defined d as tthehe end conne
connecte
cted d to the princi
principal pal powe
powerr
ta
take
ke-o-off
ff (e(e.g
.g.. the
the gene
generarato
tor),
r), anandd the
the freefree end as
that
that oppo
oppositsitee to it. Not
Note,e, that
that the numb
numberi eringng syssystem
tem
of ISO 1205 is the rever reversese of that previously appli applied
ed
in BS 1599. 1.6
1.6 Fuels
uels and
and opera
operating
ting modes
modes
The direction
direction of an engin engine's
e's rotat
rotation
ion (cloc
(clockwise
kwise or
co
coun
unteter-c
r-clo
lock
ckwi
wise
se)) is desc
descri
ribe
bed
d from
from th thee poposi
siti
tion
on of In its
its comp
compre
ress
ssio
ion-
n-ig
igni
niti
tion
on (c(c.i
.i.)
.) for
form,
m, using
using fuel
the
the obobseserve
rverr - i.ei.e.. the eend
nd of the
the en engi
gine
ne assassococia
iate
tedd inje
inject
ctio
ion
n eq
equi
uipm
pmen
ent,
t, the
the RIRIC
C enengi
gine
ne ma
mayy be run
with the driven unit. either as a straight diesel or as a dual-fuel engine.
 Fuelsand
Fuelsand ope
operat
rating
ing mod
modes
es 9

engines
engi nes tradit
tradition
ionall
ally
y ope
operat
rated
ed on gas oil. MediuMediumm
spe
speed
ed engengin
ines
es are
are desig
designe
ned
d to acce
accept
pt the
the heav
heavie
ierr
dist
distil
illa
late
te fuel
fuels;
s; and
and some
some can can run
run on blen
blends
ds of
dist
distil
illa
late
te and resi
residua
duall fue
fuels
ls.. Tho
Thosese that
that have
have an
any
y
history of marine use also run satisfactorily
satisfactorily on heavy
residuall oils [9].
residua
In terms
terms of usage
usage,, a low speedspeed engine
engine,, reqrequire
uiredd to
op
oper
erat
atee in a remoremote te ararea
ea,, may
may run run quit
quitee econ
econo-o-
micall
mic allyy on a dist
distill
illate
ate fuel
fuel.. Thi
Thiss avoi
avoidsds the costs of
spe
specia
cially
lly hea
heated
ted storage
storage and of deli delivery
very vehi
vehicle
cless for
hea
heavyvy resi
residual
dual fue
fuel.
l. Also,
Also, it wou
would ld be advant
advantageageous
ous
if medium
medium spe speed
ed engi
engines,
nes, dridriving
ving marin
marinee auxiauxilia
liary
ry
generat
gene rators,
ors, were ca capabl
pablee of op opera
eratin
tingg on the heavy
resi
residua
duall fue
fuell used
used in the ship ship's
's mamainin pro
propul
pulsi
sion
on
Ch
Choi
oice
ce of fuel
fuel,, in the fi
first
rst mo
mode
de of oper
operat
atio
ion,
n, engines
engi nes [9].
depends on:
depends En
Engin
gineses ope
opera
rati
ting
ng in th thee dua
dual-l-fue
fuell mod
modee useuse a
mi
mixt
xtur
uree of gas gas anand d aiairr whic
which h is ig igni
nite
ted
d in th thee
1. engi
engine
ne design;
design;
cyl
cylinde
indersrs by the injec
injectio
tion
n of a smal
smalll pilot charge of
2. the fuel
fuelss sel
select
ected
ed in d
deve
evelopm
lopment
ent;; and
liq
liquid
uid distilla
distillate
te fuel
fuel.. Pil
Pilot
ot fuel conconsump
sumptiotionn is be be--
3. eng
engine
ine usa
usage.
ge.
tw
twee
eenn 5 and 10% of the norma normall fu full
ll-l
-loa
oadd qua
quant
ntit
ity
y
Liquid
Liquid fue
fuels
ls range from a distil
distillat
latee (gas oil
oil)) through
through requi
requireredd for stra
straig
ight
ht diese
diesell ope
operarati
tion.
on. It re rema
mains
ins
to heavy residual
residual oils.
oils. See Chapt
Chapter er 12. HHigh
igh spee
speed
d fair
fairly
ly cons
consta
tant
nt throu
througho
ghoutut thethe load
load ra range
nge;; unles
unlesss
10 Recip
Reciproc
rocati
ating
ng in
inter
ternal
nal combus
combusti
tion
on engin
engines
es

ther
theree is a gas gas short
shortagage,
e, in w whi
hich
ch case
case,, an
any y in
inpu
putt en
enou
oughgh to hohold
ld a su suff
ffic
icie
ient
nt mixtmixtururee for
for two
two re revo
volu
lu--
en
ener
ergy
gy shor
shortf
tfal
alll is ma madede up by an incr increa
ease
se in tthe he ti
tion
onss of the
the enengi
gine
ne cr cran
anksksha
haftft),
), ther
theree is an inheinhere
rent
nt
liqu
liquid
id fufuel
el in
injeject
cted
ed.. Sh Shou
ould
ld ththee gas
gas supp
supplyly fa
fail
il at any
any dela
delay y in gove
governrnor
or re resp
spononse
se [10] [10].. Gen
Genereral
ally
ly speaspeak-
k-
time
time,, or bebeco
comeme in inad
adeqequa
uate
te fo forr the loa
loadd dema
demandnded
ed,, in
ing,
g, respo
respons
nsee chchararac
acte
teri
rist
stic
icss on gagass en
engi
gine
ness araree not
not
the
the en engi
gine
ne au auto
toma
mati tica
call
lly
y reve
revert
rtss to the the st stra
raig
ight
ht as goo
goodd as thos
thosee on diesdieselel en engigine
nes,
s, give
givenn the
the sasame
me
dies
diesel
el mode
mode.. BecaBecaus usee of th thee need to m mod
odul
ulat
atee both
both gov
govern
ernor
or sys
system
tem..
oil
oil an
andd gas
gas flows,
flows, th thee co
cont
ntro
roll and
and prprot
otec
ecti
tion
on syst
system
em RIC
RIC en
engi
gine
ness may
may be desi designgneded to inc incor
orpo
pora
rate
te bothboth
is more
more comp
comple lex
x th than
an th that
at foforr strai
straigh
ghtt didies
esel
el or gasgas c.i
.i.. and s.i.
s.i. sysyst
steems to gi give
ve op oper
erat
atio
ion
n on eithe
itherr
en
engi
gine
nes.
s. ThThee engi
enginene may may be sswi witc
tche
hed,
d, at any any load,
load, liquid or gaseous fuels. They are known as
from
from du dualal-f
-fue
uell to li liqu
quidid fu fuel
el op opererat
atio
ion;
n; an
andd vi vice
ce alternative-fuel engines. More often than not,
ve
vers
rsaa. The sam same ou outtput
put ra rati
ting
ng must must th ther
eref
efoore be ch
chan
ange
ge to ei eith
ther
er type
type of fue fuell rerequ
quir
ires
es en engi
gine
ne st stop
opp-p-
se
sele
lect
cted
ed fo forr bot
both h mode
modess of oper operat atio
ionn [3 [3].
]. ag
age.
e. Conve
Convers rsio
ionn operoperatatio
ions
ns may may taketake se seve
verarall hour
hours. s.
In itsits spa
sparkrk-i
-ign
gnititio
ionn (s.i
(s.i.)
.) fo form
rm,, th thee RICRIC en engigine
ne,, Some
Some en engi
gine
nes,
s, ho
howewevever,
r, ha
have
ve linklink me mechchananis
isms
ms,,
wh
whicichh is gene genera ralllly
y a 'cconv onver erte
ted'
d' di
dies
eselel en engigine
ne,, ma may y wh
whic
ichh di disc
scon
onnenect
ct the the liquliquid id fuel
fuel pu pump
mp driv drivee an andd
op
oper
eratatee on a wid widee va vari
riet
etyy of gas gaseo
eousus fu fuel
els.
s. Th Thesesee clo
close
se the ai airr in
inta
take;
ke; whi whilstlst,, sim
simult
ultane
aneous
ously,
ly, ene
energi
rgiz-z-
ma
may y in incl
clud
udee well well-h -hea
eadd ga gas,
s, na natutura
rall ga gas,
s, as dist distriri-- in
ing
g th thee elelec
ectr
tric
ical
al igniigniti
tion
on an andd turnturnin
ingg on the ga gass
buted by National Utilities, bio-gas produced in in
inpu
put.t. Chan
Change geovover
er is then
then poss possibible
le wi with
th the
the en engigine
ne
dige
digestster
erss at ssew ewag agee wo work rkss an andd la land
ndfifill
ll sisite
tes,
s, and
and th thee ru
runn
nnining
g - much much as in in the dual dual-f-fue
uell mode
mode desc descri ribe
bed d
paraffin series gases, such as propane. See Chapter earl
earlie
ier.
r. Ag Agai ain,
n, it must must be appr apprececia
iate
tedd that
that ou outptputut
12. ra
rati
ting
ng wi will
ll vary
vary wi withth the
the type
type of fu fuel
el used;
used; it w wililll be
The larg largeest pe petr
trol
ol engi enginenes,
s, whi hich
ch can be con- con- low
lowerer for gas ope operat
ration
ion..
vert
verteded to g gas
as oper
operat atio
ion,
n, have have a ca capa
pacicity
ty belo
below w 1 li litr
tree The
The fu fuel
el gas com compo posisiti
tion
on an andd a ccomompl plet
etee an anal
alys
ysisis
per cylinder swept volume. It is for this reason that of the
the co cons
nsti
titu
tuen
ents
ts of any
any ga gass prop
propososed
ed for for ei eith
therer
gas
gas engenginines
es,, ab abovovee th that
at capa
capaci city
ty,, ar aree base
based d on dies dieselel dua
dual-f
l-fuel
uel,, strstraig
aight
ht gasgas,, or altern
alternati
ative-
ve-fue
fuell ope
operat
ration
ion
engi
engineness co convnvererte
tedd fr from
om th thee c.i.
c.i. cyc
cyclele [1 [10]
0].. The gr gros
osss is mand
mandat ator
oryy for for check
checkin ingg its its suit
suitab
abil
ilit
ityy forfor useuse.. A
co
cont
ntin
inuo
uousus ou outptput
ut of suc such h en engi
gineness is ab abou
outt 60 60% % of fu
fuel
el analy
analysisiss al also
so allo
allows
ws thethe en engi
gine
ne manu
manufa fact
ctur
urer
er to
that
that wh whic ich h wo woul uld
d be avai availalabl
blee fr from
om th them
em in the their
ir evaluate the performance of his engine. For
compre
com pressi
ssion-
on-ignigniti
ition
on for
form.m. exam
exampl ple,
e, th thee pres
presenence
ce of ine inert
rt gase
gasess in the the fuel
fuel willwill
Co
Compmpre ressssio
ionn rati
ratios
os (see (see Chapt
Chapter er 2) may may range range have
have th thee effe
effectct of red reduc
uciningg the the powe
powerr outpoutputut ra rati
ting
ng
fr
from
om 7. 7.5
5 to 12. 12.5,5, depe
dependndiningg upon upon th thee fuel
fuel quali
quality ty.. of the
the en engi
gine
ne [10][10]..
Hi
High
gh-v-vololta
tagege ig
igni
niti
tion
on systsystememss ar aree emplo
employe yed,d, usin using g
rob
robust
ust,, shishield
elded,
ed, 'indus
'industritrial'
al' typ typee spark
spark plugsplugs placed
placed
in the
the cy cylilind
nderer he head
adss - no normrmalally
ly wh wher eree th thee fufuelel oi oill
1.7
1.7 Engine features
nozz
nozzle less wo woul uldd be si site
tedd forfor c.i. operaoperati tion
on.. A feat
featururee
of thes
thesee plugplugss is th that
at ththey
ey have
have a nu numbmber er of gro grounund d
It iiss notnot ininte
tend
ndeded to desc descri
ribe
be the the tetech
chni
nica
cali
liti
ties
es of
elec
electrtrod
odeses.. As eero rosi
sion
on take takess pl plac
ace,
e, moremore meta metall ca can n
eng
engineine conconstr
struct
uction
ion in any any detail
detail.. The conv convent
ention
ional
al
we
wearar aw awayay befo before re th thee spar
spark k gapgap becobecome mess exce excess ssiv
ive.
e.
principles are to be found in the many textbooks
Th
Thisis gigive
vess th them
em a llif ifee of aboabout ut 16001600 hour hourss [1 [10]
0]..
th
that
at sp spec
ecia
iali
lize
ze in the the susubj
bjec
ect.
t. So Some
me of thes thesee ar aree
Air flow cont controlrol is mor moree imp importortant
ant on s.i. s.i. engines
engines,,
li
list
sted
ed in th thee rerefe
fere
renc
nces
es andand bibl
biblio
iogr
grap
aphy
hy at the the end
sinc
sincee an elec electrtric
ic spar
spark k is not not as goo good d an 'ign 'ignititor
or'' as a
of thi thiss ch
chap
apteter.
r. In any any ev even
ent,
t, cocons
nstr
truc
ucti
tion
on deta
detailil
spra
spray y of b bur
urnining
ng oi oil.
l. VaVari riou
ouss fo form
rmss of gas/ gas/aiairr pr pro-
o-
va
variries
es fr from
om on onee en engi
gine
ne type
type to the the nenext
xt anand
d manu
manu--
portioning are employed to keep the mixture ratio
facturers' instruction manuals must be the
wi
with
thin
in closclosee limi limitsts.. Th Theyey may may ra rang
ngee fr from
om si sing
nglele
app
appropropria
riate
te sou
source
rce for infoinforma
rmatio
tion.
n.
mixi
mixing ng valvvalves es to iind ndiv
ivid
idua
uall ai air-
r-th
thro
rottttli
ling
ng valv
valves es on
Ins
Inste
tead,
ad, we sha shall ll only
only con
consid
sider
er cercerta
tain
in dis
distin
tingui
guish-
sh-
each
each cy cylilind
nder
er.. Pe Perhrhap
apss th thee simpl
simples estt devi
devicece used
used on in
ingg featu
featureres.
s. TheThe inte intent
ntio
ion,
n, in so so doin
doing,
g, is to g giv
ivee the
the
hig
high-s
h-spee
peed d engengine iness is the carbure carburetto
ttor.
r.
re
read
adeer a ccle leaar pic ictu
ture
re of the terms rms us useed; and the the
(Note: the the ter termm stoichiome
stoichiometric tric mixture is use usedd to
cr
crit
iter
eria
ia fo forr selec
selecti tion
on of equ equip
ipme
mentnt to m mat
atch
ch need
needs.s.
defi
define
ne th the,
e, th
theoeorereti
tica
call
lly,
y, co
corr
rrec
ectt aiair-
r-to
to-f
-fue
uell rarati
tio.
o. It
is tha
thatt mixtur
mixturee whi which ch yieyields
lds,, on re react
action
ion,, a sto
stoicichio
hio--
me
metrtric
ic co comp
mpouound nd.. Fo
Forr exexamamplple:
e: tw two o molec
moleculules
es of 1.7.1
1.7.1 Primary systems
Primary
hydr
hydrogogen
en an andd one one of oxy oxygegen,
n, yiyiel
eld
d twtwo o mol
molec
ecul
ules
es of
wa
wate
terr on com combu buststio
ionn [11]
[11]))
Fuel injection
Sp
Speeeedd co cont
ntroroll is the thenn achiachiev
eved
ed by a gover governo norr
oper
operatatin
ing
g on the butt butter
erfl
fly
y wi with
thin
in th thee carb
carbur
uretetto
tor;
r; Mosostt mododeern RICRIC eng ngiine
ness have
ave a m meechan
chanicical
al or
and affecti
affecting
ng con controtroll of the the gas/ai
gas/airr mixtu
mixturere admitt
admitted ed ai
airle
rless
ss fue
fuell inj
inject
ection
ion sys system
tem embod
embodyin g jerk pu
ying pumps.
mps.
to th
thee cyl
cylin
inde
dersrs.. Go Gove vern
rnor
or ch choi
oice
ce depe
depend ndss upon
upon th thee Low
Low an and
d memedi
dium
um sp spee
eed
d en engi
gine
ness tetend
nd to use use indi
indi--
deg
degree
ree of concontrotroll req requir
uired;
ed; and up upon
on the genergenerato
ator's
r's vi
vidu
dual
al ca
cams
msha
haft
ft-a
-act
ctua
uate
ted
d pump
pumpss forfor ea
each
ch cycyli
lind
nder
er..
app
applic
licati
ation.
on. See
See Sub Sub-se-secti
ction
on 1.7.2.
1.7.2. Hig
ighe
herr sp spee
eedd en engi
gine
ness empl
employ
oy distdistri
ribu
buti
tion
on type
type,,
Beca
Becaus usee th thee ca carbrbur
uret
etto
tor'
r'ss butt
butter
erfl
fly
y is at the the inlet
inlet blockk pumps (w
bloc (witithi
hin
n wh whic
ichh al
alll the jerk
jerk pu pump
mp el ele-
e-
to the
the air
air inindu
duct ctio
ionn mani manifofoldld (w(whihich
ch is usuausuall
lly
y la larg
rgee ments are incorporated) driven from a s eellf-
 E ngi
ngine
ne f e
eat
atur
ures
es 11

contained
contain ed cam
camshashaft.
ft. Thi
This,s, in tturn,
urn, is coup
coupled
led to an hea
heatt losses
losses.. Agai
Again, n, the grea
greater
ter heat
heat losses
losses frfrom
om the
auxilia
auxi liary
ry driv
drivee from the engiengine.
ne. larger exposed
exposed surface
surfacess of ind
indirect
irect-injec
-injection
tion system
systemss
Certai
Cer tain
n two
two-st
-stroke
roke engi
engines
nes use the ccomm ommon on rairaill means that they give lo lower
wer thermal efficefficienci
iencies
es than
system, wherwhereieinn fue
fuell is ma maininta
taine
inedd at a consconstatant
nt dire
direct
ct-i
-inj
njec
ecti
tion
on on ones
es.. For
For thesthesee rereas
asonons,
s, smal
smalll
pressure by a pump and a hydraulic accumulator. A indirect-inj
indire ct-injecti
ection
on engines may have therm thermalal effic
efficien-
ien-
fuel valve
valve at each cylindcylinder,
er, driv
drivenen and timed from cies as low as 28 %; whil whilst
st lar
larger
ger engi
engines,
nes, part
particu
icu--
th
thee main
main camscamsha haft
ft,, then
then de deli
live
vers
rs the
the fu
fuel
el to thethe larly
larly those usinusing g direct
direct-in
-injec
jectio
tionn tec
techniq
hniques
ues,, may
engme. have efficien
efficiencie
ciess as high as 43 %.
The injector, the device which delivers the fuel (by
finely divided
divided spray) into the combust combustion ion space, is in
Induction
es
esse
senc
ncee a sp spri
ring-
ng-lo
load
aded
ed needneedlele valv
valve,e, who
whose se tiptip
covers
cov ers the inject
injector
or nozzle hol hole(e(s).
s). ThThee num
numbe berr of Th
Thee induc
inductition
on sys syste
temm of an eng engininee is ddes
esig
ignened
d to
holes, their angles, and the angle of spray are large largely ly provide the air required for fuel combustion. Also,
depe
dependndenentt upon
upon the sh shap
apee of th thee co
comb
mbususti
tion
on air
air mus
mustt be av avai
aila
labl
blee for sca scave
vengi
nging
ng spent
spent gases
gases
chambe
chamber. r. Since
Since fuel syste
systemsms must have small pass pass-- from
from the the cyli
cylindnder
erss of two-two-ststro
roke
ke engiengine
nes.s. Th
Thee
ages
ages and nozz nozzlele hole
holes,s, it is very
very impimport
ortant
ant that
that the system
syst em should be desi designed
gned to suppsupplyly cle
clean
an air to the
fuel within them is we well
ll filte
filtered.
red. engi
engine
ne at,at, or as ne near
ar,, ambi
ambienentt tetemp
mpererat
atur
uree as is
possible and with the minimum of restriction. The
quantit
quan tity
y of aiairr suppl
suppliedied has a d dire
irect
ct bearin
bearingg upon an
Combustion
Combustion chambers
chambers
engine's
engi ne's outp
outputut and its fuel fuel consum
consumpti ption.
on.
These are basic
These basicall
ally
y of tw
two
o type
types:
s: thos
thosee designe
designedd for Engi
Enginene make
makers rs stip
stipul
ulat
atee the
the maximaximu
mum m per-per-
indirect injection; and those for direct injection. missib
mis sible
le total
total restri
restricti
ction
on at inductio
induction n man
manifol
ifoldd or
The former emp employ
loy pre-combustion chambechambersrs in turboc
turbochaharge
rgerr inleinlet.
t. ThThee induc
inducti tion
on syst
system
em's's tota
totall
the cylinder
cylinder head, into whic
whichh a rrelati
elatively
vely coarse
coarse,, low restric
restrictio
tion
n is m made
ade up of that due to:
pressure fuel spray is injected. Subdivided chambers
• air ffilt
iltrat
ration
ion restri
restricti
ction;
on;
of this type includ
includee the so-cal
so-called
led antechamber, the
• the
the resi
resist
staance
nce to air fl flow
ow due to in
inta
take
ke pipe
pipe
swirl and turbulence cha chamb
mber er,, andand the the air cell cell friction;
cham
chambe ber.r. They
They ar aree fafavovour
ureded by Eur Europ opea
eann and and
• the veloci
velocityty effect
effects.
s.
Amer
Am eric
ican
an en engigine
ne ma manuf
nufacactuture
rers
rs and have the ad ad--
vantage
vant age of beinbeing g able
able to succe
successfussfullylly handle a wid widee Intake pipe
Intake pipework
work shou should ld be as sshort
hort and as sstra traight
ight as
ra
rang
ngee of fue fuelsls.. WhWhen en re requ
quirired
ed to ope opera rate
te ovover er a possible. Any bends in the system should be kept to
broad band of environmental conditions, they com- a mini
minimu mum m and and shoushould ld ha have
ve long
long swee sweeps ps.. The
The
pare 4nfavourably with direct-injection chambers, objecti
obje ctive
ve must be to minim minimize ize the resist
resistancancee to air
on fuel consum
consumpti ption.
on. Also,
Also, sincesince heaheatt loss
loss fro
from m the flow.. Also, reliab
flow reliable le sealin
sealing g must
must be proviprovidedded in the the
pre-combustion chamber is high, cold starting can piping and associated fittings.
be difficult without prolonged cranking, or without Whilee the vel
Whil veloci
ocityty effe
effects
cts may be rel relati
ativel
vely y low
recours
recoursee to some form of extern external al heaheatin
ting.
g. for naturally-as
naturally-aspiratepirated d engine
engines, s, they ca can n be subs
substan-
tan-
In didire
rect
ct-i
-inj
njec
ectition
on syste
systems ms the the und underersi
side
de of the the tial
tial in the ca case
se of turboc
turbocha harge
rged d engi
engine nes.
s. A highehigherr
cyli
cylindnderer heheadad is usua usuall lly
y fl flat
at;; and
and the the cleacleara ranc
ncee total
total inlet
inlet restri
restricti
ction
on is theref
therefore
ore norm
normall ally
y all
allowe
owed d
vol
volume
ume (see (see ChaChapt pter
er 2) on co compr
mpres essi
sion
on is ma main inly
ly for turboc
turbocha harge
rged d en engigine
nes,
s, but this does not af affe
fect
ct
contain
cont ained
ed within
within the piston piston crown. Crow Crown n depr
depres-es- the restr
restricicti
tion
on alloallowawablblee acacros
rosss the
the ai airr fi
filt
lter
er [13
[13].
].
sionss are so shape
sion shaped d as to effe effecti
ctivel
vely y indu
induce ce swir
swirledled Tu
Turbo
rbochchararge
gersrs tend
tend to 'pull'
'pull' oil o on
n high
high air intaintakeke
air turbulen
turbulence ce as the piston piston rises
rises on its co compre
mpressi ssion
on depressions.
stroke
stroke.. Fue Fuell is the
then n inject
injecteded in the sam samee direct
direction
ion as Filtra
Filtratio
tionn of inta
intakeke air is nec necess
essary
ary in dus dustyty envi
envi--
this flow of swirling
swirling air. Many differe different nt bowl sha shapes
pes ronment
ronm entss because
because sol solid
id parti
particle
cless have an abrasi abrasiveve
have beenbeen empl
employed oyed.. The most popul popular ar now ap appea
pearr effect
effect on intern
internal al sur
surfac
faceses (suc
(such h as pipisto
stonn rings
rings and
to be th thee simp
simple le toro
toroididal
al shapshapee (for(for high high-s-swi
wirlrl cyl
cylinde
inders)rs) and shorte
shorten n the servic
servicee lif
lifee of an engine
engine..
en
engigine
nes);
s); an andd the the wide
widerr an and d shall
shallowe
owerr quiescent Choice
Cho ice of filte
filterr depe
depends
nds upon the instal installed
led plant'
plant'ss
chamber for low- low-sw swir
irll engi
engine nes.
s. As th thee latt
latter
er's
's environ
env ironment
ment and the servi servicece life req
require
uired.
d. EngEngine
ine
desc
descri ript
ptio
ionn imimpliplies
es,, it is one in whic which h ther
theree is th thee ma
maker
ker's's recom
recomme mendandatitions
ons shoulshouldd be sou sought
ght an andd
mi
mininimu
mum m ai airr mot
motio ion.
n. Re Reli
lianc
ancee is tthen hen plac placeded on observed.
mu
mult lti-
i-hol
holee noznozzl zles
es to give give fue fuell distr
distribibut
utio
ion.
n. Th Thee Du
Duty ty cate
categogori
ries
es in wh whicichh the
the vari
variououss type
typess of
qui
quiesesce
cent
nt ch chamambe berr is part particicul
ular
arly
ly well
well sui suite
tedd to filter
filterss may be appl appliedied are as follow
follows: s:
cooling
cool ing by underc
undercrown rown oil jets;jets; and by oil gal galler
leries
ies in
the piston crown [12]. The direct-inj direct-injection
ection princi
principleple 1. Normal duty for pla plant
nt instal
installed
led in shshelt
eltere
ered
d and
is almo
almost st univ
universa
ersally
lly emp
employe
loyed d in mode modern rn medmediumium low dust-concentr
dust-concentration
ation condit
conditions:
ions: eithe
eitherr oil bath
spe
speeded and high-s
high-spee peed d eng
engineines.s. or dry
dry type
type filt
filter
erss - bo
both
th wi
withthout
out pre
pre-c
-cle
leane
anerr
Sm
Smalall-
l-bor
boree en engin
gineses tetend
nd to have have lowelowerr therma
thermall stages.
ef
effi
fici
cien
enci
cies
es (see
(see Chap Chapte terr 2) beca becaus usee theitheirr high
high 2. Medi
Medium um dut
duty
y for instinstal
alla
lati
tions
ons in te tempe
mperarate
te,,
's
'surf
urfacace-
e-ar
area
ea/c
/cyli
ylinde
nder-r-vol
volume
ume'' ra
rati
tios
os givegive large largerr relati
relativel
vely
y dry, and moderat
moderately
ely dust
dusty
y cond
conditi
itions:
ons:
12 Re
Reci
cipro
proca
cati
ting
ng in
inte
terna
rnall combu
combust
stio
ion
n eng
engin
ines
es

oil
oil bath
bath or dry elem elemenentt filt
filter
erss with
with cecentr
ntrif
ifuga
ugall of the
the reremot
mote- e-mou
mounti nting
ng typetype.. They
They ar aree fi
fitt
tted
ed wi with
th
pre-cleaner stages, and with greater dust holding centri
centrifuga
fugall pre-
pre-fil
filter
ters,
s, whic
which h eject the lar larger
ger dust
cap
capaci
acity
ty than
than thos
thosee in (1). particles from the air before it is passed down a
3. Hea
Heavyvy duty for se sever
veree dust
dust-con
-concencentra
tratio
tion
n app appli-
li- centra
centrall tube
tube to the oil bat bath.h. See Fi Figure
gure t .9(b).
ca
cati
tions
ons,, or whe where
re regul
regularar mamain inte
tenan
nance ce is no nott Oil
Oil bath
bath fi filt
lter
erss araree ma
matc tche
hedd to suit engienginene type
type
possible: heavy duty, dry element filters, with and operatin
operating g speed.
speed. Inco Incorrec
rrectt mat
matchi
ching
ng will
will give
give
highly efficient
efficient (90--95%) centrif
centrifugal
ugal pre-cl
pre-cleaner
eaner poor filtration efficiency, and/or oil carry-ove carry-overr (pull-
stage
stages;
s; and
and,, pre
prefe
fera
rabl
bly,
y, with
with selfself-e
-emp
mpty tyin
ingg or over) fr from
om the the fi filt
lter
er into
into the engi enginene.. CaCarry
rry-ov
-over
er
dust unloadi
unloadingng arra
arrange
ngement
ments. s. Filter
Filterss of thithiss type lim
limits
its (to about 15°)the ang angle le of incli
inclinat
nation
ion at whi which
ch
may include
include safety
safety eleme
elementsnts as an opti optional
onal fea-fea- the filter
filter can be oper operateated.
d.
ture.. The
ture Theirir purp
purpose
ose is to pro
protec
tectt the eng
engine
ine in thethe Dry type filter
filterss cle
clean
an the inta intake
ke air by pas passin
singg it
event
eve nt of ma main
in elem
elemenentt perfo
perfora
ratition,
on, or to ac actt as through
through a fi fibrou
brouss eleelemen
ment. t. Mode
Modern rn pap
paperer ele
element
mentss
tempora
tem porary
ry subs
substit
titute
utess whe
when n the main eleme elements nts mustt have a suff
mus suffici
icient
entlyly lar
large
ge area to ensuensurere that
that the
are being servic
serviced.
ed. pressure drop across them does not exceed per-
mitted
mitted values
values.. TheThey y must also also hav
havee suff
suffici
icient
ent spac
spacee
A nor
norma
mall dut
duty
y oil
oil bath
bath air
air filt
filter
er coconsi
nsist
stss of a stee
steell forr a lar
fo large
ge numb
number er of dus dustt part
partic
icle
less in or orde
derr to
wool packin
packing g within
within a shee
sheett met
metalal hous
housing,
ing, whi
which
ch rema
remainin ac acti
tive
ve for prol prolong
onged ed peri
periods
ods.. Ka Katetess and
and
also
also contai
containsns an oil bath in it itss base (see
(see Figure
Figure 1.9)1.9).. Luck
Luck [4 [4]] ha
haveve comp
comput uted
ed thatthat the
the dust
dust ente
enteri ring
ng a
The fas
fast-mo
t-moving
ving intake
intake air is first
first dra
drawnwn across
across the 300 bhp, two- two-str
stroke,
oke, crankca
crankcase- se-sca
scaveng
vengeded engi engine,
ne,
oil
oil ba
batth. Any
Any he heav
avyy imp
mpururiitie
ties in the air air are
are run
unni
ning
ng 9 hour hourss a day for 250 da day ys in an air
re
remov
moveded by the oil, oil, whi
which
ch is us usua
ualllly
y of the same same en
envi
viro
ronm
nmeent whi which has has 1.2 1.2 grgrai
ains
ns of dust dust per per
gra
grade
de anandd visc
viscosi
osity
ty as the eng engin inee lubri
lubricacant
nt.. Fina
Finall 28.3 m3 (100 (1000 0 cu
cu ftft),
), wowoululd d be 12 12.3
.35
5 kg
kg (27(27 Ib).
Ib).
cle
cleani
aning
ng of the now oil-la
oil-laden
den air take takess place
place within
within Haggh
Hag gh [14] suggsuggest
estss that
that the elemelement
ent are
areaa shou
should ld be
the steel wool mes mesh,
h, whi
which
ch is alw
always
ays cove
coveredred with
with a at least 0.5 m 2 for each each cubi
cubicc metre of air per minute
fine oil mist. passing through the filter. On this basis, he cal-
Me
Medidium
um dutduty
y uni
units
ts wo
workrk in mu much ch the same same way, culate
culatess that
that a 257 kW tu turboc
rbocharg
harged
ed eng
engine
ine draw
drawinging
but have a larger stack of steel wool; and are usually
21 m3 of air per minute minute 2woul would d require
require a fil filter
ter with an
area
area of at leas leastt 0.04
0.04 m per kW.
Medi
Medium um and and hea heavyvy dutyduty fi filt
lter
erss usu
usualally
ly em empl
ployoy
pre-cleaners as primary filters, in a two-stage opera-
tion
tion.. In pa partrtic
icul
ular
arly
ly dust dusty y envi
enviroronmnmenents
ts,, fi filt
lter
er
capacity
capac ity may be increased by autom automaticatic dust evacua-
tio
tion.
n. Prop
Proprierietar
tary y unit
unitss are show shown n in F Figur
iguree 1.10
1.10..
In the Dona Donallds dson
on Donae/one filt filter
er (Fi (Figur
guree
1.lO(a))
1.lO(a )) air enenters
ters the cleane
cleanerr body at the centri centrifuge
fuge
as
asse
sembl
mbly y (4)
(4);; an andd thethe heav
heavie ierr dus
dustt part
partic
icle
less ar
aree
deposit
depo sited
ed in th thee bowl (5). The air th then
en pass
passeses up the
cent
centri
rifu
fuge
ge tube
tube bo boreress to th thee insi
insidede of the fi filt
lter
er
ele
elemen
mentt (3); and throu through gh the ele elemen
mentt to the eng engine
ine..
Th
Thee leve
levell of dusdustt in th thee bow
bowll mustmust nev never
er be nearnearerer
than
than 25 mm to the the botto
bottom m of the cen centr trif
ifuge
uge tubetubes.s.
Th
Thee Co
Coope
oper/ r/Don
Donal aldso
dson n Cye/opac (Figure
1.
1.lO
lO(b)
(b))) is al alsoso of the the tw two-so-sta
tage
ge type;
type; and and uses
uses a
ce
cent
ntri
rifug
fugalal type
type pre pre-fi
-filtlter
er.. The dus dustt bowbowll ma may y be
empt
emptie iedd by me mean anss of an auto automa
mati ticc valv
valve.e. It is a
rubber
rubb er valve
valve (cal(called
led a vactuator) which is operat operated ed
by the pulsating, induced air flow.
The FarrFarr Rotopamic air cleaner of Figure 1.1O(cc))
use
usess an exha exhaustust-as
-assis
sisted
ted arraarrangem
ngementent to evacu evacuateate
dust from the pre- pre-fil
filter
ter stage.
stage. The casin casing g cont
containainss a
number
numb er of pa paper
per filter
filter cartr
cartridge
idgess (2) se seale
aledd to a pvc
face
face plat
plate.e. The cartricartridgedge assemb
assembly ly is retretain
aineded by a
pre-cleaner panel (1) clamped to the casing. The
inner face of this this pre-c
pre-cleane
leanerr is perfora
perforatedted with fixe fixed d
fan-typee deflec
fan-typ deflectors,
tors, each of which is concent concentric ric with
a filte
filterr car
cartri
tridge.
dge. Air enter enteringing the pre-c
pre-clealeaner
ner spins
spins
the deflecto
deflectors rs so tha thatt the dust is cen centri
trifuge
fuged d to the
walls
wal ls ooff the prim
primary ary tube.
tube. AbouAboutt 10 % of th thee air and
 En
Engin
ginefeat
efeatur
ures
es 13

90 % of of th
thee du
dust
st eent
nter
erss the
the sel
self-c
f-cle
lean
anining
g bin
bin whi
whichch iiss It is go
good
od pra
practctic
icee to fit ai airr re
rest
stri
rict
ctio
ion
n (pr
(pres
essu
sure
re
connect
conne cted
ed,, by met
metal
al hos
hose,
e, to an aspiaspirarato
torr (3) in- dro
drop)
p) ind
indic
icat
ators
ors to al alll dry
dry type
type ffil ilte
ters
rs,, to wa
warnrn whe
when n
stal
stalle
ledd at the engi
engine'
ne'ss exexhau
haust
st sys
syste
tem
m out
outlelet.
t. ThThee the
the elem
element
entss have
have rreaeach
cheded a prpresesetet li
limi
mitt of fou
fouli
ling.
ng.
remain
rem ainder
der (90 %) of tthe he air p pass
asses
es thr
through
ough the fi filte
lterr The
They y are cconne
onnecte
ctedd to the 'c 'clea
lean n air' side of the ffilt ilter
er
ca
cart
rtri
ridge
dgess to th
thee en
engin
gine.
e. Th
Thee as
aspi
pira
rato
tor,
r, whi
whichch pr pro-
o- and aare
re th
ther
eref
efore
ore sens
sensititive
ive to tthe he rerest
stri
rict
ctio
ion
n cacaus
used
ed
ducess a drop in pre
duce pressu
ssurere by v vent
enturi
uri effe
effect,
ct, assi
assists
sts in by its ele
elemen
ment(st(s).
). The
They y con
contai
tainn optica
opticall signa
signall ddevi
evices
ces
th
thee eff
effic
icie
ient
nt evac
evacuat
uatio
ionn of dus
dustt from tthehe pr
pre-
e-cl
clea
eanenerr (such
(such as rred
ed sle
sleev
eveses)) to alaler
ertt at
atte
tenda
ndantnt ststaf
afff whe
when n a
stage. predetermined pressure drop has been exceeded.
14 Reci
Recipro
procati
cating
ng internal
internal combusti
combustion
on engin
engines
es

Lubrication 3. oi
oill fi
filt
lter
er(s
(s),
), in co comb
mbininat
atio
ions
ns of ful
full-
l-fl
flow
ow an
and
d
partial-flow types; and
The lubri
lubrica
cant
nt in an en
engi
gine
ne perfo
performs
rms ma
many
ny task
tasks.
s.
4. a hea
heatt ex
exch
chanange
gerr fi
fitt
tted
ed betwe
between
en the
the fe
feed
ed pump
Among
Amon g the more impo
importa
rtant
nt are:
are:
and the filte
filters.
rs.
1. the
the re
reduc
ductition
on of fri
frict
ctio
ion,
n, an
and
d there
therefor
foree we
wear,
ar, in
al
alll rota
rotati
ting
ng andand ru
rubb
bbin
ing
g surf
surfac
aces
es wi with
thin
in the
the Deliv
Del iver
errr pres
pressur
suree is n norm
ormal
ally
ly in th thee ra
range
nge 0.50.5 to
engine; 2 kg/
kg/cm
cm , but it ma may y be as mu muchch as 5kg/c
5kg/cm m2 in high
2. the provi
provisision
on of cocool
olin
ing
g - eithe
eitherr und
under
ercr
crown
own speed engines
engines..
Tw
Two o pum
pumps ps araree ememplploye
oyedd in the so-ca so-call lled
ed dry
and/or
and/or
3. the ining
clean pist
piston
cleaning on ring
and rin
flugshing
flushiareas;
are
ngas;of imp
impurit
urities
ies;; sump systsystemem.. Oil
Oil that has has cicirc
rcul
ulat
ated
ed throu
through gh the the
4. the ababsor
sorpt
ptio
ion
n of shoshock
ck anandd im
impa
pact ctss betw
betwee
een
n engine
engi ne oilways
oilways retreturns
urns by gravi
gravityty to the crankc
crankcase ase
bearings and other engine parts; and pan. The task of the first (scavenger) pump is to
5. piston
piston cool
cooling
ing - usin
using g oil ch
chamb
ambers
ers,, gal
galler
leries
ies or tran
transf
sfer
er this
this oil fro
from m the
the pan
pan to a re rese
servo
rvoirir ta tank
nk
ducts
duc ts under the crown. ext
extern
ernal
al to the engengine
ine.. The seco
secondnd (pre
(pressur
ssure)e) pump
dra
draws
ws oil from this tank and deli deliver
verss it thr
through
ough the
Al
Also
so,, it aff
affor
ordsds a sealseal be
betwtwee
eenn pist
piston
on ring
ringss and
and hea
heatt exc
exchang
hangerer and filtfilters
ers to the bearin
bearings,
gs, etcetc..
cy
cyli
linde
nderr wa
wall
llss to re reduc
ducee the
the seepa
seepagege of gas tha thatt Th
Thee ararra
range
ngeme
mentnt,, mamaininly
ly used
used on high higher er spee
speed d
passes from the combustion chamber into the crank- engines,
engine s, in whi
which
ch the crankcase oil pa pann is in itse
itself
lf the
ca
case
se.. Th
Thee ch
chieieff pro
propepert
rtie
iess of lubric
lubricat
atin
ing
g oils
oils are reserv
reservoir
oir is k known
nown as a wet sump system. See Figu Figure re
discuss
discussed
ed in ChChaptapterer 12. 1.11.
Mo
Mostst en
engi
gine
ness useuse a prespressur
suriz
ized
ed (or for force
ce-f
-fed)
ed) A semi
semi-we sump sys
-wett sump syste
tem,
m, co combi
mbinining
ng thethe basic
basic
system
syst em to circu
circulatlatee the lubric
lubricant
ant from an ext extern
ernal
al
elem
elemenents
ts of bot bothh wewett and
and dr dry
y sump
sump schescheme mes, s, is
dra
drain tank or from a sump in the ba basse of the
sometim
some timeses used
used on engine
enginess for mari
marine ne and off-s
off-shore
hore
crankca
crankcase.
se. The main compon component entss of an
any
y syste
system m are:
are: appl
applic
icat
atio
ions
ns,, whwhereree gene
genera
rato
tors
rs ar aree rerequ
quirired
ed to
1. the circ
circula
ulatin
ting
g pump
pump,, whic
whichh may be of th
thee gear or operate
oper ate in an emer emergengencycy at spec
specifiified
ed angl
angleses of roll
the multi-l
multi-lobed
obed rot
rotor
or type
type;; an
andd pitc
pitch.
h. It is imimpor
portatant
nt that
that the
the oiloil suc
suctition
on inle
inlett
2. a pres
pressu
sure
re rereli
lief
ef va
valv
lve,
e, to main
mainta
tain
in cons
consta
tant
nt always
alw ays rema
remainsins subm
submerg erged
ed unde
underr these
these cond
conditi
itions.
ons.
pressure in the system; This
This is done by pro providi
vidingng a dee
deepp pan
pannie
nierr at one end
 En
Engi
ginefea
nefeatu
ture
res
s 15

of the sump,
sump, from whic
which
h the pre
pressu
ssure
re pum
pump p sup
supply
ply is faces
faces of the cylind
cylinder
er and cylin
cylinder
der heads.
heads. The design
design
dra
drawn.
wn. The scave
scavenge
nge pump, dri driven
ven in tand
tandem
em with
with of air-coo
air-cooled
led eng
engine
iness is large
largely
ly determ
determine
ined
d by theitheirr
th
thee pre
press
ssure
ure pum
pump,
p, draw
drawss its
its oil
oil fro
from
m the
the sh
shal
allo
loww 'unitt cyl
'uni cylind
inder'
er' con
constr
struct
uction
ion.. The res restt of th
thee engi
engine
ne
end
end of the sump sump pan
pan and
and disc
discha
harg
rges
es it ininto
to the
the des
design
ign fol
follows
lows from this this [15]
[15]..
panmer. Good instal
installati
lation
on of air-co
air-cooled
oled engine
enginess is criti
critical,
cal,
Probably
Probabl y the most severe cylinder wear condi conditions
tions espe
especicial
ally
ly in high am ambibien
entt condi
condititions
ons and
and in con-
occu
occurr ju
just
st af
afte
terr an eng
engin
inee has
has star
starte
ted,
d, anand
d wh
when en fined
fined spac
spaceses.. Ca
Care
re must
must be take taken
n wiwith
th the
the desi
design
gn
piston lubrication is at its poorest. For this reason, an
andd apappl
plic
icat
atio
ion
n of air intaintake
ke,, and
and hot ai airr outle
outlett
pre-priming systems are incorporated into low- ducting, to avoid the possibility
ducting, possibility of hot discharged air
sp
spee
eedd en engi
gine
nes,
s, anand
d highe
higher-r r-rat
ated
ed me medidium
um-s-spe
peed
ed being re-circulated within the generator housing.
engines. See also
also Cha
Chapte
pterr 13.
It is al
also
so advi
advisa
sabl
blee to use use peri
period
odic
ic prim
primin
ingg of In water
water-c-cool
ooleded en engi
gine
nes, s, thethe li liqui
quid d co cool
olanantt is
lu
lubr
bric
ican
antt on the the la
large
rgerr highhigh-sp
-spee
eed
d en engi
gine
nes,
s, whe
whenn circulated
circu lated through jackets around the cylind cylinder er walls,
these
these are oper operati
ating
ng in an aut automa
omatic
tic standby
standby mode
mode.. and through passagpassages es in the cylin cylinderder heads. Syste Systems ms
Oil,
Oil, fe fed
d frofromm a sepasepara rate
te el elec
ectr
tric
ic-m
-mototor
or-dr
-driv
iven
en may be classifi
classifieded as bein
being g eiteither
her of the open type or
pump, is circulated at periodic intervals through the of the closed typ type.e. In the open syst system,
em, wat
water er lea
leavin
ving g
oi
oilw
lway
ayss to fl flus
ushh the
the li
line
ners rs anand
d gene
generarall
lly
y wewett the
the the enengi
gine
ne is no nott reretu
turnrneed to it or or,, if it is is,, it is
engine
eng ine movi
moving ng parts
parts in rea readine
dinessss for an aut automa
omatic
tic expos
xposed ed to atm tmososph
pheeriricc ai airr be befofore
re be beiningg re re--
st
star
art.
t. PePeri
riodi
odicc prim
primining
g al also
so has
has the
the adadva
vant
ntag
agee of circ
circul
ulat
ated
ed.. Ty
Typi pica
call ar arrarang
ngememenentsts ar
aree sh show
own n
reducing
reduci ng the severe wear that can occ occur
ur on cylinders diagrammati
diagra mmatically
cally in Figure 1.12.
as a resul
resultt of co
conde
ndense
nsedd comcombust
bustion
ion product
products,s, whe
whenn Wher
Wh eree dire
directct wa wateterr coolcooliningg is use used d (F (Fig
igur
uree
an engine is aatt stands
standstill
till.. 1.12(a»,
1.12 (a», the quali qualityty of th thee water has an impo importa rtant
nt
bearing on the life of the engine. Most natural
wa
wate
ter,
r, suc
suchh as tha thatt fro
from m ri rive
versrs,, la
lake
kes,
s, rerese
servo
rvoirirs,
s,
Cooling and ponds,
ponds, carrie
carriess scale-
scale-form
forminging imp impuri
uritie
ties.
s. At the
Bet
Betwee
ween
n one
one-thi
-third
rd and one-h
one-half
alf of the heat energ
energyy high
high temp
temperaeratur
tureses obtobtain
aining
ing in cy cylin
linder
der jacke
jackets, ts, the
provided by the fuel burned in an engine is con- diss
dissol
olve
vedd mimine
nerarals
ls sepa
separa ratete out in sol solidid for
form m an andd
verted
verted into mechani
mechanical
cal energy. The rest is expende
expended
d coat the metal surfaces.
surfaces. These scale deposi deposits ts reduce
in: the rate
rate of heaheatt transf
transferer from the comb combust ustion
ion space
space
into
into the jackjacket
ets.
s. TheThe re resusult
lt is ttha hatt the
the me meta tals
ls araree
1. exhaust
exhaust gases;
gases;
su
subj
bjec
ecte
tedd to highhigher er tetempe
mpera ratu
ture
ress an and d loca
locall oveover- r-
2. frict
frictio
ion
n in the rurubbi
bbing
ng surfa
surface
cess of the en
engigine
ne
heatin
heating g may ca cause
use crack
crackss and failu failures
res [4].
parts; and
Where
Whe re sea wat water er is us used
ed for dire directct cool
cooling,
ing, salts
salts
3. the combust
ustion chambers, the cyl
yliinde
derr
are deposit
deposited ed in the engin enginee wat waterwerwaysays if the the watwaterer
assemblies
assem blies and the piston
pistons.
s.
temper
tem peratu
ature
re is raised
raised abo above ve 55°C
55°C.. Th Thee pena
penaltylty for
The
The cool
coolin
ing
g syst
system
em's
's fu
func
ncti
tion
on is to remo
remove
ve the
the operat
ope rating
ing at th this
is te
tempe
mperatrature
ure (en (engingines
es norm
normall allyy run
unwante
unwanted
d hea
heatt fro
from
m these
these parts,
parts, in orde
orderr to pre
preven
ventt at twice this level)
level) is li likely
kely to be increased liner and
[3]: ring
ring wear due to con condens
densati ation
on of the acid prod productuctss
1. overhe
overheati
ating
ng and su subse
bseque
quent
nt bre
breakd
akdown
own of lubri
lubri--
cant films
films;;
2. ove
overhea
rheatin
ting
g and loss of ma mater
terial
ial strengt
strength;
h; and
3. exces
excessive
sive stress
stresses
es within or between engine parts
parts,,
due to unequal temper
temperature
atures.
s.
Engines may be either
Engines either air-cooled or water-cooled.
Piston
Piston coolcooling
ing is b by
y oil. Vario
Variousus metmethods
hods are used.
The
The simpsimple lest
st foform
rm empl
employ oyss an oil oil jet
jet,, from
from the
the
small-
sma ll-end
end bea bearin
ringg in the conneconnecticting
ng rod
rod,, spl
splash
ashed
ed
agains
againstt the under
undersidsidee of ththee pist
piston.
on. Anot
Another
her met
method
hod
is to
to provid
providee an oil gal galler
lery
y or duct undeunderr the pisto
pistonn
cr
crow
own. n. WhWhil ilst
st very
very lowlow outp
output
ut engi
engine
ness may
may nonott
require
requ ire separa
separate te oil-to
oil-to-ai
-airr lubric
lubricati
ating
ng oil h heat
eat ex-
chan
changegersrs,, they
they ar aree ststan
anda
dard
rd fe feat
atur
ures
es on larg larger
er
engines.
Air-coo
Air-coolin ling
g is sat
satisf
isfact
actori
orily
ly appl
applied
ied to high spespeed
ed
engine
eng iness up to 400 kWm• Air is dra drawn
wn into
into an impel
impel--
lor (which may be secured secured to the engine flywheel, or
vee-belt
vee-be lt driven from the cranksha crankshaft)ft) and disdischarge
charged d
th
thro
rough
ugh sh shro
roudi
uding
ng ac acros
rosss the
the fifinne
nnedd exexte
tern
rnal
al su
sur-
r-
16 Recip
Reciproca
rocatinginte
tinginternal
rnal combusti
combustion
on engines
engines

of co
combu
mbuststio
ion,
n, an
and
d pper
erha
hapsps a sm
smal
alll incr
increa
ease
se in fue
fuell The wawateter-
r-to
to-wa
-wate
terr hea
heatt exch
exchang
anger
erss used
used in the
co
cons
nsump
umptition
on as a re
resu
sult
lt o
off thick
thicker
er oi
oill on the
the ccyl
ylin
inde
derr firs
firstt tw
two
o sche
schememess ar
aree of the
the shel
shell-
l-an
and-t
d-tube
ube type
type..
liners [16]. Where an unlimited supply is available, the so-called
The problems associ
associated
ated with sc scaling
aling due to wat water
er raw watwater
er ma
may y be pass
passeded throu
through
gh the
the tube
tubess of th
thee
im
impur
purit
ity
y also
also eexi
xist
st with
with ththee co
cool
olin
ing
g towe
towerr (or sspra
prayy heat
heat exexch
chang
angerer to wawastste;
e; or to som
somee pro
proce
cess
ss fro
from
m
pond) scheme shown in Figure 1.12(b). This is which it is not returned (Figure 1.13(a)). 1.1 3(a)). This is
because the make-up water required to replace known as a 'once-through' system. Heat exchang exchangers
ers
lo
loss
sses
es due to evap
evapora
orati
tion
on bring
bringss add
addititio
ional
nal im impur
puri-
i- are
are not as ssererio
ious
usly
ly affe
affectcted
ed by ssca
cale
le ddep
eposi
osits
ts as are
ti
ties
caes
carr yw
rrywit
ith
h ay
away
aw it. Si
Sinc
thenceeimpu
imthe
puri va
vapou
riti pour
ties
es,, r thes
thin
eseetthe
heconc
cotow
tower
ertrat
ncen
entr does
atee and not
an d eng
engin
throine
throug eh wa
ugh wate
thterwa
the erways.ys.s The
tube
tubes of tthe
hera
rawwhe wa
wate
heatat terr chan
exch
ex sho
shoululd
ange dr,bebeca
ger, bep
pas
asse
caussed
use ed
ma
may y eeven
ventutual
ally
ly dep
deposi
ositt momore re sca
scale
le than
than if the
the wawateterr the
the insi
insidede of the the tube
tube ca can n be cle clean
aned
ed moremore ea easisily
ly
had
had been run to wa waststee [4]
[4].. See
See F Fig
igure
ure 1.12
1.12(a (a).
). Open than
than the out outsiside
de [4][4].. Pr
Pre-e-kno
knowl wledg
edgee of tthe he char
characacte
terr
syst
system
emss may only only b bee sa
safe
fely
ly us
useded w whehere
re the
there
re is an and
and qu qualalit
ityy of the the wate
waterr is ne nececess
ssar
ary y to ensu ensure re
am
amplplee wa
wate terr sup
suppl
plyy of ex excecept
ptiion
onal
al puri
purity
ty.. corre
orrectct seseleleccti
tion
on of ma mate teri
riaals fforor the
the tube
tubes.s.
Where
Whe re engi
engine ness ar
aree req
requiuire
red
d to run co contntin
inuou
uousl sly
y Th
Thee ssys ystetemm m most
ost oftoften
en eempl mployeoyed d is that
that sshow
hown n iinn
for long
long peri
periods
ods,, the
the be bett
tter
er meth
method od is to use trea treateted
d Figur
Figuree 1.13(c
1.13(c), ), whi
which ch uses
uses a fa fan-c
n-cool
ooleded ra radi
diat
ator.
or.
water circulating
circulating in closed circ circui
uit,
t, aand
nd to tran
transf
sfer
er the The
The radiradiatatoror maymay eithe
eitherr be mo moun unte
tedd on th thee sasame
me
en
engin
ginee he
heat
at tto
o a heat
heat eexcxcha
hange
nger. r. Thi
Thiss me mean
anss th
that
at tthe
he base
basefrfram
amee as its eng engin ine-
e-ge
genenerarator
tor as asse
sembl
mbly, y, or it
en
engin
ginee coo
coolalant
nt is neve
neverr ex expos
posed ed to air air and re rema
maininss ma
may y b bee remot
remote- e-mou
mounte nted.d. Se Set- t-mou
mount nted
ed types
types usua
usuall lly
y
in the
the syst
systemem inde
indefin
finite
itely.
ly. Sev
Severaerall schem
schemes es may be have engengineine-dri
-driven
ven coolcoolinging ffans
ans,, whwhils
ilstt rem
remote
ote units
used.. Some ar
used aree shown iin n FFigur
iguree 1.13
1.13.. TTher
hermost
mostati
aticc incorpo
incorporat ratee single
single or mul multip tiple
le fans drivdriven en by ele electr
ctric
ic
elem
elemenents
ts araree in
incor
corpor
poratated
ed withwithinin tthe
he cclo
lose
sedd cicirc
rcui
uitt mot
motors
ors.. Si Singl
ngle-e- or doubdouble le-se
-sectctio
ione
nedd ra radi
diat
ators
ors ar aree
to by-p
by-pasasss the
the ''he
heatat exc
exchahangnger
er'' wh
when en ssta
tart
rtin
ing
g from
from empl
employ oyeded,, on smal small- l- or me medi dium
um-s-siz
izeded engienginenes.s.
col
cold,
d, so as to al allow
low the en engine
gine to at attai
tain
n its oper
operati
ating
ng Multi-
Multi-secsectiotioned
ned unitunitss may be u used
sed o on
n large
largerr engine
engines, s,
temperature more quickly. to provide separate circuits for engine (and turbo-
charger
charger)) jac jacketket wat
water,er, lubric
lubricatiating
ng oil,
oil, and charge
charge air
cooling.
The cooler
cooler (or wet wet-ty
-typepe towe
tower) r) of Fi Figure
gure 1.131.13(d)
(d)
use
usess eva
evaporporat ativ
ivee coocooliling.
ng. It Itss coils
coils,, whiwhichch forformm a
wa
wateter-
r-to
to-wa
-wate terr heatheat ex excha
changengerr for the the en engi
gine
ne's's
clo
closed
sed circuit,
circuit, hav havee a larglargee surfsurface
ace area.
area. Eva Evapora
pora--
tio
tion
n of the secondasecondary ry coo
coolinlingg watwaterer is then
then achiev
achieved ed
by either producing water droplets (by spray), or by
forming
form ing thin
thin fil films.
ms. A mot motor or drivdrivenen fan pul pulls
ls the air
throu
through gh thethe toptop of the tow tower er,, or forc
forces es it from the
bottom. The draught so created removes the evapo-
rate
ratedd wa wate terr molemolecu cule
les.
s. Beca Becaus usee ther
theree wi will
ll be
roug
ro ughl
hlyy 2 % loss loss of wate waterr th thro
roug
ughh evapevapor orat
atio
ion,
n,
make-up facil facilitie
itiess must be provided. Specia Speciall precau-
tions
tions are nece necess ssar
aryy in or orde
derr to red reduce
uce the the ririsk
sk of
legionellae
legione llae (Legion
(Legionnaires
naires'' diseadisease).
se). See Sub-sec
Sub-sectiontion
15.4.4
15.4 .4 of Chapte
Chapterr 15.
Sinc
Sincee most most mode modern rn medimedium um-- and and high high-s-spe
peed
ed
enginess are desig
engine designed
ned for high
high-te
-temper
mperatu
ature
re coocoolan
lantt
condit
con ditions
ions,, they
they emp
employ
loy pres
pressuri
surized
zed closed
closed circircui
cuitt
coolin
coo ling
g syst
systems
ems.. Sys
System
tem pressu
pressuresres may vary from
O.3-O.7kg/cm 2• These equa equatete to wat
water
er boil
boiling
ing point
pointss
at sea level
level of 107°C and 115°C, respec respectivel
tively.
y. Engine
makers would then design for correspondi
corresponding ng operat-
ing tempe
temperatrature
uress at engi
engine
ne outl
outlet
et of 80°C and 90°C.
Whatev
Wha tever
er the syste
system,
m, it is alw
always
ays advi
advisabl
sablee to use
a high rate of jacket circu
circulation
lation,, with a smal
smalll tempe-
rature
rature differe
difference
nce betwee
between n eng
engine
ine inlet
inlet and outl
outlet,
et,
rather
rather than
than a slow ccircircula
ulatio
tionn and a large tempetempera-ra-
ture rise.
It is perh
perhaps
aps mor
moree apappro
propri
priat
atee to use the term
'c
'cool
oolan
ant'
t' rarath
ther
er than
than wate
water,r, whe
when n desc
descri
ribi
bing
ng thethe
co
cool
olin
ing
g me medidium
um in watwater
er-c
-cool
ooled
ed enengi
gines
nes.. ThThis
is is
because engine makers specify formulations of clean
 E ngi
ngine
ne f e
eat
atur
ures
es 17

fres
freshh wawateterr anandd apappr
prov
oveded rust
rust anandd co
corro
rrosi
sion
on in-
in- days
days,, sup
supererch
char
argi
ging
ng is co confi
nfine
nedd to smsmalalll hig
high
h spe
speed
ed
hi
hibi
bito
tors
rs.. They
They do no nott re
reco
comm
mmen endd the
the use of plaiplainn engi
engine
ness of the the type
type us used
ed in carcarss and
and pa pass
ssen
engegerr
ta
tap,
p, wewell ll,, di
dist
stil
ille
ledd or deio
deioni
nize
zed
d wa wate
terr as engengin
inee vehi
vehicl
cles
es,, but
but,, eve
even n iin
n that
that m mar
arke
ket,
t, turbo
turbochchar
argi
ging
ng is
co
cool
olan
ants
ts.. Th Thee in
inhi
hibi
bito
tors
rs are g gra
radu
dualally
ly con
consusume
medd in bein
beingg deve
develolope
ped
d to mee meett the
the dema
demandsnds fo forr more
more
se
serv
rvic
ice.
e. If th thee pH valuvaluee of ththee co
cool
olan
antt sh
shoul
ouldd fall
fall ra
rapi
pidd boos
boostt resp
respon
onsese anand
d be
bett
tter
er boos
boostt leleve
vels
ls aatt low
low
ou
outs
tsid
idee a sp spec
ecif
ifie
ied
d rarang
nge,
e, it iiss nece
necess
ssar
ary
y to add spee
speedd [17
[17].].
inhi
inhibi
bito
tor(
r(s)
s) - to tthe he sam
samee spec
specif
ific
icat
atio
ion
n as thos
thosee al-
al- Tu
Turbo
rbochchar
argi
ging
ng mamakekess us
usee of en
ener
ergy
gy al alre
read
ady
y avai
avail- l-
read
readyy in use.use. LiLike
kewi
wise
se,, co
cool
olan
antt for topp
toppining-
g-up
up pur-
pur- ab
able
le in ththee exha
exhausustt gase
gasess (a
(abo ut 35 % of the total
bout total
poses must be to the same formulation and strength heat energy in the fuel is wasted in these gases);
as that in the engine. whereas supercharging deprives the engine of a
portion of its shaft output.
Pressure charging . The t~rt~rboc
bochar
harger
ger basic
basicall allyy con
consissists
ts of a gas tu tur-
r-
bme, dnven by the exhaust gas flow, mounted on a
We sha shallll establ
establish ish,, in later
later discu
discussissions
ons (s (see
ee Cha
Chapte pterr com
commonmon spindspindle le with a blower or compre compresso ssor;
r; and
2), tha
thatt ththee dens
densit ity
y of tthehe air eentnter
erin
ingg thethe cyl
cylin
indeders
rs plac
placeded in th thee air
air int
intakakee path
path.. Th Thee powe
powerr genegenerarate
tedd
has
has a si signi
gnififica
cantnt bea
beariring
ng upo
upon n the
the powe
powerr that that can b bee in the
the tur
turbi
binene mu
must st be equequalal to that requ requir ired
ed by tthe he
deve
develo lope
pedd by aan n enengi
gine
ne.. ThThisis is beca
becaus usee thethe airair's
's co
comp
mpre ress
ssor
or.. Figu
Figure re 1.1.1414 ill
illus
ustrtrat
ates
es,, in sch schem
emat atic
ic
dens
densit ity
y reregu
gulalate
tess the
the amamou ount
nt of fue fuell that
that ca can n be for
form,
m, th thee appl
applicicat
atio
ionn of the the ttururboc
bocha hargrger
er to a fo fourur--
burned within the cylinder during the power stroke. stroke engine.
The
The work workin ingg cylicylind
nder
er in a naturally-aspirated Tur
Turboc
bochar
harger
ger design
designss varyvary fro fromm the sim simple
ple types
types
en
engi
ginene is chchararge
ged d (n(not
ot fu
full
lly)
y) with
with ffreresh
sh aiairr at atmo
atmos- s- used
used on high high speed
speed engiengine ness to tho thosese emempl ploy
oyed
ed on
pheric temperature and pressure, at the end of its large medium- and slow-speed engines. The former
in
indu
ductctio
ionn stro
strokeke.. In prapractctic
ice,
e, when
when tthe he p pis
isto
tonn suc
sucks
ks type
typess em empl ploy
oy sing
singlele-s
-sta
tage
ge ra radi
dial
al fl flow
ow ce cent
ntri
rifug
fugal al
in air
air a pa part
rtia
iall vacu
vacuumum is cr crea
eate
tedd so ttha hatt not
not ev even
en co
comp
mpre ress
ssor
orss anandd radi
radialal flo
floww turb
turbin ines
es moun
mounte tedd on a
atmosp
atm ospherheric
ic prepressu
ssure
re obt
obtain
ainss in the ccyli ylinde
nder.r. Also,
Also, com
commonmon sha shaftft with
with an inboar
inboard d bearin
bearing g syste
system,m, (se(seee
th
thee ininco
comi
mingng ai airr is dilu
dilute
tedd an
and d warm
warmed ed by res resid
idua
uall Figu
Figure re 1.
1.15)
15).. Desi
Designgnss fo forr the la latt
tter
er type
typess vary co con-n-
exha
exhaus ustt gagase
sess in the the cycylilind
nder
er.. At hi high
gh aalt ltit
itud
udeses,, side
siderarabl
bly
y from from on onee manu manufa factctur
urer
er to anot anotheher.r.
where
whe re air prepressussurere is low
low,, and at loc locati
ations
ons with hi high
gh Typ
Typicaically
lly,, they
they inclu
includede singl
single-s
e-stag
tagee radial
radial floflow
w ccom-
om-
am
ambi bien
entt tetemp
mper erat
atur
ures
es,, thethe enengigine
ne's
's powe
powerr rati rating
ng pre
pressssor
ors,
s, wh whicich
h mamay y be of tw two-o-pi
piec
ecee co consnstr
truc
uctition
on,,
mu
must st be re redu
duceced d to com compe pens
nsat
atee for atm atmososph
pher eric
ic an
andd watwater
er-c
-cool
ooled
ed ax axia
iall flo
floww tu turb
rbin
ines
es..
variations (see Chapter 2). There has been a trend towards non-cooled (or air
If a co comp
mpre ress
ssoror is em emplploy
oyeded to ssup upplplyy the eeng ngininee co
coololed
ed)) turb
turbinines
es,, as a mea means ns of pro promomoti ting
ng highe
higherr
with
with iint ntak
akee ai airr at a pr presessu
sure
re high
higherer thathan n atmo
atmos- s- ga
gass exit
exit temptemper erat
atur
ures
es for for wa waststee heatheat re reco
covevery
ry
pheric, the engine's mean effective pressure (and systems [6]. Lubrication is self-contained and sep-
th
ther
erefefor
oree ititss powe
powerr out outpu
put)t) mamay y be incr
increa ease
sedd with
with-- arat
aratee oiloil susupp
pplilies
es araree used
used fo forr turbo
turboch char
arge
gerr an and d
out altealteri
ring
ng cr cran
anksksha
haft
ft spspee
eedd or cy cylilind
nderer vol
volumume.e. en
engi
gine
ne be bear
arin
ingg sysyst
stem
emss [18 [18].].
Th
Thisis,, effec
effectitive
velyly,, is what
what p pre
ress
ssur
uree chcharargi
ging
ng doe does.s. Tw
Two o tur
turboboch
charargi
ging
ng ar arra
range
ngeme ment ntss ar aree gen
gener
eralally
ly
[Note: mea mean n ef effe
fect
ctiv
ivee pres
pressusure
re is def defin
ineded in Sub Sub-- used
used on en engigine
ness for
for elelecectr
tric
ical
al powe
powerr gene generarati
tion
on::
sectio
section n 2.3.4
2.3.4 of Cha Chaptepterr 2.]
There
The re are two ba basic
sic way
wayss of press
pressure
ure chachargi
rging
ng an
engine
eng ine.. The
They y are dist disting
inguis
uished
hed by the meth method od use usedd
to dri
driveve the com compre presso
ssor:
r:
1. sup
superc
erchar
hargin
ging:
g: whe
where
re the compr
compress
essor
or is memech-
ch-
an
anic
ical
ally
ly dr
driv
iven
en fr
from
om the
the cr
cran
anks
ksha
haft
ft,, eith
either
er by
chain
chain or by gear
gearing
ing;; or
2. turboc
turbochargi
harging:
ng: where the cocompres
mpressor
sor is drive
driven
n by
a ga
gass tu
turb
rbin
inee whic
which,
h, in tur
turn,
n, is dr
driviven
en by the
the
exhaus
exh austt gas
gases
es from the engine
engine..
Mostt of the compre
Mos compresso
ssors
rs use
used d in superc
superchar
hargin
gingg are
of the
the 'posit
'positive
ive displa
displacem
cement
ent'' rot
rotary
ary type.
type. Tho
Thosese of
the Roots type emp employ
loy two imp impellellers
ers (or rotor
rotors),
s),
whose
who se sha
shafts
fts are in para
paralle
llel;
l; and rotat
rotatee in oppo
oppositsitee
directions
directions withi
withinn the compre
compressor
ssor housin
housing.g. Each im-
peller has two or three vanes (or lobes) which mesh
with
with those on the otherother imp
impell
eller
er - in m much
uch the sam
samee
way asas ge
gear
ar teeth
teeth.. The acti
action
on of th thee 'co
'compr
mpress
essor'
or' is
then
then sim
simila
ilarr to that of a gear pump
pump.. In tru truth,
th, it iiss not
a compre
compressossor,
r, but simp
simply
ly an 'ai'airr displa
displacer
cer'.
'. Now
Nowa- a-
 18 Reci
Recipr
proc
ocat
atin
ing
g in
inter
terna
nall comb
combus
usti
tion
on eng
engin
ines
es

Item
no. Nam e of part
1 Cor
Core e ass
assembl
embly y
2 Shaft
Shaft and tur turbo
bo wheel
wheel asse
assembl
mbly
y
3 Pist
Pistonon ring
ring
4 Th
Thrus
rustt rrin
ingg
5 Sp
pacacer
er
6 Oi
Oill ddefl
eflec
ector
tor
7 Fi
Finge
ngerr sleev
sleeve e
8 Lo
oc c k nu
nu t
9 Comp
Compres ressor
sor wheel
wheel
10 In
Ins
seerr t
11 Ret
Retaini
aining ng rinring
g
12 '0' ring
ring (ins(inser
ert)
t)
13 Thr
Thrust
ust bearing
bearing
14 8ear
8earinging housi
housingng assemb
assembly
ly
15 Bear
Bearin ing g
16 Snap
Snap ring ring
17 Oil con
control trol slsleeve
eeve
18 Oil inle
inlett ga gaske
skett
19 Oil drai
drain n gas
gasket
ket
20 Serial
Serial namepla
nameplate te
21 Self
Self tapp
tapping ing scre
screw w
22 Warn
Warnin ing g ta
tagg - oioill
25 Compres
Compressor sor cov
coverer
28 Loc
Locknknut ut ('V'
('V' clamp
clamp))
29 'V'
'V' cl
cl am
am p
30 Tu
Turbrbin
ine e housi
housingng
31 Tur
Turbin
bine e inlet gasket
gasket
32 Wa asshher
er
33 Loc
Lockwkwas asheherr
34 Se
Setstscr
crew ew
35 Ret
Retaiainining
ng ring
ring

36 Tur
Turbin
bine
e back plate
plate

1. the
the pulse (or Buchi)
Buchi) syst
system;
em; and Constant pressure turbocharging In the con constant
stant
2. the
the constant pressure system. pressure system, all the engine's cylinders exhaust
into
into one la large
rge mani
manifol
fold
d in ord
orderer to mini
minimi
mize
ze the
the
pressure pulses and absorb their energy. Near
Pulse turbocharging Th Thee pul pulse
se syst
system
em was the steady-
steady-sta
state
te and constconstant
ant pres
pressur
suree con
condit
ditions
ions then
then
first
first to be devel
developed
oped and the maj majori
ority
ty of eng
engine
iness use obt
obtain
ain at ththee turbin
turbinee whee
wheel.
l. Engi
Enginesnes rated abov
abovee 14
it toda
today y in on onee or otheotherr fo form
rm - de deririve
vedd from
from thethe bar bmep (brake mean effective pressure) now use
origina
orig inall 'pur
'puree imp
impulsulse'
e' conc
conceptept [6]. It make makess direct
direct this
this syst
system
em for pow power
er gene
genera
rati
tion,
on, anandd high
high load
load
use of thethe high
high veloc
velocitity
y of gas surgi surging ng from
from ea each
ch demand
dem and [19]
[19].. It
Itss main adva
advanta
ntages
ges are:
are:
cylinder
cylind er when its exhaust valves open. These pulsat-
1. it elimi
elimina
nate
tess the
the co
comp
mpli
lica
cati
tion
on of the
the mul
multi
tipl
plee
ing gases
gases flow
flow through
through careful
carefully-d
ly-desi
esigne
gned d manifol
manifold d
exhaust
exha ust pipe
pipe arrange
arrangement
mentss of the puls
pulsee system
system;;
pipes to the exhaust turbine of the turbocharger.
Two (or more) sepa separat
ratee exh
exhaust
aust manif
manifoldsolds are used 2. it permi
permits
ts grea
greate
terr fl
flex
exib
ibli
lity
ty in posi
positi
tioni
oning
ng the
the
turboch
turbocharge
argerr relati
relative
ve to the engi
engine;
ne; and
on mumultlti-
i-cyl
cylin
inder
der en engi
gine
ness to pre preve
ventnt thethe exexha
haust
ust
3. it le
leads
ads to higher
higher turbine
turbine eff
effici
icienc
encies
ies and hence
pulse of one cylinder blowing back into another
improved
improve d speci
specific
fic fuel consumption
consumptions. s.
which
whic h is being
being 'ex'exhaus
hausted
ted'.
'. Two or three cyl cylinde
indersrs
are usually
usually arra
arrange
nged d to exha
exhaustust into
into each
each man
manifol
ifold.
d. Milita
Mil itatin
ting
g agains
againstt these
these adva
advanta
ntages
ges is the rel relati
ativel
velyy
The turbi
turbine
ne hashas seve
severarall inle
inlett ope
openi nings
ngs.. EaEach
ch is poor performance of the system at part load condi-
conne
con nectcted
ed to co corre
rresp
spond
ondiningg noznozzl zlee ring
ring segme
segment ntss tio
tions
ns and during lar large
ge load-s
load-step
tep changes
changes [6].
which
whi ch defle
deflect
ct the
the exexhau
haustst gasegasess into
into thethe turbi
turbine
ne Two-stroke
Two-str oke engine
enginess usually empl
employoy constant pres-
wheel.
whee l. It is imimport
portant
ant that
that there
there is signi
signific
ficant
ant over
over-- sure turbocha
turbochargin
rging.
g. Bec
Becaus
ausee it is diffic
difficult
ult to obta
obtainin a
lap betwee
between n the openi
openingng timtimeses of inle
inlett and exhaus
exhaustt self-sustai
self-s ustained
ned air supp
supplyly to the engine over its w whole
hole
val
valves
ves,, aft
after
er pul
pulsese decay.
decay. Thi Thiss requi
requiremrement
ent is vital
vital spe
speeded rang
range,e, som
somee supple
supplement
mentary
ary assist
assistanc
ancee is re-
for the effi
efficie
cient
nt scaven
scavenging
ging of two-stwo-stro troke
ke engi
engines
nes qui
quired
red [6 [6].
]. One
One me meththod
od is to us usee the en engi
gine
ne's
's
[6]. The
The puls
pulsee sys
system
tem is the mos mostt effe
effecti
ctive
ve arrange
arrange-- scaveng
scavenging ing pump (or blowerblower)) in seserie
ries,
s, or in paral
paral--
ment for standby
standby generator applic applications
ations where rapid lel,
lel, with th thee turboch
turbocharge
arger.
r. Atm
Atmosph
ospheri
ericc air drdrawn
awn
run-
run-up
up to op oper
erat
atin
ing
g spee
speed d andand miniminimu mum m spee
speed d into
into,, anandd com
comprepress
ssed
ed by, the scavscaveng
engining
g pum
pump p is
variat
variations
ions on load-s
load-step
tep chachanges
nges are required
required [121. passed to the turbocharger, where it is pressurized.
 Engi
Engine
ne feat
featur
ures
es 19

Th
Thus,
us, at li light
ght loads,
loads, whe where re ther
theree is in insuf
suffi
fici
cient
ent
ener
energy
gy in the the exha
exhaus ustt ga gasesess to dr driv
ivee the
the turbturbo-o-
charge
cha rgerr at the sp speeeedd rerequi
quireredd for the nece necess ssar
aryy airair
flow,
flow, the scav scavenengi
ging
ng pum pump p alalone
one putputss air
air into
into thethe
cylinde
cylinders.rs. Then
Then,, as eengi nginene load
load increa
increases
ses,, the pump
is unlo
unloadaded
ed and and the the turb
turboc ocha
harg
rger
er prprov
ovidides
es bo both
th
sc
scav
aven
engiging
ng andand prespressusurere-c
-chaharg
rged
ed air air to the the cyl-cyl-
inders.
Anoth
Ano ther
er sche
scheme
me ma make kess use
use of a se sepa
para
rate
te co com-
m-
pressed air supply - such as that which is provided
for engine
engine starti
starting.
ng. Comp
Compres ressed
sed air is fed, on start start--
in
ing,
g, to th thee turbo
turbochchar
arger
ger to get it goin going.g. Th
Thee jets
jets of
air
air may
may be fed eit eithe
herr to the ga gass tur
turbi
bine
ne or to the
compres
comp ressor
sor whe
wheel.
el. In the latte latterr case,
case, the air pass passes es
into
into ththee enengigine
ne cylin
cylinderderss an andd dire
direct
ctly
ly as assi
sist
stss the
the
scaveng
scavenging ing proc
process
ess.. Thi
Thiss syssystem
tem is k known
nown as jet air
starting
starting [4].
Charge
Cha rge air coo coolin
lingg The The fu full
ll po
pote
tent
ntia
iall of the
increa
increasese in air inl inlet
et densit
density y by prespressure
sure chargi
charging ng is
margina
mar ginally
lly offs
offset
et by an increaincrease se in air tem tempera
perature
ture
ar
aris
isin
ingg from
from ad adiaiaba
bati
ticc com
compr pres
essi
sion
on in the turbo turbo--
blower. This loss is recoverable by the use of
charge air coolecoolersrs (intercoolers) placed downstre downstream am
of the turboblowe
turboblower, r, whi
which ch have the effecteffect of incr
increas
eas--
ing the
the cha
charge
rge air dens
density ity.. Thi
Thiss allows
allows more fue fuell to
be injected into the cylinder, so raising the engine's
power output. The lower air intake temperature has
the further
further effect
effect of reduc
reducing
ing not only the maximu maximum m
cylinde
cylinderr prepressur
ssuree but alsoalso the exhaexhaust
ust tem
tempera
perature
ture,,
and with it, the engine's
engine's therma
thermall loading
loading.. Anot
Another her
spin
spin-o-off
ff is a re redu
duct
ctio
ionn in nit nitro
roge
genn ox oxid
idee (N(NOx Ox))
emissi
emi ssions.
ons. Incr
Increas
easee in engengine
ine powe
powerr over a straigstraightht
tu
turbo
rboch
chararge
gedd mo model
del is u usu
sualally
ly of the ordeorderr 20 to
25 %, and thermathermall effeffici
icienc
encies
ies (see
(see Sec
Sectio
tionn 2.3.2
2.3.2 of
Ch
Chapt
apter
er 2) of ov overer 40 % are obtainable.
obtainable.
Charge
Cha rge air coole
coolersrs are heat exchangexchangersers in wh which
ich
the heat
heat transfe
transferr medium
medium may be ei eithe
therr wat
waterer or air air..
Some typical
typical schem
schemes es are shown in Figu Figurere 1.16
1.16.. we
well
ll.. The
The inte
interc
rcoo
oole
lerr sect
sectioionn is pl plac
aceded in fr fron
ontt
Air-to-
Air- to-wat
waterer system
systemss may use the engi engine'ne'ss jac
jacket
ket (air-sid
(air- side)
e) of th
thee other
other ele
elemen
ments ts (se
(seee Figu
Figure re 1.17
1.17)) in
water
wat er (the
(the comm
commone onest
st form of interc intercoole
oolerr - Figu Figurere order to maximi
maximize ze the coolin
cooling g effec
effectt of the incoming
1.
1.16(
16(a»,
a», or a sep separ
arat
atee sou
sourc rcee of wa wate
ter.
r. The firs firstt air flow
flow to the radiat
radiator.
or. Thi
Thiss arr
arrange
angemen
mentt givesgives ve
very
ry
method offers the simpl simplestest install
installation
ation but cooli
cooling ng is effici
efficient
ent interc
intercooli
ooling.
ng. Its maj major or disadva
disadvantantagege is the
li
limi
mite
tedd by the high high wa wateterr tetemp
mpererat
atur
ure.
e. Wher
Wheree a cos
costt of the larlarge
ge radi
radiato
ator.
r.
separat
sepa ratee wat
waterer supp
supplyly is use
used,d, one has the cho choiceice of: Ex
Exhahaus
ustt ga gass turbo
urbochchararge
ged d an
andd inter nterccoole
ooledd
engines can deliver as muc much h as twi
twice
ce the continuous
1. raw wat
waterer - give
givenn tha
thatt adequat
adequatee qua
quanti
ntitie
ties,
s, at an power available from an equivalent naturally-
ac
acce
cept
ptab
able
le tempe
temperaratu
ture
re,, are avail
availabl
able,
e, e.e.g.
g. for aspira
aspirated
ted engi
engine
ne of simsimila
ilarr spee
speed d and cylincylinder
der vol-
vol-
marine
mar ine appl
applica
icatio
tions
ns (Fi
(Figure
gure 1.16(b»
1.16(b»;; or ume.. Also
ume Also,, appr
appreci
eciabl
ablee redu
reductictions
ons in sp speci
ecific
fic fue
fuell
2. a cl
closed
osed circ
circuit
uit with its own wat water-t
er-to-ai
o-airr sectio
sectionn co
consu
nsumpt
mptioion
n rate
ratess ar
aree ac
achihiev
eveded at al alll load
load le leve
vels
ls..
incorpo
incorporat
rated
ed within
within the rad radiat
iator,
or, whic
whichh cools thethe Le
Less
ss arduo
arduousus worki
working ng cocondi
nditi
tions
ons at the cy cyli
linde
nders
rs
engine
eng ine's
's jac
jacket
ket watwater
er (Fi
(Figure
gure 1.16(c
1.16(c».
». give
give incr
increas
eased
ed engi
engine
ne rel
reliab
iabili
ility
ty and reduce
reduced d mai
main-
n-
Figur
Figuree 1.
1.16(d)
16(d) sho
shows
ws an ai air-t
r-to-
o-ai
airr ch
char
arge
ge cocool
olin
ingg tenance.
tenanc e. On the debit side, it is imprac impractical
tical to expect
system, whic
system, whichh may be used where a sat satisf
isfact
actory
ory raw a turboc
turbocharg
harged
ed engengine
ine to acce
acceptpt full lload
oad in one step
water
water sup
suppl
ply
y is no
nott ava
avail
ilabl
ablee anand
d whe
wherere high
high amam-- from an initial
initial start-
start-up
up cond
conditiition.
on. See Sec Sectiotion
n 2.5 of
bient temperatures make the alternative scheme of Chapte
Cha pterr 2.
Figure
Figu re 1.16
1.16(c)
(c) unacc
unaccept
eptabl
able.
e. The air-to
air-to-ai
-airr charge
charge High pressure two-stage turbocharging Some
cool
cooler
er is th
then
en one
one el elem
emenentt of a radi
radiat
ator
or,, wh
whososee manufac
man ufacture
turers
rs empemploy
loy four
four-st
-stage
age (or twin twin)) turbo-
turbo-
other
other sect
section
ionss ar
aree used
used foforr co
cool
olin
ing
g the
the enengi
gine'
ne'ss ch
char
argiging
ng on medium
medium speed speed,, 4-s 4-str
troke
oke en engigines
nes,, to
jacket water and, possibly, the lubricating oil as give
give highe
higherr air inta
intake
ke dens
densiti
ities.
es. Thi
Thiss boos
boosts
ts powe
powerr

20 Reciproc
Reciprocatinginternal
atinginternal combus
combustion
tion engines
engines

beyond the limits imposed by the flow character- gement on the eng
gement engine
ine flyw
flywheeheell starte
starterr rin
ring;
g; or they
they
istics
istics of conven
conventiona
tionall single
single-stag
-stagee compre
compressors.
ssors. The may useuse a rack and pinio pinion n arrang
arrangeme
ement nt on the front
system
syste m uses two turboc
turbocharger
hargerss operat
operating
ing in serie
series.
s. A of the engine
engine cra cranks
nkshaft
haft.. The Lucas Bryce 'Hand-
typica
typicall arrang
arrangeme
ement nt is sshow
hown n in Fig Figure
ure 1.18.
1.18. The raulic' syst
system,
em, shown schemat
schematical ically
ly in FiFigure
gure 1.19, is
engine
eng ine exhaus
exhausts ts into
into the HP turbin turbinee whewherere the gas an exampl
examplee of th thee latte
latterr type.
type. Know
Known n as aan n impulse
partially expands before it passes to the LP turbine, action syst
systemem it prprovi
ovides
des a high tor torque
que to the eng engine
ine
in which
which expaexpansi
nsion
on is com complepleted
ted.. Amos
Amosphe pheric
ric air cran
cranks
ksha
haft
ft for one re revol
volut utio
ion,
n, durin
during g whic
which h the
the
first
first ente
enters
rs the LP comprcompress essoror and then pas passes
ses (via reciprocat
recip rocating
ing and rotati
rotating
ng masse
massess of the eengine
ngine (and
an inter
interco
cool
oler
er)) to the HP co comp
mpreress
ssor
or.. He
Herere,, it is its conn
connectected
ed gen
genera
erator
tor)) are acceacceler
lerate
atedd to spee
speedsds
compre
com presse
ssed
d still
still fufurth
rther
er bef
before
ore pas
passin
sing
g through
through an ab
above
ove thethe mi mini
nimu
mum m st star
arti
ting
ng speed
speed of the en engi
gine
ne
af
afte
terc
rcool
ooler
er to the en engi
gine
ne.. The en engigine
ne pow
power er gain
gain [20].. It is suc
[20] succes
cessfu
sfully
lly appl
appliedied to gener
generati
ating
ng set
setss of
offs
offset
etss the
the cost
cost of the the seco
second
nd turbturboc
ocha
hargrger
er.. By up to 250250 kW rat ratin
ing.g. It useusess a stastart
rter
er unit
unit (3(3)) in
dividi
dividingng the compre
compresso ssorr work into two stages stages,, one which
whi ch two hydrau
hydrauliclicall
ally-d
y-driv
riven
en racks
racks are mes meshed
hed to
also
also obtai
obtains
ns the higher work workinging pres
pressure
suress requ
require
ired
d a helical
helical pinion
pinion (4) (4),, whi
which ch enga
engages
ges with
with the eng engine
ine
- with
without
out exexce
ceed
ediningg the
the flow
flow ranrangege of eit
eithe
herr cocom-
m- cranks
crankshaf
haftt through
through a ser serrat
rated
ed face-t
face-type
ype cou coupli
pling.
ng.
pressor, or the efficient operating range of either The two hydrhydraulaulic
ic ram
ramss in the star starter
ter unit
unit are each
turbin
turbinee [5]. T Thehe load-a
load-acce
ccepta
ptance
nce capabi
capabilit
lityy of the att
attach
ached
ed to a ttooth
ootheded rac
rack.k. Latera
Laterall movemen
movementt of the the
engine is consid
considerabl
erably y enhanc
enhanced. ed. rack
rackss (i(in
n oppos
opposed ed dire
directctio
ions
ns)) cacause
usess thethe heli
helica
call
pinion and, consequently, the crankshaft to rotate.
Ancillary systems
1.7.2 Ancillary Hy
Hydra
draul
ulic
ic enenerergy
gy is sto storered
d in the the pist
piston-
on-ty
type
pe
accumulator
accum ulator (6), which is pre-cha pre-charged
rged with nitr nitrogen
ogen
(at about
about 195kg/c
195kg/cm m2) in the sealed
sealed volume above the
Starting
Starting equipm
equipment
ent piston. The hydraulic fluid is con contained
tained in the space
The
The simp
simple lest
st meth
method od of star
starti
ting
ng engi
engine
ness is by below the piston. A pressure of 300-350 kg/cm2 is
ma
manua
nuall cr
crananki
king.
ng. It is pr prac
acti
tica
cabl
blee onl
only
y with
with thethe normall
norm allyy req
requir
uired
ed for sta starti
rting
ng purp
purpose
oses.s. The hand
smallest
smallest units. A decomdecompressi
pression
on device
device (preferabl
(preferably y pump (2) is used to transfer hydraulic fluid from the
automa
automatic
tic)) is rrequ
equire
ired
d on the engin
engine.
e. See th thee lat
later
er reserv
reservoir
oir (1) to the low lowerer space
space in the accumu
accumulat lator.
or.
sub-se
sub-secti
ction
on on 'st 'start
arting
ing aid
aids'.
s'. Th
This
is has
has the
the efeffe
fect
ct of rais
raisining
g the
the pist
piston
on an andd com-
com-
Hydraulic starting systems Hyd Hydrau
raulic
lic eneenergy
rgy pressing the nitrogen in the top portion of the
 star
starti
ting
ng syst
system
emss ar
aree ofte
often
n us
used
ed on high
high spee
speed
d accumul
accumulato
ator.
r. Hydr
Hydraul
aulic
ic fluid
fluid is limi
limited
ted by a rel
relief
ief
engines.
engine s. They may employ motors with pini
pinion
on enga- valve.

Engine
Engine fea
featur
tures
es 21

The hydraulic
hydraulic starti
starting
ng system market
marketeded by Hydreco
Hamworthy
Hamwort hy unde
underr the tr
trade
ade name of Startorque uses
a hydraulic
hydraulic cranking motor fitte fitted
d with a B Bendix
endix drive
pinion which engages with teeth on the engine's
flywhee
flyw heell gea
gearr ring.
ring. Cra
Crankin
nking
g tim
timee is subs
substan
tantia
tially
lly
longer
long er than
than that
that obta
obtaine
inedd with
with the 'im
'impuls
pulsee act
action
ion''
sys
syste
tem
m shoshown
wn in Figure
Figure 1.19.
1.19. Ave
Averarage
ge ope
opera
rati
ting
ng

figur
figures
with
wit h es rele
releas
correc
correct tased
ed ce
choi byofthe
choice accma
manuf
nufac
accumul actu
umulato ture
r, rers
ator, rs is show
it sh
p owble
possi
ossible that
that,
to,
turn
turn an eng engininee at 375 rprpm
m for apappro
proxi xima
matetely
ly nine
nine
revolut
revo lution
ions.
s. The systsystem
em is ssucc
uccess
essfull
fully
y appl
applied
ied to
en
engin
gines
es of up to 150 1500kW
0kW m capacity.
Because
Bec ause hydr
hydraul
aulic
ic starte
starters
rs are compl
complete etely
ly inde
inde--
pendent of external sources of power, they provide
idea
ideall back-up
back-up (or secon secondadary)
ry) st
star
arti
ting
ng syste
systems
ms fo forr
marine
mar ine and off-s
off-shore
hore standby
standby gene
generat
rating
ing set
sets.
s. The
Theirir
drawbacks
drawbac ks are:
1. that
that crankin
crankingg is lim
limite
ited
d by the size
size of the energy
energy
reserv
reservoir;
oir; and
2. the
the rela
relati
tive
ve bul
bulk
k of the re
rese
servo
rvoir
ir an
and
d ope
opera
rati
ting
ng
equipment.
For example,
example, one reser reservoir
voir charge
charge would not give as
long
long a crancranki king
ng time
time as a conv conven enti
tion
onal
al elelec
ectr
tric
ic
battery-powered system, and it takes about 30 sec-
onds to recharg
rechargee a re reser
servoi
voirr by mea
means ns of an engin
engine- e-
driven
driv en rechar
recharging
ging pump
pump.. Wher
Wheree the cran cranking
king mot
motoror
A two
two-st
-stage
age start
start rel
relay
ay valve
valve atta
attaGhed
Ghed to the base base is corre
correctl
ctly
y matmatche
chedd to the engine specif specifica
icatio
tion,
n, the
of the accumula
accumulator tor is cont
controlrolled
led by a leveleverr (7). The Startorque system is capable capable of giving eefficie
fficient
nt start
start--
valv
valvee mamay y be solsoleno
enoidid opeoperat
rated
ed fo forr remot
remotee starstartt ing down to -15° -15°C.
C. The minim
minimum um starti
starting
ng tem
tempera
pera--
appli
app lica
cati
tions
ons.. Ini
Initi
tial
al mov
movem emen entt of th thee star
startt leve
leverr turess obta
ture obtaina
inable
ble with
with 'im
'impuls
pulsee act
action
ion'' system
systemss are
from position A to positionposition B admitsadmits limited hydrau- rather limit
limiteded by comp
comparison.
arison.
lic
lic pre
press
ssure
ure to the the star
starte
terr uni
unitt (3)
(3).. Th
This is allo
allows
ws the Electric starting systems Perh Perhaps
aps the mo most
st po
popu-
pu-
two
two rams
rams withwithinin the
the star
starteterr to move
move thei theirr rack
rackss lar form of starti
starting
ng is the elect
electric
ric system, which use usess a
slowl
slowly y ac
acro
ross
ss the
the heli
helica
call pini
pinion
on (4)(4),, whic
which h then
then battery as the energy source. Low voltage d.c.
travel
travelss axiall
axiallyy rearwa
rearwards rds to engag
engagee with
with the engine motors
mot ors 'fi
'fitt
tted
ed with
with armaarmatu
ture
re shaf
shaftt pini
pinions
ons ar aree ar
ar--
cr
cran
an~s~shaf
haftt (thro
(through
ugh the the fa face
ce coup
coupli ling)
ng).. FuFurtrther
her ranged
rang ed to mes
mesh h (thr
(through
ough a Be Bendi
ndix-ty
x-type
pe driv
drive)
e) with
with a
move
moveme mentnt of the st star
artt leleve
verr (7
(7),
), to po posi
siti
tion
on C, toothed
toothed rim on the engine flywhe flywheel.el. These
These syst
systems
ems
admits
adm its full hydr
hydraulaulic
ic pres
pressure
sure to the rams whic which, h, in are widely
widely applie
applied d to high-
high-speed
speed engine
enginess and smaller
turn,
turn, app
applyly a rapi
rapid d turn
turning
ing impu
impulselse to the cranksh
crankshaft aft unitss in th
unit thee med
medium
ium-spe
-speed
ed rang
range.e. Som
Somee high
high-spe
-speeded
th
thro
roug
ugh h ththee ra
rack
ckss and
and pinipinionon.. The
The crancranksksha
haft
ft is engines may require
require only one startestarterr motor, whereas
rot
rotate
atedd at well aabovebove the minim minimum um cranki
cranking ng spe
speed
ed larg
larger
er engi
engine ness in thatthat cl
clas
ass,
s, and
and medi
mediumum speespeed d
required. engi
engine
nes,
s, maymay ne need
ed twotwo motomotorsrs with
with a commcommon on
When
Whe n ththee eng
engin
inee has
has fifire
red,
d, the
the heli
helica
call pini
pinionon is synchronizing control
synchronizing control..
disengaged
disenga ged from the crankshaft by the serra serrated-fac
ted-facee Motors
Mot ors are eitheither
er of the axial or the co-axial type.
couplin
coup lingg (4) and moves forwar forward d unti
untill it iiss re
retai
tained
ned in Th
Those
ose in whi whichch the co compl
mpletetee ararma
matur
turee asasse
semb
mbly
ly
the starte
starterr unit by a sp spring
ring-lo
-loade
aded d catch.
catch. Onc Oncee the movess forw
move forwardard axi
axiall
allyy to give ena enagag
gageme
ementnt of the
star
startt leleve
verr is rel
relea
ease
sed,
d, the st star
arte
terr uni
unitt is isoisola
late
tedd starte
starterr pini
pinionon with
with the flywflywhee
heell teeth are known as
fro
from
m th thee ac
accu
cumu
mulalato
tor.
r. The rams are vent vented ed to the the
the axaxia
iall type
type.. The term termss inertia-drive or run-off
rese
reservrvoir
oir (1)
(1);; and ar aree spr
sprin
ing-r
g-ret
eturn
urneded to thei theirr ori
ori-- helix sstar
tarter
terss are also use usedd to descr
describe
ibe them.
them. TheTheyy
ginal pre-start
pre-start positi
positions.
ons. are
are sens
sensititiv
ivee to engi
enginene spee
speed d vari
variat
atio
ion
n andand mamayy
The
The starstartt cycl
cyclee may
may be re repe
peat
ated
ed as of ofte
ten
n as is disenga
disengage ge bef
before
ore the engi
engine
ne is fir
firing
ing prop
properl
erly.
y. Good
require
requ iredd - prov
provide
idedd there
there is suff
suffici
icient
ent charge with withinin desi
designs
gns mus mustt provi
provide
de for con contitinuo
nuous
us co cont
ntac
actt be-
be-
the hydrauli
hydraulicc accumul
accumulato ator.
r. Aut
Automa
omatictic recharg
recharging ing is tw
twee
eenn pini
pinionon anandd flywh
flywhee eell gear
gear riring
ng - eveven
en if te
tem-
m-
possible, using an optional auto-charging pump porary torque reversals occur during the engine
which
whic h may be drive driven n from the eng engine
ine.. Thi
Thiss mecmecha-
ha- starti
starting
ng proc
processess [20]
[20]..
ni
nica
call pump recha recharge
rgess thethe ac accum
cumul ulat
ator
or whenwhen the Co-axi
Co- axial
al start
starters
ers are sol solenoi
enoidd oper
operate
atedd types,
types, in
en
engin
ginee is ru
runni
nning
ng so tha
thatt the
the sy
syst
stem
em is pr
prim
imed
ed and wh
whic
ich
h on
only
ly the
the pini
pinion
on dome
dome move
movess fo
forw
rwar
ard
d to
read
ready
y for the next
next start
start.. enga
engage
ge the
the f1
f1wh
whee
eell ge
gear
ar ri
ring
ng.. The
The move
moveme
ment
nt is

22 Re
Reci
cipro
procat
catin
ing
g in
inte
terna
rnall combust
combustio
ion
n engin
engines
es

ma
madede under
under red
reduc
uced
ed pow
powerer to mi
mini
nimi
mize
ze eenga
ngage
gemementnt 2. dire
direct
ctly
ly admitt
admitted
ed into
into som
some,e, or all
all,, of tthe
he en
engi
gine
ne
sh
shoc
ock
k and re reduc
ducee wea
wearr on the
the flyw
flywheheel
el ggea
earr te
teet
eth.
h. A cy
cyli
linde
nders,
rs, to m
move
ove the
the pipist
stons
ons d
dow
ownwa
nwards
rds on tthe
heir
ir
me
mechchani
anica
call lock
lockin
ing
g dedevi
vice
ce eensu
nsure
ress that
that tthe
he pipini
nion
on wor
workiking
ng sstr
troke
okess un
unti
till fi
firi
ring
ng occ
occurs
urs..
re
rema
maininss fi
firm
rmly
ly en
enme
meshe
shedd with
with the
the flywh
flywheeeell teet
teeth
h
(despit
(des pitee any irre
irregula
gularr engi
engine
ne firing)
firing) until the mot motoror
sol
soleno
enoid
id is dde-e
e-ener
nergiz
gized.
ed. A spring fitt fitted
ed to the front
end of the pinion assist
assistss star
starter
ter dise
disengag
ngageme
ementnt and Air motor systems
systems Air m
motor
otor st
start
arting
ing is app
applie
lied
d to

prevents
war
wards he any
ds tthe rota
rotatintendency
tingg flywhee
flywheel forl whtheenpinion
when subj
subject to
ed move
ected to v vibrto-
ibra-a- thectric
ele
electr range startof
ic starter er engines
mot
motors.
ors. As thatwit would
withh the elec otherwise
electri
tricc mot
motor, use
or,
tion or shock forces. the sliding pinion of the air motor engages with the
Whate
Wha teve
verr thei
theirr type
type,, star
starte
terr mo
moto tors
rs shou
should ld in incor
cor-- flywh
flywhee eell gear
gear ri ring
ng anand d is usu usualally
ly driv
driven en throu
through gh a
porate safeguards against overspeeding whilst the Bendix coupling and speed reduction gearing. Mo-
en
engi
gine
ne ac accecele
lera
rate
tess to it itss nor
normamall runnin
running g spspeeeed.d. tors
tors mamay y be of the pos posit itive
ive disp
displalace
ceme
ment nt mult
multi- i-van
vanee
St
Star
arte
ters
rs maymay al also
so be de descscri
ribe
bedd as be beiningg of th thee and
and gea
gearr typtypeses o orr of thethe turturbibine
ne type
type.. WoWork rkiningg ai airr
hold-on type or of the non-hold-on type type.. ThThee hol hold-d- pr
pres
essu
sureress may
may rran angege ffrorom m 3 barbar ttoo 3 300 bar.
bar.
on star
starteterr is on onee in whi which ch the pini pinion on do does es nonott Ai
Airr is supp
suppli lied
ed to the the motomotorr th thro
roug
ugh h a fi filt
lter
er/w
/wat ater
er
aut
automa
omaticticall
allyy disenga
disengage ge from tthe he eengin
nginee flywflywhee heel.
l. It trap,
trap, an ai airli
rline
ne lubr
lubrica
icator,
tor, and aan n oper
operatiating
ng valve.
valve. A
is pri
primar
marilyily appl
appliedied whewhere re starts are man manualually ly con- pres
pressure
sure-re-reduci
ducing ng valve
valve may be requ requireired,
d, depe
dependinding ng
tr
trol
olle
ledd or wh wher eree the
the star
startt sign
signalal cceaeasesess whe
when n the
the up
upon
on the the st stor
orag
agee pr pres
essusure
re in th thee comp
compre ress
ssed
ed ai airr
en
engin
ginee is at ssel elf-s
f-sus
usta
tain
inin
ingg sp spee
eed.
d. Co Conve
nvers rsel
ely,
y, the rece
receiv
iverer.. Mo
Motor torss fo forr rem
remot otee or aut automa
omati ticc st star
artiting
ng
no
non-n-ho
holdld-o
-onn starstarte
terr is one one in whi which ch thethe pini pinion
on du
duty
ty inco
incopo pora
ratete a d dev
evicicee fo
forr eng
engagaginingg the
the Be Bend ndixix
au
autom
tomatatic
ical
ally
ly dise
disenga
ngagegess whewhen n the
the en engi
gine
ne is up to gear
gear wiwithth tthe
he flyflywhe
wheel el g gea
earr rin
ring,
g, bebefor
foree apapplplyin
ying g ful
fulll
spee
speed.d. It is fit fitte
ted
d to auto automa matitica
call
llyy or remo remote tely
ly air
air ppre
ressssur
uree to the the rot
rotor
or.. Enga
Engage gemementnt is thenthen m maiain-
n-
starte
started d engi
engines,
nes, and to eng engine
iness in mulmultiptiple
le instal
installa-
la- tained
tained unti
untill the
the eng
engineine rreaceaches
hes se self-
lf-sust
sustain
aining
ing spee
speed. d.
ti
tions
ons whwher eree the
the ambi
ambientent noinoise se ma
makekess it diff
difficicul
ultt for At that st stage
age a spe speed ed senssensiningg dev
devic icee au
autom
tomat atic
ical
ally
ly
at
atte
tend
ndanantt st staf
afff to he hear
ar an eng engininee cran
cranki king
ng and and to cuts
cuts off
off the
the ai airr su
supp
pplyly to tthe he st star
arte
terr moto
motorr and and the
judge the correct moment to release a starter push pinion disengages.
button. systems The
Direct air systems These se are tra tradit
ditiona
ionallylly used
Occas
Occ asio
iona
nall
lly,
y, whe
when n a ssta tart
rter
er is en enerergi
gize
zedd itsits ppin
in-- for st
star
arti
ting
ng me medi dium
um and and low low sp speeeedd enengigine
nes.s. CoCom- m-
io
ionn teteet
eth
h bu butttt dire
direct
ctly
ly agai
againsnstt the
the flywflywhe heel
el teet
teeth,
h, pres
presse
sed d aiairr is admi
admitt tted
ed to ea each
ch of th thee engi
engine ne cyl-cyl-
and
and faifaill ttoo enengagage
ge witwith h ththem
em.. Beca
Becaus usee a mo moto tor'
r'ss inde
inders
rs,, in theirtheir prop proper er fi firi
ring
ng seqsequeuenc
nce,e, throthrougugh h
enga
engagegemement nt windwindin ing
g is on onlyly sho
shortrt-t
-ter
ermm rate rated,d, it no
non-
n-re
retu
turn
rn valv
valves es,, ei
eith
therer frfrom
om a cam cam-s -sha
haftft driv
driven en
becomes overheated if this condition persists for distributor or through mechanically operated valves.
lo
long
nger
er than
than abouaboutt 15 ssec econ
ondsds.. One
One manu manufa factctur
urer
er The
The airair adadmi
missssioionn tatake
kess plac
placee whe
when n the pi pist
ston
on is a
ov
overerco
comemess this this prob
proble lem
m by of offe
feri
ring
ng a so-c so-cal alle
led d few
few dedegrgree
eess past
past ttop op dea
dead d cen
centrtre,
e, at the the enend d of the the
'rep
'repea
eatt starstartt rerela
lay'
y' for use use with
with its its non
non-ho
-hold ld-on
-on co
comp
mpre ress
ssion
ion strstroke
oke.. The ai airr suppl
supply y isis then
then cut cut off at
sta
start
rter
ers.
s. Th Thee re rela
layy sen
sensesess fai
failure
lure of tthe he pi pini
nion
on to about
bout ha halflf st stro
roke
ke - in in the the ca case
se of fo four
ur-s-sttroke
roke
engage
enga ge and give givess reprepeat
eated
ed energi
energize ze and de-e de-enernergiz
gizee eng
engine
ines.s. (On two two-st-stroke
roke engi engines,
nes, the ccut-o ut-offff shshould
ould
signa
signals ls to the
the enengagage
geme
ment nt wind
windinging until
until en engag
gagem emenentt occu
occurr befor
beforee the the pistpiston
on unc uncoveoversrs the
the ports
ports in th thee
is effected. cylinder liner [20]). The expanding air drives the
The
The mostmost fr freq
eque
uentntly
ly us used
ed vo voltltag
ageses areare 12 aand nd pist
piston
on dowdownw nwar ards
ds un untitill the eexh xhau
austst val
valve
vess opeopen n to
24V; but 6V, for smal smalll engenginines
es,, and
and 32, 48 or 6 644V ve
vent
nt ththee cyl
cylin
inde
der.r.
for
for tthe
he to topp enendd of the
the el
elec
ectr
tric
ical
ally
ly-s
-sta
tart
rted
ed rang
rangee of The
The shaf
shaftsts of eeng ngin
ines
es,, in wh whic
ichh le
less
ss ththan
an fifive
ve
engines, are not uncommon. cylinders are fitted with starting valves may have to
A cost"
cost"effe
effecti
ctive
ve alter
alternat
native
ive to starte
starterr mot
motors
ors may be rot
rotate
atedd into
into a fly
flywhee
wheell pospositi
ition
on where one of of the
be applied on generating sets below 15 kW rating. It pistons is at the commencement of its combustion
uses
uses a d. d.c.
c. sta
start
rtin
ingg windi
windingng wit
withi
hinn the
the gene
generarator
tor to stro
stroke.
ke. Provi
Provisi sion
on is usu
usual
allyly mad
madee for tthehe fue
fuell to b bee
crank
crank the the en engi
gine
ne.. Th
Thee same
same windi
winding ng ch char
arge
gess the au
auto
toma
matitica
call
lly
y cut off when when air is ad admi
mitt
tted
ed,, in ordorder
er
star
starte
terr ba
batttteery,
ry, when
when the en engi
gine
ne is runn
runnining.
g. to pr
prev
even
entt a co comb
mbususttible
ible ch char
arge
ge b bei
eing
ng fo
forcrced
ed iint
ntoo
Vari
Variousous ty type
pess of batte
battery
ry ma
may y be ememplploye
oyed.
d. ThThes
esee the
the cyl
cylin
inde
der.r.
ar
aree bri
brief
efly
ly descr
describ
ibed
ed in App
Append
endixix B of this this Ha
Hand-
nd- Compressed
Compressed air suppliessupplies It is usua usuall for th thee com
com--
book. pressed air for either form of starting to be stored in
Air starting systems The The ener
energygy sour
sourcece foforr air
air on
onee or m mor
oree rec
recei
eive
vers
rs,, at prpres
essu
sure
ress betw
betwee
een n 15 andand
star
starti
ting
ng systsystememss is ccomompr
pres
esse
sedd air,
air, stor
stored
ed in rec-rec- 30bar
30bar.. AirAir char
charge
ge is main
mainta tain
ined
ed by a ssma mall ll co
com-m-
eive
eiversrs.. Th
Thee airair may
may b bee us
used
ed in ononee o off two
two ways
ways:: pres
presso
sorr (sin
(singlgle-
e- or two-two-st stag
age,
e, depe
dependndin
ing
g on the the
pressure required) driven by an electric motor, an
 i.e
i.e.. engine,
engine, or by the mai
mainn eng
engine
ine its
itself
elf.. It is usu
usual
al to
1. in a m
motor
otor,, flange-
flange-moun
mounted
ted on th
thee flyw
flywhee
heell hous- prov
provide
ide back-
back-up
up auxi
auxilia
liarie
riess on large
large oorr cr
criti
itical
cal instal
instal--
ing; or lations. The primary compressor may then be driven

En
ng
gine
ine fe
fea tu
tu re
res 23

by ~n electric motor and the standby unit by an i.c. Governorss vary

Governor vary from the simp
simple
le all
all-spe
-speed
ed mec
mechan-
han-
engme. ical
ical typ
type,
e, throu
through
gh vari
various
ous for
forms
ms of me mech
chan
anic
ical
al--
Air
Air rerece
ceive
ivers
rs araree pre
press
ssure
ure vess
vessel
elss an
and,
d, as suc
such,h, hydraul
hydr aulic
ic and ele
electr
ctrohyd
ohydraul
raulic
ic type
types,
s, to all-e
all-elec
lectri
tricc
will be require
required
d to comply with stat statutory
utory regulat
regulations
ions or electr
electronic
onic type
types.
s. See Cha
Chapte
pterr 6 fo
forr more detai
details
ls
regardi
regarding
ng design
design,, instal
installat
lation
ion,, and period
periodicic testin
testing.
g. on engine governing
governing..
See Cha
Chapte
pterr 13.
Starting aids Start
Starting
ing difficulti
difficulties,
es, particular
particularly
ly in
Engine monitoring
lo
low
sm walle
smal amb
ambie
ler ient
nth te
r high
hig tempe
mpera
spe ed ratu
speed ture
en
engires,
s, s. ar
gine
nes. aree is
Th
This mor
more
ise beca
usua
uscause
be uall onthei
use ththe
eirr The strat
strategi
egicc tem
temper
peratu
ature,
re, pre
pressur
ssure,
e, speed
speed and flow
large
large 'surfa
'surface-
ce-are
area/c
a/cyli
ylinde
nder-vo
r-volumlume'e' ratios
ratios tend to parameters of an engine's primary and ancillary
dissipate
dissip ate the heat of co compressi
mpression. on. Also, restrict
restrictions
ions systems
systems neeneed d to be reg
regula
ularly
rly moni
monitor
tored
ed in o order
rder to
on the size size and weig
weightht of stastartrtin
ingg eqequip
uipme
ment nt limi
limitt interpr
interpret
et the engin
engine's
e's beha
behavio
viour
ur and perfo
performa
rmance
nce..
th
thee amamounountt of sta
start
rtin
ing
g torqu
torquee av avai
aila
labl
ble.
e. Vari
Various
ous This
This info
inform
rmatatio
ionn must
must then
then be re rela
laye
yed
d to thos
thosee
star
starti
ting
ng ai aids
ds mamayy be used
used.. Pro Propri
priet
etar
ary
y devdevicices
es in-
in- personnel responsible for the planned maintenance
clude: of the plant.
plant.
1. hea
heaterter plug
plugss - to pro
provide
vide hot spo spotsts in ccombu
ombusti stion
on Makers'
Mak ers' instruc
instructio
tion
n manu
manuals als give
give a good indica
indica--
chambers; tion
tion of the deg degre
reee of inst
instrum
rumenenta
tati
tion
on re requi
quire
red.
d.
2. electric
electricallally
y heated
heated,, and combu combusti stion-t
on-type,
ype, man mani- i- Much
Muc h also
also depend
dependss upon the build speci specific
ficati
ation
on for
fold air heaters; the particular
particular engine
engine..
3. manu
manual al and automa
automatic tic sys
system
tems, s, in w whic
hichh spe
specia
ciall Pa
Param
rameteter
erss susuch
ch as ththos
osee li
list
sted
ed belo
beloww mamayy be
eth
ether-
er-base
basedd fue
fuels
ls are spra
sprayed
yed intointo the eng
engine
ine's
's air monitore
moni tored,
d, as aandnd wher
wheree app
applic
licabl
ablee [3].
in
intatake
ke or mani
manifofold
ld wh whililee the
the engi
enginene is be beining
g
• coola
coolant
nt an
and
d raw
raw wat
water
er tetempe
mperat
rature
ures,
s, prepress
ssur
ures
es
cranked.
and flows;
flows;
De
Deco
compr
mpres
essi
sion
on me
mecha
chani
nisms
sms ma
may
y also
also be use
used
d to • lubrica
lubricatin
ting
g oil tem
tempera
peratur
turee and pres
pressure
sure;;
hol
holdd ofofff eith
either
er thethe inle
inlett or the the exexha
haust
ust valv
valve( e(s)
s) on • diff
differe
erenti
ntial
al pres
pressure
suress acr
across
oss fuel and lubric lubricati
ating
ng
each
each cylcylind
inder,
er, duri
during
ng the initiinitial
al star
startin
ting
g peri
period.
od. Ful Fulll oil filters;
compression
compres sion is restor
restoreded when stea steady
dy crankin
crankingg speed • co
coola
olantnt tempe
tempera ratur
tures
es at out outle
lets
ts fr
from
om indiindivi
vidua
duall
is att
attai
aine
ned.
d. ThThee en engi
ginene sh shou
oulld then
then runrun up to cylinders;
self-sustain
self-s ustaining
ing speed. • exhaust
exhaust temperat
temperature uress at indi
individu
vidualal cylin
cylinders
ders,, and
The mos mostt effec
effectiv
tivee way tto o promo
promote te comb
combust
ustion
ion in before and after turbochargers;
a 'cold'
'cold' engine is to provi provide de an artif
artificial
icial environme
environment nt • cha
charge
rge air temtemper
peratu
atures
res and prespressure
sures;
s;
for tpe en engin
ginee an and
d it itss anci
ancill llar
ary
y eqequiuipme
pmentnt.. Suc
Such h • starti
starting
ng air pr press
essure;
ure;
conditi
cond itions
ons are intrin
intrinsic
sic in base
base-loa
-loadd powe
powerr statio
stations,
ns, • the
the spe
speed
edss of enengi
gine
nes,
s, pum
pumps ps,, co
compr
mpresessor
sors,
s, an
and
d
and shipboard instal installatio
lations.
ns. other key auxilia
auxiliaries;
ries;
It is customa
customary ry to maint
maintain ain coolan
coolantt and lubrica
lubricating
ting • fuel tem
temper
peratu
ature
re and pr press
essure
ure;;
oil temper
temperatuatures
res abo above
ve 30°C to prom promoteote qui
quick
ck start-
start- • fuel and
and lubric
lubricati
ating
ng oil tank
tank levels
levels;;
in
ing
g on em emer
erge
genc
ncy y gene
genera rati
ting
ng plant
plant.. ThTher
ermos
mosta tat-
t- • cyl
cylinde
inderr pres
pressure
sure (usi
(using
ng mech
mechani anical
cally-d
ly-drive
rivenn or
ica
ically
lly ccontr
ontroll
olled
ed immimmersersion
ion heater
heaters,
s, derivi
deriving
ng their
their transducer-ope
transd ucer-operated
rated indica
indicators).
tors).
supply
supp ly from the primarprimary y sour
source ce of popower,
wer, are fitt
fitted
ed
Abnormall oper
Abnorma operati
ating
ng con
condit
ditions
ions may b bee det
detect
ected
ed by
in the engine cool cooling
ing system and in the engin enginee sump
se
senso
nsors
rs who
whose
se out
output
put sisign
gnal
alss are fe
fed
d into
into alalar
arm/
m/
or lubricati
lubricatingng oil ttank
ank [20]
shutdown
shutdown logi
logicc cont
controls
rols.. Var
Various
ious comb
combina
inatio
tions
ns of
indica
indicativ
tivee and protec
protectiv
tivee act
action
ion are possib
possible.
le. The
These
se
Governors include:
The engines
engines in gen
genera
eratin
ting
g plants
plants use var
variab
iable
le spe
speed
ed • two-sta
two-stage
ge ala
alarm
rm and shu
shutdow
tdown;n;
go
gove
vern
rnor
ors,
s, set
set to opoper
erat
atee at a pr pred
edet
eter
ermi
mine
ned
d • simul
simulta
tane
neous
ous al
alar
arm
m and sh
shut
utdow
down; n; an
and
d
synchron
synchronous
ous speed.
speed. Gove
Governor
rnor choi
choice
ce is d
dict
ictate
ated
d by: • ala
alarm
rm only (visi
(visible
ble and audib
audible)
le)..
1. the engine typetype;; See Chapte
Chapterr 10, which
which deal
dealss with
with prime move
moverr and
2. th
thee apappl
plic
icat
atio
ionn (e(e.g
.g.. ininde
depe
pende
ndent
nt opeopera
rati
tion,
on, gene
genera
rato
torr pro
prote
tect
ctio
ion;
n; and
and Sub
Sub-s
-sec
ecti
tion
on 15.4.
15.4.1
1 of
fe
feed
edining
g an isolisolat
ated
ed load
load;; or para
parall
llel
el ope
operarati
tion
on Chapte
Cha pterr 15 for a discu
discussi
ssion
on on 'condi
'conditio
tion
n moni
monito-
to-
wi
withth si
simi
mila
larr gene
genera
rato
tors
rs and/
and/oror with
with a util utilit
ity
y ring'.
supply);
3. the stan
standa
dard
rd of gov gover
erni
ning
ng requi
require
redd (clas
(classe
sess of
gover
gov erni
ning
ng acaccucura
racy
cy anandd thei
theirr param
paramet eter
erss areare 1.8
1.8 Wa
Waste
ste heat
heat recove
recovery
ry
defin
defineded in BS5
BS5514514:: Pa
Partrt 4 (ISO 304
3046:
6: Par
Partt 4))
4));;
 and The thermal
thermal effici
efficienc
encyy of RIC engin
engines
es ope
operat
rating
ing in
4. th
thee av
avai
aila
lable
ble iner
inerti
tiaa (or the
the flywh
flywheeeell effec
effect)
t) of elec
electr
tric
ical
al gen
gener
erat
ating
ing plan
plantt vari
varies
es betwe
between
en 30 and
the combined
combined engi
engine
ne and gen
genera
erator
tor.. 45 % - the
the highe
higherr le
level
velss bein
being
g obtai
obtaine
ned
d fro
from
m lalarg
rgee

24 Rec
Recip
iproc
rocati
ating
ng intern
internal
al combus
combusti
tion
on engine
engines
s

en
engi
gine
ness (se
(seee CCha
haptpter
er 2).
2). TThi
hiss mmea
eansns tha
thatt up to 70 % for
for lubri
lubrica
cati
ting
ng oil
oil coo
cooli ling
ng beca
because
use ititss tem
temper
pera-
a-
of the
the heheat
at inpu
inputt frfrom
om the fu fuel
el iiss bein
being g reje
reject
cted
ed to ture
ture nnee
eeds
ds tto
o be high
high foforr hea
heatt re
reco
cove
very
ry pur
purpo
pose
ses.
s.
engi
enginene coolcoolanant,
t, exha
exhaus ust,
t, lu
lubrbric
icat
atin
ingg oil,oil, and
and to A sepa
separa
rate
te raw wa wate
terr sup
supplply
y shou
should
ld be prov
provid
ided
ed
radiati
radi ation.
on. RouRoughly
ghly 50 % of this this wast
wastee he heat
at is
is reco
reco-- forr lub
fo lubri
rica
cant
nt coo
cooli
ling
ng - as show shown n in Figu
Figure
re 1.
1.20
20..
vera
verablblee (t(the
he ac
actu
tual
al am
amouount
nt retr
retrie
ieva
vablblee will
will va
varyry with
with 3. A raw wa wate
terr buffe
bufferr st
stora
orage
ge ta
tank,
nk, an
andd an ex
expa
pan-
n-
th
thee type
type an andd de
desisign
gn of eeng ngiine
ne)) to gi give
ve an ov overeral
alll sion
sion or mamakeke-u-up
p ta
tank
nk..
thermal efficiency ncy of more tha hann 80 %. 4. Oil-fir
fired or electrically po powwered boo boost or line
En
Engi gine
ne he heat
at re
recov
cover
eryy sc
sche
heme
mess m mayay incl
includ
udee ssome
ome.. heat
heater
ers,
s, if and
and whe
wherere rerequi
quire
red.
d.
or al all,
l, of the the folfollo
lowi
wing
ng eqequiuipm
pmen entsts - depdepen
endiding
ng
up
uponon the the cons
consumumerer's
's ther
therma
mall ne need
eds.s. A typi typica
call Ther
Theree is litt
little
le di
diff
ffer
eren
ence
ce betw
betwee
een
n a ttur
urbo
boch
char
arge
ged
d
sche
scheme
me is sh shown
own,, in di diag
agra
ramm
mmat atic
ic for
form,
m, in Fi Figugure
re an
andd a nanatu
tura
rall
lly
y asaspi
pirarate
tedd fou
four-s
r-str
troke
oke c. c.i.
i. eengi
ngine
ne,, as
1.20 [21]. far as full heat recovery is concerned. The former
1. A wast
wastee heat
heat boi
boilelerr for the ex exha
haus
ustt gase
gasess - to ma
may y yiel
yieldd mmor
oree exh
exhauaust
st hea
heat,t, but the
the llat
atte
terr com
compepen-
n-
produce either steam or hot water. Exhaust sates for this by giving higher jacket heat. The
te
temp
mpereratature
uress araree in the range
range 300 to 500° 500°C C ffor
or ex
exha
haust
ust gas yi yiel
elds
ds fro
fromm two
two-s -str
trok
okee enengi
gine
ness (al
(albe
beit
it at
c.i.
c.i. en
engigine
ness and
and 400 tto o 600
600°C
°C foforr s.i
s.i.. eng
enginines
es.. lowe
lowerr temp
temper erat
atur
ures
es)) ar aree comp
compar arab
able
le wi with
th thos
thosee
(Note
(No te:: It may b bee nec
neces essa
sary
ry to aadd
dd a co condendensi
nsing
ng from
from natu
naturarall
lly
y asaspi
pira
rate
tedd fou
four-s
r-str
troke
oke enengi
gine
ness of tthe
he
boiler where part-load running results from same output. This is only at high loads. The yield
re
redu
ducecedd elelec
ectr
tric
ical
al pow
power er an
andd heat
heatining
g demdemanands.
ds. fall
fallss o
off
ff rrap
apid
idly
ly at lilight
ghter
er loa
loads.
ds.
This
This is beca
becaus
usee the exhaexhaus
ustt gas
gaseses may
may be coolcooled ed The
The s.i.s.i. ga
gass engi
enginene ha hass near
near-c-con
onst
stan
antt exha
exhaus
ustt
below the dew point.) temperatures at all levels of load because it operates
2. A ther
thermal
mal storage
storage vess
vessel,
el, for so-
so-cal
called
led low gra gradede on a constan
constantt airair-to
-to-fue
-fuell rat
ratio_
io_ The p powe
owerr outpu
outputt can
heat
heat ci circ
rcui
uits
ts,, fe
fedd frfrom
om the the secon
seconda dary
ry co coil
ilss of onl
onlyy bbee co
contntro
roll
lled
ed by varyvaryiningg th
thee am
amou
ount
nt of fue
fuel/
l/ai
airr
 engi
engine
ne cool
coolan
antt and
and lulubr
bric
icat
atin
ing
g oil
oil he heat
at ex-
ex- mixt
mixtur
uree admit
admitteted
d to the
the ccylylin
inde
ders
rs.. The exh
exhau
aust
st ga
gass
ch
chan
ange
gers
rs,, an
andd fr
from
om chchar
arge
ge air
air co
cool
oler
erss - using
using ma
massss reduc
reduces
es as load
load iiss re
redu
duce
ced.
d.
en
engi
gine
ne-- or moto
motor-r-dri
drive
ven
n raw
raw wate
waterr circ
circul
ulat
atin
ing
g In co
cont
ntra
rast
st,, the
the c.
c.i.
i. engi
enginene ope
opera
ratetess on a varia
variabl
blee
pumps. It is not possible to use the jacket water air-to-fuel ratio. Its exhaust temperature decreases

Wa
Wast
ste
e heat
heat reco
recove
very
ry 25

with reducing
reducing load. Typica
Typically,
lly, a turboch
turbocharged
arged diese
diesell The comcommer
mercia
ciall viabil
viability
ity of a CHP plant plant hinges
hinges
en
engi
gine
ne mamayy have
have a 30 % drop
drop in te temp
mper
erat
ature
ure from
from on its being
being able to run at, or near, ful fulll loa
load
d for the
ful
full-
l- to half-l
half-load.
oad. The
There
re is aalso
lso more hea
heatt reject
rejection
ion gre
greate
aterr par
partt of ititss an
annua
nuall ope
operat
ration.
ion. Sizeab
Sizeable le CHP
to the cooling
cooling sys
system
tem on gas eengi
ngines
nes than
than there
there is on inst
instal
alla
lati
tion
onss have
have been been co comm
mmis issi
sione
onedd in re rece
cent
nt
c.
c.i.
i. en
engi
gine
nes.
s. Th
This
is is a res
resul
ultt of the latt
latter
er's
's mo
morere ye
year
ars,
s, bo
both
th in th thee UK and and in Eu Euro
rope
pe.. Most
Most hahave
ve
efficient
effic ient combustion cycle [11]. favoure
favoured d mul
multi-
ti-eng
engineinedd system
systems,s, emp
employi
loyingng 1.5 tto
o
A tytypi
pica
call heat
heat bala
balanc
ncee for a 2 MW c. c.i.
i. me
medi
dium
um 2 MW unit siz sizes
es wi with
th dual
dual-f
-fue
uell ope
operarati
tion
on.. Th
Thee ad
ad--
spe
speed
ed eng
engine
ine-gen
-genera
erator
tor,, giving
giving 1.8 MW in the dual- vantage
vant age of th thee mul
multip
tiple-
le-gen
genera
erator
tor scheme
scheme is that
that it
fue
fuell mode, is show
shown
n in TaTable
ble 1.1 [3
[3].
]. gives
gives flexi
flexibil
bility
ity and ena
enable
bless indivi
individual
dual uni
units
ts to be
opera
ope rate
ted
d at near near-m
-max
axim
imumum outp output
ut leleve
vels
ls unde
underr
Table 1.1 Heat balances
balances for a 2 MW dual-f
dual-fuel
uel genera
generator
tor var
varyin
yingg powe
powerr and heat load load con
condit
dition
ions.
s. This
This serves
serves
to opt
optim
imizizee the
the ove
overa
rall
ll ther
therma
mall efeffi
fici
cien
ency
cy of the
the
CHP plant.
Heat balance at full load Diesel (%) Dual-fuel (%)
The folfollow
lowing
ing points shou
shouldld be noted
noted::

To electricity 38.5 39 1. It wa
wass once co cons
nsid
ider
ered
ed une
uneco
conom
nomicic to fi fitt heat
heat
To exhaust 36 34 recovery
recove ry syste
systems
ms to units below 500kW; becau because se
To jacket water 11 10 the heat
heat bal
balanc
ancee was low, and the cost cost of recov-
To lubrica
lubricati
ting
ng oil
oil 4.5 4 ery dispropor
disproportio
tionat
nately
ely exp
expens
ensive
ive.. Con
Conditdition
ionss
To charge air 4 2.5 havee cha
hav change
ngedd since
since the Ene
Energy
rgy Act of 1983 and
To radiation etc 6 6 there
there has beebeen
n a mar
marked
ked increa
increase
se in ththee numb
number er
To unmixed
unmix ed ga gase
sess 4.5
- of small
small CHP inst instal
alla
lati
tion
onss in th
thee UK - ma many ny as
-- -- small as 40kW.
100 100
2. Th
Thee site
site heat
heatin
ing
g load
load sho
shoul
uld
d be at le leas
astt 252
252000000
kcal
kcal/h
/h an
andd the
the heat
heat-t
-to-
o-pow
powerer ra rati
tioo more
more than than
The heat recover
recoverablablee from the exhaus exhaustt gasgases
es of a 0.75:1.
c.
c.i.
i. en
engi
gine ne is of the orde orderr 250000kcal/h/MW; and The value
value of h
heat
eat-to
-to-pow
-power
er rat
ratios
ios depen
depends
ds upon the
ab
about
out 350350000
000 kcal
kcal/h
/h/M
/MW W is rec recove
overarabl
blee from
from thethe amount
amo unt of low gr
grade
ade hea
heatt used.
used. The ran
range
ge of val
values
ues
jacket water. to be expect
expected
ed is aass follows
follows [22]
[22]::
Using exhaust heat recovery alone, it is possib possiblele to
0.5:1
0.5:1 to 1:1 whe
where
re heat recov
recovery
ery is from ex
exhaus
haustt
produce 0.5 kg of steam per kWh at a pressure of
gases only.
8.5 kglcm2• This figure figure doub
doublesles to 1kg of ste steam
am per
0.
0.8:
8: 1 to 2
2:1
:1 wi
with
th he
heat
at rereco
cove
very
ry frfrom
om exha
exhausustt
kWh with ful recovery (i.e
fulll heat recovery (i.e.. from jack
jacketet wate
water,r,
gases and engine coola
coolant.
nt.
lu
lubri
brica
cati
ting
ng oi oil,
l, anandd ex
exhahaust
ust).
). It can be rais raised
ed to
Up to 5:1
5:1 wi
with
th aft
after
er-f
-fir
ired
ed exha
exhaus
ustt ga
gase
sess and
and
2.5 kg/kWh, if the the jac
jackekett wawate
terr is pre
pre-h
-hea
eateted
d in an
he
heat
at reco
recove
very
ry fr
from
om exha
exhaus
ustt and
and
au
auto
toma
matiticc boi
boilelerr fi
fire
redd fr
from
om the the same
same fue fuell as the
cooling
cooling water
water..
engine
eng ine [3].
A co combmbinined
ed he heat
at anand d popowewerr (C (CHP
HP), ), or co- In after-fired (or after burning) exh exhaus
austt scheme
schemes,s, a
generation, sys syste
temm im implplie
iess the
the gene
generarati
tion
on of two combustion
combus tion chambe
chamberr is place
placed
d betwe
between en the engine
engine's
's
formss of ener
form energygy in a sing
single le conve
conversi rsion
on proproces
cess.
s. For ex
exha
haus
ustt outl
outlet
et an
and
d the
the wa
wast
stee heat
heat boile
boiler.
r. Fuel
Fuel is
ex
exam
amplple,
e, an RI RIC C en engi
gine
ne pro produc
ducin
ing
g me mechchan
anicical
al intr
introd
oduc
uceded into
into this
this cham
chambe
ber;r; and
and buburn
rntt in the
energy
energy for an a. a.c.
c. gene
generat
ratoror and heat for: ex
exha
haust
ust stre
stream
am.. Th
Thereree is su
suffi
ffici
cien
entt oxy
oxyge
genn in the
exhaus
exh austt residu
residual al (par
(partic
ticula
ularly
rly frofromm turboc
turbochar
harged
ged
• distri
district
ct heat
heating
ing;; or engines) to ensur
engines) ensuree effic
efficient
ient combustio
combustion. n. By control
control--
• indus
industrtria
iall an
andd cocomm
mmer erci
cial
al pre
premi
mise
sess (inc
(inclu
ludi
ding
ng ling
ling the fuel sup supplply
y to the combu
combust stio
ionn chcham
ambeber,
r, a
heat to absorption
absorption chill
chillers
ers for compu
computer
ter air ccondi-
ondi- consta
con stant
nt heat
heat input
input can be mai mainta
ntaine
ined d at the was waste
te
tio
tionin
ning);
g); or heat
heat boi
boile
lerr - irre
irresp
spec
ecti
tive
ve of loadload vari
variat
atio
ions
ns.. ThThee
• prod
product
uction
ion proc
process
esses.
es. system
syste m is ideal
ideallyly suited to those site sitess where a regular
steam
steam sup
supply
ply is rrequi
equired
red at co const
nstant
ant pre
pressu
ssure
re [6].
The descr
descriptio
iption
n 'total
'total energy scheme' shoul
energy scheme' shouldd only Aft
After-
er-fir
firing
ing can tr trebl
eblee heat
heat prod
product
uction
ion (se
(seee Fig-
Fig-
st
stri
rict
ctly
ly appl
apply
y to oneone in whiwhich
ch the
the 'tot
'total
al'' ener
energy
gy ure
ure 1.
1.21)
21).. ThThee tota
totall fuel
fuel con
consu
sump
mpti
tion
on is aabouboutt 1.5
1.5
requir
requireme
ements
nts of a sit
sitee are prov
provide
ided
d by a cecentr
ntral
al hea
heatt tim
times
es that of an instal
installat
lation
ion without
without it. The ove overal
ralll
an
andd pow
power
er st
stat
atio
ion,
n, with
with no conn
connec
ecti
tion
on to a util
utilit
ity
y fuel
fuel coconvnveersi
rsion effi efficcie
ienc
ncyy is im impr
prov
oveed; an andd
supply
supp ly netwo
network.
rk. The EnerEnergy
gy Act of 1983has made it approa
app roache
chess 90 %.
possible for the more efficient industrial and com- Energy
Ene rgy input
input and distrdistribu
ibutio
tionn for a typic
typical
al system
system
merc
mercia
iall CHP
CHP pl plan
ants
ts in ththee Un
Unit
ited
ed Ki
King
ngdo
dom
m to is sshow
hownn in the San
Sankey
key diagram
diagram of Figu
Figure
re 1.22 [2[23].
3].
obt
obtai
ain
n re reas
asona
onabl
blee fi
fina
nanc
ncia
iall re
retu
turns
rns by exexpo
port
rtin
ing
g As a gene
genera
rall rul
rule,
e, s.i.
s.i. en
engi
gine
ness ca
cann
nnot
ot be af afte
ter-
r-
electr
electrica
icall powe
powerr to Area Boa
Boardsrds or to neighbo
neighbourin
uringg fired.
fired. The excep
exceptio
tions
ns are those types
types whi
which
ch empl
employoy
consumers. the 'lean-bu
'lean-burn'
rn' pri
princi
nciple
ple (i.e.
(i.e. run on high ai
air-t
r-to-fu
o-fuel
el

26 Recipro
Reciprocati
cating
ng internal
internal combusti
combustion
on engin
engines
es

rati
ratios
os an
and
d th
ther
eref
efor
oree have
have a surp
surplu
luss of o
oxy
xyge
gen
n in the
the cy of up to 85 %. Hea
Heatt ene
energy
rgy is re
reco
cove
vere
red
d fro
from
m
exhaust). engine coolant, lubricating oil, charge air, and the
It is poss
possibl
iblee to im
improv
provee the o
overa
verallll eff
effici
icienc
ency
y of a exha
exhaust
ust gases.
gases. The second
second packag
packagee has a wawater
ter-to-
-to-
CHP
CHP systsystem
em by th thee use
use of hea
heatt pu
pump
mps.
s. On
Onee such
such wate
waterr heat
heat pum
pumpp whi
which
ch uuse
sess the
the p
pow
owerer pr
prod
oduc
uced
ed by
 sche
scheme
me,, devel
develope
opedd by Erg
Ergenen of Mil Milan
an,, uses
uses two the
the gene
genera
rato
torr of the the ffir
irst
st pack
packag
age.
e. The h hea
eatt pu
pump
mp's's
in
inte
tegra
grate
ted
d pac
packag
kages
es [24
[24].
]. Th
Thee first
first co
consi
nsist
stss oj a task
task is to rreq
equaualilify
fy the
the low grad
gradee heat
heat of iind
ndusustr
tria
iall
di
dies
esel
el or gas
gas engi
engine
ne gener
generat
atin
ing
g sesett fitt
fitted
ed with
with heat effl
effluen
uents
ts (whic
(which h wou
would ld ot
othe
herwi
rwise
se be llos
ostt by disc
discha
har-
r-
re
recov
cover
eryy equ
equip
ipme
ment
nt to give
give a tota
totall th
ther
erma
mall effi
effici
cien
en-- ge int
into
o ri
rive
versrs,, etetc.
c.),
), and pro produc
ducee add
addititio
ional
nal hot

Refere
Reference
ncesand
sand bib
biblio
liogra
graph
phy
y 27

water for the industrial process itsel itself.

f. The combined an
and
d Fuel
Fuel an and
d Meta
Metallllurg
urgic
ical
al Journ
Journal alss Lt
Ltd.
d.,, Se
Sep-p-
effo
effort
rt of ththee twotwo pack
packag
ageses ra
rais
ises
es the
the tota
totall plan
plantt tember 1986
tember 1986..
effici
efficienc
encyy to except
exceptiona
ionally
lly high value
values.s. A spespecia
ciall 2. Fraenkel
Fraenk el,, P. The Pow Power Guide (a ca
er Guide cata
talog
logueue of
high tempe
temperat
rature
ure loop is d desi
esigne
gnedd into
into the syst
system.
em. It sm
smal
alll scal
scalee pow
power er eqequi
uipm
pment
ent),
), Int Inter
erme
medi diat
atee
rece
receiv
ives
es heat
heat in ca casc
scad
adee frfrom
om the
the heat
heat pum
pump, p, the
the Technol
Tec hnologyogy Publ
Publica
icatio
tions
ns Ltd.
Ltd.,, (197
(1979).9).
engine
engi ne cool
coolant
ant syst
system,
em, and the engine exhaus exhaustt gas 3. Mahon, L.L.
Mahon, L.L.J.J. Electric
Electrical al Engin
Engineer's
eer's Reference
Reference
heat
heat recover
recovery y syst
system.
em. A centr
central
al aut
automat
omaticic cont
control
rol Book 14 14thth edn,
edn, Bu Butttter
erwor
worth
th,, LonLondon don (19 (1985)
85)
panel operates the two main packages. Control can Ch.8.
be programmed for either electric power or heat 4. Kates,, E.J.
Kates E.J. andand Lu Luck
ck,, W.W.E.
E. Diesel and High High
out
output
put prprio
ioririty
ty.. Depen
Dependiding
ng on the the mod
modee sele
select
cted
ed,, Compre
Com pressi
ssion
on Gas Engine
Engines, s, 3rd edn edn,, AmAmeri erica
cann
th
thee con
contr
trol
olss give
give fine reg
regululat
atio
ion
n betwe
betweenen the tw twoo Technical
Techni cal Societ
Society,y, (1974).
extrem
extremes es of: 5. Wa
Walllace
lace,, F.J.F.J. Compoompoun undd an andd othe
otherr engin nginee
systems.
system s. In Diesel Engine Reference Book 1st ed
Engine Reference edn n
1. mee
meetin
ting
g the sit
site's
e's elect
electric
rical
al powe
power,
r, and any con- (ed.
(ed. LR LRC C Lill
Lilly)
y) But
Butteterwo
rwortrth,
h, Lon London don (1 (1984
984))
sequent
sequent heat
heat demand
demands; s; and Ch.3.
2. using
using all tthe
he gene
generarato
torr out
output
put to dri
drive
ve the heat
heat 6. Wil
Wilbur,
bur, C.T. and Wight, D.A. Pounde Pounder's r's Marine
Marine
pump and maximize hot water production for Diesel Engines, 6th 6th edn
edn,, But
Butter
terwort
worth, h, Lon
London,
don,
on-site process
processes.
es. (1984).
The
The gegene
nera
rato
torr may
may be us used
ed to prov
provid
idee stan
standb
dby
y 7. The Oil Engine
Engine ManManualual,, 6th edn (ed. Wil Willia
liams,
ms,
power to essential loads within the process plant. In D.S.D.)
D.S. D.) Tem Templeple Press,
Press, (195
(1956).
6).
these
these cir
circum
cumsta
stance
nces,
s, heat
heat pump operat
operation
ion is inter-
inter- 8. Benson
Bens on,, R.S.
R.S. andand Wh Whit iteh
ehou
ousese,, N. N.D.D. Internal
rupted. Combustion
Combu Engines, 1st
stion Engines, 1st edn (i (inn 2 Volu
Volume mes)s)
Pergamon
Perg amon Pres Presss (197
(1979).
9).
9. Kirtle
Kirt ley,
y, J.G.
J.G. Fu Fuelel and
and comb
combus usti
tion
on.. In Diesel
1.9
1.9 Refe
Reference
renced
d standards
standards Engine Reference Book (ed (ed.. L.R
L.R.C.
.C. LilLilly)
ly) BuBut-t-
terwort
terworth, h, Lond
London on (198
(1984)4) CCh.h. 3.
Re
Refefere
renc
ncee has be
been
en ma
made
de,, in ththis
is ch
chapt
apter
er,, to th
thee 10. Jones,
Jones, D.L D.L.. Gas engi engines
nes for genegenerat
rating
ing setsetss and
following
followi ng British Standard
Standards.
s. The identic
identical
al documen
documentt CH
CHP P syssyste
tems
ms.. Pa Pape
perr re
read
ad at the Ind Indepepenende
dentnt
of the Internat
Internationa
ionall Orga
Organiz
nizati
ation
on for Stan
Standardardiz
diza-
a- Powerr Gene
Powe Generatration
ion Conf
Confere
erence
nce (INPOWER 88)
tio
tion
n (ISO)
(ISO) is sshown
hown in brac
bracket
kets.
s. organiz
orga nizeded by Fuel and Met Metallallurgi
urgical
cal JourJournal
nalss
Ltd.
Ltd. Septem
September ber 1988
1988..
BS 5514:
5514: Part 4 Sp
S pecification for RI C 11. Uvar
Uvarov,ov, E.B.
E.B.,, ChChapapma
man,n, D.R.
D.R. and Is Isaa
aacscs,, A.
(ISO 3046/IV) eng
engine
ines:
s: per
perfor
forman
mance
ce spe
speed
ed Th
Thee Pe Pengnguiuin
n Di Dict
ctio
iona
nary
ry of Sc Scie ncee 5t
ienc 5thh ededn,
n,
governing Penguin,
Peng uin, (repri
(reprinte
ntedd 1982
1982). ).
BS 5673: 1979 Design
Designatio
ation
n of the cyli
cylinders
nders 12. Harp
Harpum,um, R. an andd Jacks
Jackson,
on, P. The app applilica
cati
tion
on
(ISO
(ISO 120
1205
5 - 197
1972)
2) of reciprocating internal com- and
and de desi
sign
gn of high high spee
speed d didies
esel
el engi
engine ness foforr
bustion
busti on engines
engines genera
gen eratin
tingg plant.
plant. Pape
Paperr (No. CDC3/CDC3/83) 83) rearead d at
BS 5675: 1979 Definitio
Definition n of right-hand
right-hand and an InteIntern
rnat
atio
iona
nall Conf
Confer eren
encece on Generating
(ISO
(ISO 2276
2276 - 197
1972)
2) left-
left-hand
hand single b bank
ank recipro-
recipro- plant and systems spon sponsore
sored d by tthe
he Insti
Institut
tution
ion of
cat
cating
ing intern
internal
al com
combus
bustio
tion
n Di
Dies
eselel and
and Gas Gas Tu Turb
rbin
inee Engi
Engineneer
erss andand the the
engines Ch
Chararte
tere
red
d InstInstit
itut
utio
ionn of Buil Buildiding
ng Servi
Service cess in
Decembc
Dec embcrr 1983 1983.. Confe
Conferenrence
ce Proc
Proceed
eedings
ings pub-
Ex
Extr
trac
acts
chapte
cha ts of
pters
rs from
froth
misBr
thisBrit
Haitis
ish
Handboh Stand
St
ndbookokandar
ards
aredsrepr
inoduced
thi
thissedan
reproduc andd hothe
other
with
wit r
the lis
lished
hed by Mechani
Mechanical cal Engi
Enginee neerin
ringg Publ
Publicaicatio
tions
ns
permission of BSI. Complete copies of the standards Ltd.
ca
can
n be obta
obtain
ined
ed by post from BS BSII Sa
Sale les,
s, Li
Linfo
nford
rd 13. General Insta Installati
llation Manual, 2nd edn, Perkins
on Manual, Perkins
Wood,
Woo d, MiMilt
lton
on KeKeyne
ynes,
s, MK
MK14 14 6LE
6LE;; tele
telex x 825
825777
777 Engin
Eng ines
es Li Limi
miteted,
d, PubPub.. No. 801 801SESER0R0280280116
1164 4
BSIMK
BSI MK G; fax 090 09088 3208
320856.
56. (1980).
14. Haggh
Haggh,, B. B.J.
J. Truck
Truck and bus eng enginines
es,, In Diesel
Engine Reference Book (ed. L.R L.R.C.
.C. Lil
Lilly)
ly) B But-
ut-
1.10
1.10 Re
Refere
ferences
nces and bibliography terwort
terworth, h, Lond
London on (198
(1984).
4).
15.
15. Kill
Killma
mann nn,, I.G.
I.G. an andd Tholeholen,
n, P. Ai Aircrcoo
oolled
engine
eng ines.s. In Dies
Diesel Reference Book (ed.
el Engine Reference
1.10.1
1.10.1 Refe
Referenc
rences
es L.R.
L.R.C. C. Lill Lilly)
y) Butt
Buttererwo
wort rth,
h, Lond
London on (1 (198984)
4)
I. Webb
Webber er,, J.V.
J.V. Desi
Design
gn cha
chara
ract
cter
eris
isti
tics
cs of dies
diesel
el Ch.29.
engines
engi nes for loca
locall powe
powerr gene
generat
ration.
ion. PapPaper
er Bre
Bread
ad 16. Greenw
Greenwelell,
l, D.K
D.K.. Ma
Maririne
ne eng
engin
ines
es for smal
smalle
lerr
at a conf
confer
eren
ence
ce held
held in con
conju
junc
ncti
tion
on wiwith
th the
the craf
craft.
t. In DiDiese
esell Engine
Engine RefRefere
erence Book (ed.
nce Book
INPOWER 86 exhi exhibit
bition
ion,, and organ
organize
ized
d by tthe
he L.R.
L.R.C.
C. Lill
Lilly)
y) Butt
Butter
erwo
wort
rth,
h, Lond
London
on (1(198
984)
4)
Institu
Institutio
tionn of Dies
Dieselel and Gas Turb
Turbineine Engi
Enginee
neers
rs Ch.28.

28 Rec
Recipr
iproca
ocati
ting
ng intern
internal
al combus
combusti
tion
on engine
engines
s

17. FrFree
eese
se,, R.R.G.
G. PaPass
ssen
engegerr cacarr en
engi
gine
nes.
s. In Diesel based on a paper read at a Confederation of
Engine Reference Book (ed. L.R.C. L.R.C. Lilly)
Lilly) BuBut-
t- Britis
British
h Indu
Industr
stry
y Conf
Confere
erence
nce on Co Combine
mbinedd Heat
ter
terwort
worth, h, Lond
Londonon (198
(1984)4) C Ch.
h. 22. and Pow
Power er - New Opport
Opportuni
unitie
tiess for Ind
Indust
ustry,
ry,
18
18.. Wa
Wats tson
on,, N. The theo theoryry of tur turbo
bochchar
argi
ging
ng.. In October
Oct ober 1983
1983..
Diesel Engine Reference Book (ed (ed.. L.R.
L.R.C.C. 24. Chell
Chellini
ini,, R. Re Reco
cove
veri
ring
ng he
heat
at frofrom
m indus
industr
tria
iall
Lil
Lilly)
ly) Butt
Butterwerworth
orth,, Lond
London on (1984)
(1984) Ch Ch.. 2. effluents. Die
Diesel
sel and Gas Turbin
Turbinee Worldw
Worldwide
ide,,
19
19.. Kauf
Kaufma mannnn,, W.M.W.M. Turb Turboc ocha
harg
rged
ed du dual
al fu fuel
el
engines
engi nes.. In Dies
Diesel Reference Book (ed.
el Engine Reference Octobe
Octoberr 1981 pp. 48-5
48-50.
0.
L.R.
L.R.C.C. LillLilly)y) Butt
Butter
erwo
wort rth,
h, Lond
London on (198(1984)
4)
Ch.26. 1.10.2
1.10.2 Ot
Other
her inf
inform
ormati
ation
on sou
source
rcess
20. Hodge,
Hodge, D. Star Starti
ting
ng gear
gear an andd star
starti
ting
ng aids
aids.. In
The text-book
text-bookss lis
listed
ted in the Refere
Reference
ncess have bee been
n
Diesel Engine Reference Book (ed (ed.. L.R.
L.R.C.C.
used
used by th thee au
autthor
hor in th thee prep
prepararat
atio
ionn of thisthis
Lilly)
Lilly) B Butt
utterw
erworth
orth,, Lond
London on (198
(1984)
4) Ch. 14.
chapte
chapter.
r. A ver
veryy good introdu
introducti
ction
on to the therm
thermody-
ody-
21. Thomason,
Thomason, J.H. Fac Factor
torss affect
affecting
ing the choic
choicee of
na
nami
mics
cs,, desi
design
gn and
and deve
develo
lopm
pmen
entt of s.i.s.i. and
and c.i
c.i
me
mediu
dium m speed
speed eng engin
ines
es for gene generarati
ting
ng plan
plant.
t.
engines,
engines, is g
give
iven
n in the two volu
volumes
mes by Ben Benson
son and
Pa
Pape
perr No. CD CDC2
C2/8/83
3 read
read at the Int Inter
erna
nati
tiona
onall
Whiteh
Whi tehouse
ouse [8].
Confere
Con ference
nce cited
cited in ref
refere
erence
nce (12)
(12)..
Other
Oth er useful
useful sourc
sourceses of inf
informa
ormatio
tion
n are:
are:
22
22.. Gu
Gurnrney
ey,, J.D.
J.D.,, Hyde
Hyde,, R.F.R.F.G,G, Pick
Picker erin
ing,
g, S. S.J.
J.
an
andd ShuShutete,, M. 'Ind
'Indus
ustr
tria
iall cocombi
mbinenedd heat
heat an andd 1. tthe
he hou
housese jour
journa
nals
ls,, and
and te
techn
chnicical
al lilite
terat
rature
ure of
power - investment, savings and decision mak- major
maj or eng
engine
ine and equ
equipm
ipment
ent man
manufaufactu
cturers
rers;;
ing.
ing. Pap
Paperer re read
ad at a SemSemin inar
ar on The tech technical
nical 2. the
the jour
journanals
ls of lelear
arne
nedd sosoci
ciet
etie
iess such
such as the
and economic
economic impact
impact of co-genera
co-generationtion organized Institu
Inst itutio
tion
n of Mec
Mechani
hanical
cal Engi
Enginee
neers,
rs, and papers
by the Steam Plant Committee of the Power published by the Institution of Diesel and Gas
Industr
Indu stries
ies DivDivisi
ision
on of the Insti Institui
tuion
on of MechMecha- a- Turbine Enginee
Engineers;
rs;
nical
nical Engine
Engineersers,, May 1986
1986.. Se
Semina
minarr Proc
Proceed
eed-- 3. intern
internati
ational
onal tra
trade
de journ
journals
als and magmagazi
azines
nes spec-
spec-
ings
ings pub
publilishe
shed
d by MechaMechaninica
call Eng
Engin
inee
eeri
ring
ng ializi
ializing
ng in pri prime-
me-move
movers rs and engi engine-p
ne-power
owered ed
Publications
Publications Ltd. equipmen
equi pments ts such as as:: Diese
Diesell Engi
Engineeri
neering;
ng; Diesel
23. Na
Nash,
sh, F. Wast
Wastee heat
heat an
and
d CHP
CHP,, NEI-A
NEI-APE
PE LtLtd.
d. and Gas Turbin
Turbinee Worldw
Worldwideide;; High
High Speed
Speed Diesel
Diesel
Produc
Productt Inf
Inform
ormat atio
ion
n Issue
Issue No
No.1.1,, Apr
April
il 198
1984,
4, Report and Eur Europea
opean n Power News.
 Power
ower ra
rating
ting and

2 performance
Contents

2.1 Introduct
Introduction
ion
2.2 Generator
Generat or applicati
applications
ons
2.3 Rela
Related
ted terminolog
terminology y
2.4 Serv
Service
ice power rati
ratings
ngs
2.5 Performa
Performance
nce fact
factors
ors affecting
affecting plant sizin
sizing
g
2.6 Referenc
Referenced
ed standards
standards
2.7 Reference
Referencess
 Generato
Generatorr applica
application
tions
s 31

2.1 Introduction Applications are not conf

Applications confined
ined to land-
land-based
based instal
installa-
la-
tion
tions.
s. Cate
Catego
gori
ries
es 1 anand
d 3 als
also
o appl
applyy to mari
marinene
Thi
Thiss cha
chapte
pterr defi
defines
nes the basic appl
applica
icatio
tions
ns of gen
gen-- (shipboard
(shipboard and off-sho
off-shore)
re) instal
installation
lations.
s.
eratin
erating
g plant
plant and cons
conside
iders
rs the env
enviro
ironme
nmenta
ntall and
performance factors that have an influence upon the
2.2
2.2.2
.2 Perfor
Performan
mance
ce cri
criter
teria
ia
sizi
sizing
ng of pl
plant
ant.. Th
Thee signi
signifi
fica
cant
nt te
term
rmss rela
relati
ting
ng to
engi
engine
in
ing ne ings
g rat powe
power,
ratin r, and
gs and kinthe
kinds
ds ofacc
accept
epted
pow ed
er met
power methods
aree hods
ar exp
explaof
lain spe
specif
ined
ed.. cify-
They- Ce
Cert
rtai
ain
sizing
sizing noftype
tygen
pesseratin
genera ofting
loa
load
g dplant
hav
have
pla nt eanda dir
direc
ectt bear
deman
demand be
d arin
aing
g on
part
particu the
icular
lar
Int
Inter
ernat
natio
ional
nal an and
d Nati
Nationa
onall Stan
Standa
dards
rds refe
refere
rence
ncedd quality
qual ity of susupply
pply.. Perform
Performancancee para
paramet
metersers need
need to
within
within the tex
textt are liste
listed
d in a co
concl
ncludin
udingg sectio
section
n of be clearly defined and specified for each application.
the chapter.
chapter. The
The suppsupplyly char
charac acte
teri
rist
stic
icss re
requ
quirired
ed fo forr high
high--
tec
technol
hnology,
ogy, sensit
sensitive
ive loads
loads (suc(suchh as dat dataa proc
process
ess--
ing equip
equipment
mentss and comp computeuterr instal
installat
lations
ions)) will
will b
bee
2.
2.2
2 Gene
Generator
rator applications
applications quitee diff
quit differe
erent
nt to th those
ose that
that need
need to be spec specifi
ified
ed for
less
less sophis
sophistic
ticate
atedd loads,
loads, such
such as general-p
general-purpourpose
se
In our co cont
ntex
extt a 'pow
'powerer gen
gener
erat
ator
or'' or a gene
genera
rati
ting
ng do
dome
meststic
ic and
and indu induststri
rial
al syst
systemems.s. Some
Some,, or al all,
l,
set consists
consists of a recipr
reciproca
ocatin
ting
g intern
internalal com
combust
bustion
ion of the followi
following ng perfo
performa
rmance
nce parame
parameter terss may nee needd
(RIC)
(RIC) engi
engine
ne coup
coupled
led to an a.c. gene
generatrator;
or; comp
complet
letee to be defined:
with
with ththee ap
appro
propr
pria
iate
te mount
mountin
ingg anand d dri
drive
ve bea
beari
ring
ng
• load
load acce
accepta
ptance
nce;;
element
elements, s, and witwithh the auxi
auxilia
liarie
riess require
requiredd for op-
• transie
transient
nt and stea
steady-s
dy-stat
tatee volt
voltage
age and fre
frequen
quency
cy
er
erat
atio
ion.
n. It is of cou course
rse pos
possi
sibl
blee to emp emplo
loyy one or regulation;
regulation; and
more engines
engines to drive the genergenerato
atorr (or gener
generato
ators)
rs).. • wave
waveform
form cha
charac
racter
terist
istics
ics (ha
(harmon
rmonic
ic lim
limita
itatio
tion).
n).
Th
Thee au
auxixili
liar
ary
y equ
equip
ipme
ment
nt would
would inclu include,
de, but not
necess
necessari
arily
ly be confi
confined
ned to, suc
suchh items as: Also
Also see Secti
Section
on 2.5 in this
this chapte
chapter.
r.
1. the engine
engine starti
starting
ng syst
system;
em;
2. the engi
engine
ne spee
speed d gove
governi
rning
ng syst
system;
em; 2.2.3 Rati
Ratings
ngs and class
classific
ificatio
ations
ns
3. the gene
generat
rator
or vol
voltag
tagee regula
regulatin
tingg syst
system;
em;
The
The popowe
werr rati
rating
ng of a gene
generarati
ting
ng se sett shou
should
ld be
4. the engi
engine
ne and genegenerat
rator
or cool
cooling
ing syste
systems;
ms;
ex
expre
press
ssed
ed in kWe at ratedrated frfreq
equeuenc
ncy,
y, and
and at an
5. the engi
engine
ne air inintak
takee and exha
exhaust
ust syst
system;
em;
assume
assumed d powe
powerr factor
factor (cos
(coslj»
lj» of 0.8 laggi
lagging
ng (unl
(unless
ess
6. the engi
engine
ne lubr
lubrica
icatin
ting
g oil ssyst
ystem;
em; and
stated
stated othe
otherwis
rwise).
e). It re
repre
present
sentss a ststate
atemen
mentt by tthe
he
7. the engin
enginee fuel sysyste
stem
m (liquid
(liquid or gas
gaseous
eous fuel).
manu
manufafact
ctur
urer
er of the powe powerr whic
which h the
the unit
unit wi
will
ll
The gene
genera rati
ting
ng set
set in an inst
instal
alla
lati
tion
on (be it fixed
fixed,, del
delive
iverr unde
underr a spe
specif
cified
ied set of circ
circumst
umstancances.
es. This
This
mobil
mob ilee or tran
transpo
sport
rtab
able
le)) woul
would d then
then be provi
provideded
d declaration
declaration should include:
with
with the necnecess
essary
ary equ
equipme
ipmentnt and devic
devices
es requ
require
ired
d
1. the
the ambi
ambien
entt and
and oper
operat
atin
ing
g cond
condit
itio
ions
ns of the
the
to contr
control,
ol, momoninito
tor,
r, an
and d pro
prote
tect
ct the
the prim
primee mo
mover
ver
plant; and
and the generato
generator, r, and to switc
switchh the elect
electric
ric power
2. the kind of power prov
provide
ided.
d.
genera
generated
ted.. See C Chapt
hapters
ers 9 and 10.
There are,
There are, as yyet,
et, no Inter
Internat
nationa
ionall or Bri
Britis
tish
h Stan-
Stan-
dard specificaiions
specificaiions for RIC engine driven a.c. gener-
2.2
2.2.1
.1 Genera
Generator
tor ope
operat
ration
ional
al mod
modes
es
atin
ating
g sets
sets.. A mul
multi
ti-p
-part
art draft
draft pro
propos
posal
al (IS
(ISO/
O/DP
DP
A.C
A.C. ge
gene
nera
rattors
ors powe
powere
red
d by RIC en engi
gine
ness are
are 8528),
8528 ), prepa
prepared
red by the Inter Internat
nationa
ionall Orga
Organiznizati
ation
on
employed
employed in ththree
ree mai
main
n rol
roles
es (also see Ch
Chapt
apter
er 5): for Stand
Standar ardi
diza
zati
tion
on Te Techchni
nica
call CoComm
mmit itte
teee TC 70/
SC 2/WG
2/WG 1, is now in cir circu
cula
lati
tion
on to the natio national
nal
1. On primary
primary or bas base-l
e-load
oad dut
duty,
y, in lloca
ocatio
tions
ns wher
wheree commit
com mittee
teess of ind indivi
ividua
duall memmemberber coun
countri
tries.
es. Hes-
there
there is no util
utility
ity supp
supply;
ly; or as an inde
indepen
pendent
dent
ket
keth
h [1] repo
reporte
rtedd in June 1986 that that prepa
preparatratory
ory work
power source to ensure continuity of supply. had
had take
taken n near
nearlyly thre
threee year
years.
s. Fina
Finall pub
publi
lica
cati
tion
on of
where
whe re an 'unre
'unreli
liab
able
le'' publi
publicc su
suppl
pply
y sysyst
stem
em is
the Standard is not expe expected
cted before the mid 90s 90s.. This
This
av
avai
aila
labl
ble.
e. Inc
Inclu
luded
ded in thithiss ca
cate
tego
gory
ry wou
would ld be time
timesc
scal
alee refl
reflec
ects
ts the
the cocompl
mplex
exitity
y of the ta task.
sk. ISO
total-
total-ene
energy
rgy and co-gen
co-genera
eratio
tionn sche
schemes
mes.. 8528 will relat
relatee to existi
existing
ng internatio
international
nal design stan-
2. For
For pe peak
ak-l
-lop
oppi
ping
ng (o (orr pe
peak
ak-s
-sha
havi
ving
ng)) duduty
ty to dards for RIC engines, rotating rotating elect
electrical
rical machines,
supplem
supp lement
ent and/
and/or
or redu
reduce
ce the cost of elect
electric
ricity
ity
 HV anandd LV swi switc
tchge
hgear
ar,, an
and
d co
contntrol
rol gear
gear.. It
Itss pur-
pur-
supply from a utili
supply utility
ty sour
source.
ce. pose is to define ratings and performance para-
3. As stan
standb
dby
y to a po powe
werr supp
supply
ly fr
from
om a util
utilit
ity.
y. meters
met ers for gener
generati
ating
ng sets
sets as en
entit
tities
ies.. It is aan
n ambi-
These
These mode
modess of oper
operati
ation
on fal
falll int
into
o two cate
categori
gories:
es: tious
tious und
under
erta
taki
king
ng whi
whichch shoul
should
d be of si signi
gnififica
cant
nt
benefit to both manufacturers and purchasers of
(a)
(a) th
thos
osee wher
wheree gene
genera
rato
tors
rs araree rerequ
quir
ired
ed to run
run
plant.
continuo
cont inuousl
usly,
y, without
without a tim
timee lim
limit;
it; and Me
Meananwhi
while
le,, in a com
commemenda
ndabl
blee ef
effor
fortt to fi
fill
ll th
thee
(b) thos
thosee wher
wheree some time lim
limits
its ar
aree set.
set. gap, the trade
trade associ
associati
ation
on of the major indepe
independen
ndentt

32 Power
Power ra
rati
ting
ng and p
perf
erform
orman
ance
ce

Britis
British
h man
manufa
ufactu
cturer
rerss of ge
gener
nerati
ating
ng sets
sets - the Asso
Asso-- Thes
Thesee po powe
werr ra
rati
ting
ngss must
must be ne nett valu
values
es at thethe
ciation of Bri
ciation British
tish Genera
Generating
ting Set Manufacture
Manufacturersrs (the engine
eng iness output
output shaft.
shaft. Due all allowa
owance
nce shou
should
ld there-
there-
ABGSM),
ABGSM ), has produce
produced, d, in iits
ts Techn
Technical
ical Memora
Memoran-n- for
foree be made for any auxi auxilia
liary
ry equ
equipm
ipment
ents,
s, whi
which
ch
dum No.1,
No.1, a ra rati
ting
ng stan
standa
dard
rd for
for die
diese
sell powe
powere
red
d could
cou ld absorb
absorb signif
significa
icantnt powe
powerr in them
themsel
selves
ves.. The
generating
genera ting sets
sets.. While it is only a recom
recommendat
mendation,
ion, engine manufactu
manufacturer's
rer's state
statement
ment of power shoul should d be
and
and is vol
volun
unta
tari
rily
ly appl
applie
ied
d by AB ABSG
SGM M memb
memberer sup
support
porteded by a list o off auxi
auxilia
liarie
ries.
s. Som
Somee ite
items,
ms, such
such
comp
compan
anie
ies,
s, it is a good
good 's
'sta
tate
te of the art'
art' gu
guid
ide,
e, as fuel
fuel inj
inject
ection
ion pumpumps,
ps, exh
exhaus
austt turboc
turbocharharger
gerss and
deserving
deserving of wider acce
acceptance
ptance.. charge
charge air co coole
olers,
rs, are consi
considere
deredd as engengine
ine com
compo-po-
nents,
nen ts, without
without whi whichch the engin
enginee coucould
ld not opeoperat
ratee at
its decla
declaredred power and are not classed as auxi auxiliari
liaries.
es.
Certai
Cer tain
n ite
items
ms of equiequipme
pment nt are essential for the
2.2.4
2.2.4 Power
Power catego
categorie
riess co
cont
ntin
inue
uedd or re repe
peat
ated
ed use
use of an eng engin ine.
e. They
They ma mayy
be engine driven or they may derive their power
The
The inteintern
rnat
atio
iona
nall stan
standa
dard
rdss appl
applic
icab
able
le to RICRIC
from
from a so sourc
urcee othe
otherr than
than thethe engi
enginene.. Those
Those in tthe he
en
engi
gine
ness (I(ISO
SO 3046)
3046) an andd to elec
electr
tric
ical
al gene
genera
rato
tors
rs
first
first cate
category
gory are defidefined
ned as dependent, and those in
(IE
(IECC 34
34)) sp
spec
ecif
ify
y the
the me
meth
thod
odss of decl
declar
arin
ing
g pow
powerer
the
the secosecondnd catecatego
gory
ry as independent auxiliaries.
ra
rati
ting
ng.. ThThee four
four kind
kindss of pow
poweer that
that mamay
y be
Typica
Typ icall ite
items
ms are are:: lubric
lubricati
ating
ng oil pre pressu
ssurere pump
pumps; s;
declar
declared
ed for pri
prime
me movers
movers are defin
defined
ed in ISO 3046
3046::
co
cool
olin
ingg wawateterr pum
pumpsps;; ra
radidiat
ator
or cocool
olin
ing
g fa fans
ns;; fue
fuell
Part
Part 1 ((BS5
BS5514:
514: Part
Part 1 and DIN 6271)
6271)::
feed
feed pumpumps;ps; air cl clean
eaners
ers;; and exha
exhaustust silenc
silencers
ers.. If
1. Cont
Continuoinuous power: a powe
us power: powerr wh whic
ichh an eng
engininee is the items
items use powe powerr suppli
supplieded by th thee mai
main n engi
engine-
ne-
capabl
capablee of deli deliveri
vering
ng con contin
tinuous
uouslyly betwee
between n the dri
driven
ven gen genera
erator
tor,, they
they are class
classifi
ified
ed as depedepende
ndent
nt
normal
norm al mai
mainte
ntenan
nancece peri
periods
ods stated
stated by thethe manu- auxiliarie
auxil iaries.
s. Exampl
Examples es of typica
typicall auxiliari
auxiliarieses are listed
fa
fact
ctur
urerer,, at stastate
ted
d spspeeeed
d anandd under
under stat
stated
ed am am-- in Anne
Annex x A ofBS5514
ofBS5514:: Part Part 1. The net brak brakee powe
powerr
bient conditions, the prescribed maintenance be-
ing carried
carried out. mustt be meas
mus
essential measureured
dependent
dependent d whe
when n the engine is usi
auxiliaries. using
ng only its
2. Overl
Overload oad power: a powe powerr wh whicich
h an engengin
inee mamay y In Americ
American an pra
practi
ctice
ce (ANS
(ANSI/AI/ASME
SME PTC 17) tthe he
be permitted to deliver, at stated ambient condi- term 'Code Engi Engine Assembly' is used
ne Assembly' used to descdescrib
ribee an
ti
tions
ons,, im immemedidiat
atel
ely
y afte
afterr woworki
rking
ng at the the cocontnti-
i- engine assembly complete with ess essentia
entiall appara
apparatus
tus
nuouss powe
nuou power. r. It is eexpre
xpresse
ssedd as a percen
percentag
tagee of for self-sus
self-sustai
tained
ned concontin
tinuous
uous ope operat
ration
ion.. Gen
Genera
erally
lly
the
the co cont
ntininuou
uouss powpower er for
for peri
periods
ods an andd spspee
eeds
ds thes
thesee co
consnsis
istt of the equiequipmpmen
entt rerequi
quire
redd for
for:: fu
fuel
el
appropr
app ropriatiatee to the appli
applicatcation.
ion. It is custom
customaryary to intr
introd
oduc
uctition
on;; aiairr indu
induct ctio
ionn (i(i.e
.e.. scav
scaven
engi
ging
ng or
permit 110 % of continuous power for periods up superch
supe rchargi
arging);
ng); igniignitio
tion;
n; lubric
lubricati
ation;
on; and pri primar
mary y
to 1 ho hour.
ur. engine
engi ne and charge
charge-ai
-airr coo
coolin
ling.
g.
3. Fuel
Fuel sto stop power: a po
p power: powe
werr whwhicichh an engengininee is Looking
Loo king at th thee power requir
requireme
ementnt from the 'con 'con--
cap
capabl
ablee of del delive
iverin
ringg duri
during
ng a sta
stated
ted period
period corcor-- sumers'
sume rs' vie
viewpoi
wpoint,
nt, we woulwould d exp
expect
ect a cont
continu
inuous
ous
respond
responding ing to its app applic
licati
ation,
on, and at stated
stated spe
speeded power rating to cover base-load duty. The overload
an
andd unde
underr stat
stated
ed am ambibien
entt co
condi
nditition
ons,
s, with
with thethe power rating would apply to generators on standby-
fue
fuell limi
limited
ted so that the fuel st stop
op pow
powerer cannot
cannot be to-uti
to-utilit
lity
y supply
supply and on peak-l peak-loppi
oppingng duties
duties,, whe
where re
exceeded. the maximum running times are not likely to eexceed xceed
4. Servi
Servicece powe
power: r: a power
power dete determrmin
ined
ed undunder
er thethe 100 hours
hours and 1000 hour hourss per ann annum,
um, res
respec
pectiv
tively
ely..
ambien
amb ientt and operaoperatintingg con
condit
ditions
ions of an engi engine ne Applicatio
Appli cations
ns using tthehe maximum, or fuel sto stop
p power
application. rating
rating should be conconfin
fined
ed to eme emergen
rgency
cy plant
plant of the
To establis
establish
h the servic
servicee powe
power,
r, one needs to take sho
short-
rt-bre
break
ak or no-bre
no-breakak type,
type, descri
described
bed in ChChapt
apterer
the following factors
factors into account: 11. Engi
Engine
ne man
manufa
ufactu
cturer
rerss will
will rerestr
strict
ict ope
operat
ration
ion at
maximu
max imumm powe
powerr to shor
short-d
t-dura
uratio
tionn period
periodss (of th thee
(a) the aambi
mbient
ent condi
conditio
tions
ns - tem
temper
peratu
ature,
re, baro
baro-- ord
order
er of mi
minut
nutes
es),
), pro
provi
vide
ded d thes
thesee ar
aree fo
foll
llowe
owed d by
metric
met ric pre
pressur
ssuree and rela
relativ
tivee humi
humidit
dity;
y; and reasona
reasonable
ble period
periodss of op
opera
eratio
tionn at rereduce
ducedd output
output..
the maximu
maximum m and min minimu
imumm tem
temper
peratu
ature
re of It must be acce
accept
pted
ed that
that the
the engi
engine
ne's
's dur
durab
abil
ilit
ity
y is
the cooling water avail
available;
able; affect
affected
ed and that
that eng
engine
ine lif
lifee may be redureduced
ced..
(b) the norm
normal
al dut
dutyy of the eng
engine
ine;; Prospective
Prospe ctive engine users should be war waryy of loosel
loosely y
 (c) the expec
expectedted interv
intervalal bet
betwee
ween
n mai
mainte
ntenan
nance
ce defined ratin
defined rating
g classifi
classificati
cations
ons other than those liste listed
d
periods; above.
abo ve. Standby
Standby rat rating
ing;; cont
continu
inuous
ous duty with ti time-
me-
(d
(d)) the
the natu
nature
re and
and the
the amou
amountnt of atte
attend
ndanance
ce lim
limita
itatio
tion
n rat
rating
ing;; reserv
reservee rat
rating
ing;; and interm
intermitt
ittent
ent
required; rating
rating are but a few of the cla classi
ssific
ficati
ations
ons that
that crop
(e) the spec
specifi
ificat
cation
ion and lower calo calorif
rific
ic value of up. Engine
Engine ma manuf
nufac
actu
ture
rers
rs shoul
shouldd be askasked
ed to de-
the fuel to be used
used;; cla
clare
re ratings
ratings in ISO term terms.
s. Mos
Mostt do.
(f
(f)) any
any othe
otherr info
inform
rmat
atio
ionn appr
approp
opri
riat
atee to the the It is imp
import
ortant
ant that
that the engin
enginee purc
purchas
haser
er select
selectss
service
service applicat
application
ion (guida
(guidance
nce on this is given the kind of ratrating
ing mos
mostt suited
suited to the gener
generati
ating
ng set's
set's
in BS 5514
5514:: Part 1, cl claus
auses
es 12 and 13) 13)..
inte
intende
nded
d servi
service
ce.. The pro
propos
posed
ed ISO
ISO 8528
8528 shou
should
ld

Relate
Relatedt
dterm
ermino
inolog
logy
y 33

help
help the end
end-u
-use
serr defi
definene,, more
more pr prec
ecis
isel
ely,
y, th thee kind of Brak
Brakee powe
powerr (Pe) ma
may be derived from the
serv
servic
icee he req
requi
uire
ress th thee set
set to giv
give,
e, in his
his parti
particucula
larr expression:
application.
Pe == (Pme.s.A.w.N)lk
We shall
shall no
noww co cons
nsidider
er th thee ot
othe
herr si
sign
gnif
ific
ican
antt elele-
e-
ment
ment in thethe gene
generarati
ting
ng set: set: the altern
alternatatin
ing
g cu
currrren
entt Where Pme == is tthe
he brak
brakee mean
mean ef effe
fect
ctiv
ivee pres
pressu
sure
re
(a.c
(a.c.)
.),, or ssyn
ynch
chro
rono
nous
us,, ge
gene
nera
rato
tor.
r. Th
Thee te rm alter-
term (t
(to
o be defi
define
ned
d la
late
ter)
r)
nator i s de deprecated and does not appear in the s ==
th
thee work rkin
ingg st
stro
roke
ke of the the eng ngiine
Brit
Britisishh Stan
Standa dardrd Gl Glos
ossa
saryry (BS(BS 47274727:: Pa Part
rt 2 Gro Groupup piston
03)
03).. Howeve
However, r, it occoccasi
asiona
onally
lly app appear
earss in des descri
cripti
ptive
ve A == p
pisisto
ton
n ararea
ea (i.e
(i.e.. the
the ar
area
ea on whwhicich
h the
the
li
lite
tera
ratu
ture
re an and d spec
specif
ific
icat
atio
ions
ns - old usag usages es di diee har
hard d .. mean
mean ef effe
fect
ctiv
ivee pres
pressusure
re wowork
rks)
s)
Th
Thee rati
rating
ng of an anyy rota
rotatiting
ng elecelectrtric
icalal mach
machin inee is a w == the number of firing or working
st
stat
atem
emen entt of thethe limi
limita
tati
tion
onss assi
assigngneded to iitt b by
y the st
stro
roke
kess pe perr cy cylilind
nder
er in a sp spec
ecif
ifie
ied
d
ma
manu nufa
fact
ctur
urer
er,, an
andd ma
markrkeded on its its rat
ratin
ing
g pl plat
ate.
e. Th Thee time
rate
rated d ou outptput
ut of a ge gene
nera
rato
torr is qu quototed
ed in k kVV A and N == tthe
he numb
number er of ccyl ylin
inde
ders
rs in tthe
he enengi
gine
ne
kW
kW,, assu assum minging an op opeerati
rating
ng po
pow wer fa faccto
torr of 0.8 0.8 k == a con onst
staant,
nt, whohosese val alue
ue depeepends
nds
lagging. upon
upon the the unit
unitss used
used
Ge
Gene nera
rato
torr tech
techno
nolo
logy
gy is de dealaltt wiwithth in Cha Chaptpter
erss 3 With
With th thee exexce
cept
ptio
ion wand k, thes
n of wand thesee are the symbol
symbolss
an
and d 4. Sect Sectio ionn 3.73.7 of Chap Chapte terr 3, di disc
scus
usse
sess po powe
werr est
establ
ablis
ishe
hedd in Adde den
ndu
dum
m 1 - 1982
1982 of ISO 27 2710
10
rati
rating
ngs,s, thethe factfactor
orss affe
affect
ctin
ing
g outp
output ut,, and and de-r
de-ratatin
ing.
g. (BS5
(BS567
676:6: Ad Add
d 1: 1981983)
3) for use witwithh RIC
RIC en engi
gine
nes.
s.
Di
Diffffer
eren
entt rati
rating
ngss ma may y be as assisign
gneded to the the same
same Th
Thee popowewerr mamayy be expr
expres
esse
sed
d in kWm or in hor horse-
se-
fram
framee size size ma machchin
ine.
e. Th Thee stanstandadardrd de defi
fini
niti
tion
onss fo
forr power (hp). The units used in the formula must be
co
contntin
inuo
uous
us maxi maximumumm ra
rati
ting
ng ((c.m
c.m.r..r.)) for ind indust
ustria
riall 'con
'consi
sist
sten
ent'
t'.. In the
the ca
case
se of SI unit
units,
s, forc
force,
e, le
leng
ngth
th,,
(IEC
(IEC 34- 34-1 1 an and d BS 49 4999
99:: Pa Part
rt 10101) 1) andand ma maririne
ne (B (BS S and
and tim
timee mustmust be expr
expres
esse
sed
d in NeNewt
wtonons,
s, metr
metres
es,, an
andd
29
294949)) ap applplic
icat
atio
ions
ns are
are ve very
ry simisimilalar.
r. In each each ca casese,, seco
second
nds,
s, re resp
spec
ecti
tive
vely
ly;; an
and
d the
the co
cons
nsta nt k is 100
tant 1000.0.
unl
unlimit
imiteded ope
perratio
ation n at th thee de declclar
areed ou
outp
tput
ut and and Th
This
is gi
give
vess po
powe
werr in kW m' F For
or a res
resul
ultt in imper
imperia
iall
unde
underr the the specif
specifie ied d co cond
ndit
itio
ions
ns is perm permit itte
tedd but but th thee horsepower, k iiss 3
330
300000,, an
and
d the
the un
unit
itss usused
ed mu
must
st be
mach
machin inee has has no sust sustaiaine
nedd ov overerloload
ad ra rati
ting
ng.. Beca
Becaus usee pounds, feet and minutes.
performance criteria for marine generators must be
met
met at 5 50°C
0°C and not the 40°C applic applicabl ablee to indus industri trial
al 1 hor
horsep
sepowe
owerr (imper
(imperial
ial)) ==0
0.7
.746
46 kWm
mach
machin ines
es,, thethe mari
marine ne c.m.c.m.r.r. is lo lowe
werr th than
an it itss in
indudus-s- 1 hor
horsep
sepow
ower
er (me
(metri
tric)
c) == 0
0.7
.736
36 kWm
tria
triall counterpar
counterpart. t. Me
Metr tric
ic hohorsrsep
epow
owerer ma
may y be exp expre ress
ssed
ed in ei eith
ther
er CV
BS 49994999 is a ccom ompr preh
ehen
ensisive
ve stan
standadardrd fo forr alalll types
types
(cheval
(chev vapeur) or in PS
al vapeur) PS (Pferdestarke).
of rotrotat
atin
ingg elec
electr tric
ical
al machmachin ines
es.. Th Thee st stan
andadard
rd spec speci- i- The ind indic
icat
ated
ed po powewerr (P (Pi)
i) isis tthe
he theo
theorereti
tica
call tota
totall
fica
ficalllly
y appl appliicabl
cablee to ge gene
nerarattor
orss dri
rivven by RIC power developed in the engine cylinders by the
engi
engine ness is B BSS 5000
5000:: Part Part 3. T Thi
hiss reco
recogn gnizizes
es th that
at th thee gas
gaseses on the combust
combustion ion sid sidee of th thee working
working pis piston
tons.
s.
prime mover is customarily permitted to develop an It iiss base
based d upon
upon th thee acactu
tual
al mean
mean pres pressusure
re meas
measurured
ed
ou
outp ut 10 % in
tput in excexces esss of it itss rate
ratedd ou outptput
ut.. It warnwarnss
in
insi
sidede ththee en
engi
gine
ne cy cylilind
nder
erss (i.e
(i.e.. the
the indi
indica
cate
tedd mean
mean
that
that,, at 11 110 0 % lo loadad,, a norm
normal ally
ly raterated d gene
genera rato
torr ma may y ef
effe
fectctiv
ivee pr pres
essu
sure
re - imep imep or, or, si simp
mplyly,, mimip)
p),, as o ob-
b-
ex
exce
ceeded its its full
full-l
-loa
oad d temptemper erat
atur
uree ri
rise
se by 'con 'consi sid-
d- ta
tain
ineded fr om an indi
from indicat
cator
or dia diagra
gram.m. The ind indica
icated
ted
erab
rably mo more re th thaan its 10 K ma marg rgiin'
n',, and and 't 'tha
hatt any power is always higher than the brake power. The
si
sign
gnif ific
ican
antt usagusagee of tthi hiss 10 % ove overlorload
ad capac
capacity ity wil willl
shor
shorte tenn the the ininsu
sulalati
tion
on life life of th thee mach
machin ine'
e'.. It ssho houl uld d di
diff
toffer
eren
ovence
over cemebetw
erco
come betwee
fr een
fric non them
icti
tion thwi
em
with inbe
thin bein
ing
thge en
the the
thegine
engi powe
power
ne r d re
an
and requ
toquir
dired
dried
rive
ve
be appreciated that the insulation of a machine
ess
essent
ential
ial dep
depend
endent
ent auxauxili
iliari
aries.
es.
dr
driv
iven
en by aan n eng
engin inee oper
operatatin
ingg at a m maxaxim
imumum (o (orr fufuelel
stop
stop)) ratiratingng coul
could d ag agee at a rate rate 4 to 8 ti time
mess gr grea
eateterr
th
than
an thatthat asso
associciat
ateded wi with
th ope
opera rati
tion
on at th thee mach
machin ine'e'ss
c.m.
c.m.r. r. le leve
vel.
l. See
See Se Sectctio
ion n 3.4.
3.4.4 4 of C Cha
haptpter
er 3 fo forr a
more
more deta detail iled
ed discdiscus ussision
on of tthi hiss totopi
pic.
c. 2.3.2 Efficiency
Efficiency
The
The fi
firs thee efficiencies,
rstt of th wh
whic
ich
h have
have a bear
bearin
ing
g on
 die
diesel
sel engine
engine perperfor
forman
mance ce is the mechanic
mechanical
al effi
efficien-
cien-
cy whwhic
ich
h is equa
equall to thethe brak
brakee (or
(or ef
effe
fect
ctiv
ive)
e) powe
powerr
2.
2.3
3 Re
Relate
lated
d terminology di
divi
vide
ded
d by thethe in
indi
dica
cate
ted d powe
power. r. It give
givess a ccom
ompapari
ri--
so
sonn betetw
ween
een the 'ac
actutuaal' pow
power ava vail
ilab
ablle at the
2.3.1 Power en
engi
gine
ne flflyw
ywhe
heel
el anandd thethe tota
totall po
powe
werr de
deve
velo
lope
pedd in
the working
working cylcylind
inders
ers..
The pow
power of a pri
primeme move
moverr is iits ts use
usefu
full rat
atee of
wo
work
rkin
ing.
g. When
When it iiss mea
measu
sure
red
d at its its drivi
driving
ng shaf
shaft(
t(s)
s),, Mechanic
Mechanical
al effi
efficien
ciency,
cy, Tlm == PelPi
ag
againstt a brake re
ains resisist
stan
ance
ce,, it iiss de
defi
fined as brake
ned == kW or hp (bra
(brake
ke)/
)/kW
kW

power. or hp (in
(indic
dicate
ated)
d)

34 Po
Powe
werr ratin
rating
g and p
per
erfor
forma
manc
nce
e

The me mecha
chanic
nicalal losses
losses in an en engigine
ne (i (i.e
.e.. fr fric
icti
tion
on fu
fueel to be us used
ed,, it is poss
possib
ible
le to est stiima
mate
te itsits fu
fuel
el
los
osse
sess plpluus po pow wer abs bsor
orbbed by au auxixili
liar
ariies)
es) ar
aree consumption.
ro
roug
ughl
hlyy pr prop
opororti
tion
onalal to spee
speed d an and
d ar aree fa fair
irly
ly co con-n- Fo
Forr exexam
ampl
ple,
e, if an engin
enginee hahass a brak
brakee ther
therma
mall
stan
stant,
t, at fix fixed
ed spee
speed, d, rega
regardrdle
lessss of tthe he load.
load. Ther There- e- ef
effi
fici
cien
encycy of 40 % aand nd ususees a fuel
fuel who hose
se low ower
er
fore, as the load on the engine decreases, the ca
calo
lori
rifi
ficc vavalu
luee is 42042000
00 kJ
kJ/k
/kgg (103
(10300
00 kc kcal
al/k
/kg)
g),, its
its
mechan
mec hanica
icall los losses
ses becobecomeme relatively gr grea
eateter,
r, and and the spec
specif
ific
ic fuel
fuel coconsnsum
umpt
ptio
ion
n wo
woul
uld
d be give given
n by the the
mecha
mechanic nical
al eff effici
icienc
ency y redreduce
ucess moremore rap rapidl
idly.
y. It is one expression:
of the
the reas
reason onss wh why y it is unde
undesisirarabl
blee to allo allow w an eng- eng-
b = 3600
3600/(
/(0.
0.40
40 x 4200
42000)
0) kg/k
kg/kWh
Wh
in
inee to run
run fo forr prol
prolonongeged d peri
period
odss at les than 30 % of
lesss than
= 0.214 kg/kWh
kg/kWh
th
thee to
torq
rque
ue wh whicich h it is ca capa
pabl
blee of d dev
evelelop
opin
ing g [2 [2].
].
Th
Thee mech
mechan anic
ical
al effi effici
cien
ency
cy of die diese
sell en engi gine
ness is of By defi
defini
niti
tion
on,, brak
brakee ther
therma
mall ef effi
fici
cien
ency
cy acacco
coun
unts
ts for
for
th
thee orde
orderr of 7 700 % to 85 % at fful ulll load.
load. A unit unit wi withth a al
alll the lolosse
ssess in an engi
engine
ne whwhenen the
the wowork
rk perf
perfor
orme
medd
full-load 11m of 75 % wo woul uld,
d, ty typi
picacall
lly,
y, have
have an effi- effi- by the gases (the indicated power) is converted into
ci
cien
ency
cy of 60 % at ha half
lf loload
ad;; an and d 50 % at one-t one-thi hirdrd ne
nett popowe
wer, r, at the
the enengi
gine
ne's
's ou outp
tput
ut shshaf
aft(
t(s)
s).. Thes
Thesee
load. lo
loss
sses
es inincl
clud
udee bo
both
th the
the ther
therma
mall loss
losses
es with
within
in the
the
The next ext de defi fini
nittio
ionn to be cons consid ideereredd is ththaat of cy
cylilind
nder
ers,
s, an andd the
the mecha
mechaninica
call loss
losses
es when
when the the gas-
thermal
therm al efficienc
efficiency. y. It giv
gives an in indidica
cati
tion
on of th thee eous
eous workwork is co conv
nver
erte
ted
d into
into ououtp
tput
ut at th thee sh
shaf
aft.
t.
ef
effe
fect
ctiv
iven
enes
esss of an an en engigine
ne in con convevert
rtin
ingg th
thee he heat
at Therefore
en
ener
ergy
gy of the the fuel
fuel in into
to woworkrk.. brake thermal (in
(indic
dicate
ated
d the
therma
rmall
=

The indic
indicateatedd the therma
rmall eff effici
icienc
encyy is impo import rtan
antt in
efficiency efficiency) x
en
engi
gine
ne rese
resear arch
ch an and d dedeve
velo
lopm
pmen ent.
t. It iiss the
the ratio
ratio of
(mechanic
(mec hanical
al effi
efficienc
ciency)
y)
th
thee indica
indicateted d powe
power, r, to tthe he thermal en energy
ergy supplied
supplied
i.e. llet = ll
ll ii.. X 11
1m
m
by the fuel, over a given period of time. It is of little
practical value to plant operators, who are more For
For ththis
is reaso
reason,
n, it is
is so
some
meti
time
mess ca
called overa
lled overall
ll eff
effi-
i-
intere
inte rest
sted
ed in tthe
he effi
effici
cien
ency
cy of convconver
ersi
sion
on of the
the ciency
ciency [3][3]..
fu
fueel's enenerg
rgy
y in into
to actu
actuaal (o(orr bra
rak
ke) pow ower
er at the
the Typi
Typicacall valu
values
es of bra
brake
ke ther
therma
mall ef
effi
fici
cien
ency
cy for
for RIC
eng
engine
ine shashaft
ft i.e.
i.e. the engi
engine'
ne'ss brake
brake the
therma
rmall effici
efficien-
en- eng
engine
iness areare::
cy (llet). Diesel (c.i.) engines 43 %
llet = (h
(hea
eatt conv
conver
erte
ted
d in into
to ac
actu
tual
al work
work)/
)/ Du
Dual
al fuel
fuel (c.
(c.i.
i.)) en
engi
gine
ness 38 %
(heat
(heat inp
input)
ut) Gas (s.i.) engines 36 %
= br
brak
akee (or
(or actu
actual
al)) outp
output
ut/h
/hea
eatt supp
supplilied
ed Wh
Whatat is kn knowownn as volumetri
volumetricc effiefficien
ciencycy al also
so hahass an
ef
effe
fect
ct on engi engine
ne po powewer.
r. It isis a te
term
rm on only
ly ap
applplie
ied
d to
Care
Care must
must be ttak
aken
en to ensensur
uree th
that
at th
thee same units
units ar
aree
fo
fouur-
r-st
stro
roke
ke,, na
natu
turral
ally
ly asp
spir
irat
ated
ed eng
ngiine
nes.
s. It isis
us
used
ed to exp
expre
ress
ss boboth
th ou outp
tput
ut anandd heheat
at-s
-sup
uppl
plie
ied
d va
va--
defi
define
ned
d as tthe he ra
rati
tio
o of thethe ac
actu
tual
al volu
volumeme of air air taken
taken
lues.
in
into
to ththee cy
cylilind
nder
er du duri
ring
ng the
the su suct
ctio
ionn ststro
roke
ke,, to thethe
Work
Workin
ing
g in SISI un
unit
its,
s, th
thee br
brak
akee powe
powerr outp ut (Pe)
output
vo
volu
lume
me of pis pisto
tonn movemovemement
nt (its
(its sswep
weptt vol umee or
volum
wo
woul
uldd be expr
expres
esse
sedd in k kW
Wm. Ov Over
er a p per
erio
iod
d of one
one
piston displacement (V,), whi whichch is the
the prod
producuctt of thethe
hour, this is e q qu
uivalent to a t hehermal output of
piston's stroke and its cross-sectional area). The
(3
(360
6000 x Pe) kilojoules.
volu
volume
me of air air adm
admit itte
ted
d is ststat
ated
ed in te rmss of standard
term
The
The heat
heat supp
suppli
lied
ed by tthe he fuel
fuel m x cv, where m
=

reference
refer ence condition
conditionss (def(define
inedd latlater)
er)..
is th
thee mass
mass of fue
fuell used
used per
per hour
hour,, ex
expr
pres
esse
sedd in k kg.
g. It
is dire
directctly
ly rela
relate
ted
d to the en engi
gine
ne's
's fu
fuel
el cons
consum
umpt
ptio
ion
n Volumetri
Volumetricc effic
efficienc
iency,
y, llv = (vol
(volum
umee of ai
airr
rate (i.e. its sp spec
ecif
ific
ic fuel
fuel cons
consum
umpt
ptio
ion,
n, b),, as
b) admitted)/(swept
decl
declar
areed by ththee engi
ngine makeaker, in kg kg//kW-h
kW-ho
ourur.. volume)
Therefore
Vo
Volulume
metr
tric
ic ef
effi
fici
cien
ency
cy give
givess a compcompararis
ison
on of the
the
m = b x Pe kg mass
mass of ai airr act
actua
uall
lly
y adadmi
mitt
tted
ed into
into the
the cy
cyli
lind
nder
er,, wiwith
th
th
thee mass
mass of air air corre
corresp
spon
ondi
ding
ng to th
thee sw
swep
eptt volu
volumeme..
cv is the
the calo
calori
rifi
ficc va
valu
luee of th
thee fu
fuel
el,, ex
expr
pres
esse
sed
d in In natu
natura
rall
lly
y as aspi
pira
rate
ted
d en engi
gine
ness the
the mamass
ss of the the ai
airr
 kJ
kJ/k
/kg
g. It is
is u
usu
sual
al to us usee th nett or lower
thee ne lower calorific
calorific ad
admi
mitttted
ed is alwalway
ayss leless
ss than
than thethe ma
mass
ss of thethe swswep
eptt
value of the
the fu
fuel
el [2
[2].
]. (a
(air
ir)) vo volu
lumme. ThThisis is b beeca
caus
usee its temp
tempereraature
ture is
The
The ab
abov
ovee form
formul
ulaa for
for llet may
may the
then
n be wri
writt
tten
en as:
as: hi
high
gherer anandd its
its pres
pressu
sure
re lowe
lowerr than
than the
the su
supp
ppli
lied
ed,, or
at
atmo
mosp sphe
heri
ric,
c, ai
air.
r. The highhigherer tetemp
mper
erat
atur
uree re
resu
sult
ltss
llet = 3600 P Pe/(
e/(b.P
b.Pee xcv
xcv))
from the presence of hot residual gases in the
= 3600/(
3600/(b
b xcv
xcv))
rance spacel an
clearance
clea andd from thethe heat tra
trans
nsfe
ferr
rred
ed to the the
Gi
Give
ven thee speci
n th specific
fic fue
fuell con
consum
sumpti
ption
on (s
(sfc
fc)) of anan
en
engi
gine
ne an
andd th
thee ca
calo
lori
rifi
ficc valu
valuee of the
the fu
fuel
el us
used
ed,, th
thee I The cl
clearan
earance space, whi
ce space, which
ch incl
includ
udes
es the
the cocomb
mbu-
u-
brake thermal efficiency may be calculated. Conver- st
stio
ion
n ch
cham
ambeber,
r, is the
the spac
spacee in the
the cyl
cylin
inde
derr into
into wh
whic
ich
h
sely
sely,, know
knowin
ing
g ththee decl
declar
ared
ed brbrak
akee th
ther
erma
mall ef
effi
fici
cien
ency
cy th
thee pi
pist
ston
on ne
neve
verr intr
intrud
udes
es.. The
The ai
airr cha
charg
rgee is co
com-
m-
. of an engi
engine
ne and
and ththee heat
heatin
ing
g or cacalo
lori
rifi
ficc valu
valuee of the
the pressed into this ccle
lear
aran
ance
ce vo
volu
lume
me (Ve) •

Rela
Relate
ted
d te
term
rmin
inol
olog
ogy
y 35

ad
admi
mitt
tted
ed aiairr in ititss con
conta
tact
ct with
with the hot surfsurfac
ace,
e, of masss of air suppli
mas supplied
ed to the cylind
cylinderer to the mas
masss of air
cylinde
cylinderr wal
walls,
ls, cyli
cylinder
nder head
head and piston crown. crown. The corresponding to the cyli
corresponding cylinder
nder volume at sca scavenge
venge air
pressure drop due to air flow resistance through tempe
temperaratu
ture
re and pre pressssure
ure.. ThThisis ra
rati
tio
o is nonorm
rmal
ally
ly
inlet valves
valves/ports
/ports and inta intake
ke manifol
manifolds,
ds, account
accountss for grea
greate
terr than
than uni
unity
ty for
for tw
two-
o-st
strok
rokee engi
engines
nes wiwith
th an
the lower pressur
pressure. e. external
extern al air sup
supply
ply [4]. 1]sc is largel
largely y dependent upon
Engin
Eng inee pow
power er is dirdirec
ectl
tly
y rerela
late
ted
d to vol volume
umetrtric
ic the
the arran
arrange
geme
ment
nt of the exha exhaus ustt and
and scav
scaven
enge
ge ai airr
effi
effici
cien
ency
cy.. ThThee lowe
lowerr the
the 1]" the
the less
less the pow
powerer ports and valves. The power capacity may be in-
develo
dev eloped.
ped. Lowe
Lowerr volu volumet
metric
ric effi
efficie
ciency
ncy mea
meansns that
that crea
crease
sedd by tak
takin
ing
g thethe ai
airr fo
forr the
the scav
scaveng
engee blowe
blowerr
there
there is a ssmal
mallerler mas
masss of air in the cylcylind
inder.
er. Thi
This,
s, in from
from a poi point
nt in ththee engi
engine
ne ro room
om wher
wheree the
the ai
airr is
turn,
turn, memeananss ththat
at le less
ss fu
fuel
el can be burne
burned d anand
d less
less cooler
coo ler [3].
power can be developed. In order to increase an
engine's
engine 's power capacity it iiss necessnecessary
ary to improve its
2.3
2.3.3
.3 Compr
Compress
ession
ion rat
ratio
io
vol
volumet
umetric
ric effici
efficienc
ency.y. Thi
Thiss is do
done
ne [3]
Th
Thee effi
effici
cien
ency
cy of any engi
engine
ne wor
workin
kingg on an idea ideall
1. by taki
taking
ng ai
airr fr
from
om a poipoint
nt in th
thee engi
engine
ne roroom
om
co
const
nstan
ant-
t-vol
volume
ume cy cycl
clee depe
depends
nds upoupon n ititss compres-
wheree the air is co
wher coole
oler;
r; or
sion
sion rat io (or more pre
ratio precis
cisely
ely,, its v volum
olumetr etric
ic com-
2. by impr
improvi
oving
ng the
the valv
valvee timi
timing
ng so as to incr
increa
ease
se
pression ratio). This is the ratio between the greatest
the pressure
pressure at the end of the induinducti
ction
on stroke.
stroke.
an
andd leas
leastt vol
volume
umess of air in a cylicylinde
nderr durin
during g one
Th
Thee vol
volume
umetr
tric
ic efeffi
fici
cienc
encyy rarati
tio
o will
will be less
less than
than cy
cycl
clee [5].
[5]. Thi
Thiss vol
volume
ume is at its greagreatetest
st whe
when n the
the
uni
unity,
ty, for natu
natura
rall
lly
y aspi
aspira
rate
ted
d enengi
gine
nes.s. It is of the piston is at its lowest position and is about to start
ord
order
er of 0.7
0.75
5 to 0.85
0.85,, the
the highe
higherr ra
rati
tioo obt
obtai
ainin
ningg at upwar
upw ard
d in ththee co
compr
mpres
essi
sion
on ststrok
roke.
e. It is at its le leas
astt
slower engine speeds
speeds.. when
whe n the
the pist
piston
on is at its high
highesestt pos
posit
itio
ionn in thathatt
We ha have
ve esta
establ
blis
ishe
hedd (i(in
n Chap
Chapteterr 1) ttha
hat,
t, on stro
stroke
ke.. TheThe vo volu
lume
me corr
corres
espo
pondndin
ingg to the the lalatt
tter
er
tu
turbo
rboch
char
arged
ged en engin
gineses,, the
the inta
intake ke aiairr on the
the induc
induc-- position is the clearance volume. The 'greatest'
tio
tionn stroke is not drawn in by the downwa downward rd move
move-- volume
volume eqequat
uates
es to the sum of the cyli
cylinde
nder'
r'ss sw
swept
ept
ment
ment of th thee pipist
ston
on al alon
one,e, bu butt is forforce
cedd in by the volume
volume and the cle cleara
arance
nce volu
volume.
me. The com
compre
pressi
ssion
on
compres
com pressor
sor of th thee turbo
turbo-bl -blower
ower.. The amoun amountt of ai airr ratio (Ec) is ther
therefor
eforee give
given
n by:
in the
the cylin
cylinder
der is, tthereherefore
fore,, not direcdirectlytly relate
related d to
th
thee pi
pist
ston
on didispl
splacacem
emen entt an andd is co consi
nsider
derab
ablyly mor
moree
(swept volume + clearance
clearance volume )/(clearance
volume)
than
than that
that corr
corresp
espondi
ondingng to the swep sweptt volume
volume.. Thus Thus,,
the
the teterm
rm vol volume
umetr tric
ic ef effi
fici
cien
encycy doe
doess not appl apply y to Inc
Incre
reas
asin
ing
g thethe co compr
mpresessi
sion
on ra rati
tio
o efeffe
fect
ctive
ivelyly in-in-
turbo
turbochchar
arged
ged fou four-c
r-cyc
ycle
le engenginines
es [3][3].. The ratiratioo of creases
creas es the expa
expansio
nsion ratio.. Thi
n ratio Thiss is the
the ra
rati
tio
o of the
charging
charg efficiencyy (1]CH) is use
ing efficienc used d inst
instea
ead.
d. It is tota
totall vol
volum
umee at th thee en
endd of th thee power
power st strok
rokee to the
define
define4 4 as ththee rat
ratio
io of th thee mas
masss of air tr trappe
apped d in ththee volume
volume at the begin beginning
ning of th that
at stroke
stroke.. Bot
Both h rat
ratios
ios
cylind
cylinderer to the maSs of ai airr whic
which h coul
could d be tra
trapped
pped at are depend
dependentent upon the clea clearanc
rancee volume.
volume. Red Reduc-uc-
th
thee boo
boostst aiairr pre
press
ssure
ure an andd tetemp
mpera
eratuture
re [4]. The ing that
that volu
volumeme give
givess an increa
increase se in both rat ratios
ios..
trapped
trapp ed volu
volumeme of the cylind cylinder er is the cyli cylinder
nder vol-
vol- The greater
greater the expa expansi
nsionon of the gas gases,
es, the more
um
umee at th thee comm
commen enceceme
mentnt of th thee comp
compre ress
ssio
ion
n the
the heat
heat take
takenn out of the them.m. Be Beca
caus
usee hea
heatt ener
energygy is
stroke.
stroke. It is not the same as th thee swe
swept pt volume
volume,, but, convert
conv erted
ed into
into mec
mechani
hanical
cal powe
power, r, it fol
follows
lows th that
at the
for any engine,
engine, the ratio of tra trapped
pped to swept vo volume
lume highe
higherr the
the exexpan
pansi
sion
on ra
ratitio
o the
the mor
moree heat
heat enener
ergy
gy is
is constant [4]. convert
conv erted
ed into
into power. Impr Improvem
ovement ent in therma
thermall effeffi-
i-
The
The two-two-ststro
roke
ke engiengine ne re reli
lies
es on a scavenging cien
ciency
cy is no not,
t, ther
theref
efore
ore,, due to the co compr
mpres essi
sion
on
period, in its ope opera rati
ting
ng cyclcycle,e, to swee sweep p ou outt any
any its
itself
elf but rath
ratherer to the fact that the higher higher comp
compresres--
resid
residua
uall ex
exhahaust
ust pro produductctss that
that re rema
mainin in th thee cy
cyl-
l- sion
sion result
resultss in more com complepletete expa
expansinsion.
on. Thi
This,s, in it
itss
2
inder, from the previ previous
ous cycle (see (see Chapte
Chapterr 1). T This
his turn,
turn, conconve
vert
rtss mor
moree of th thee ther
therma
mall ene
energy
rgy of the
is achie
achieved
ved by supp supplyilying
ng air to the cylin cylinderder while
while its combust
com bustion
ion prod
product
uctss into
into me mechani
chanical
cal work [3].
exhau
exh aust
st an andd scavscavenengege por portsts ar aree simul
simultatane
neous
ously
ly In the ideal engine
engine (i.e.
(i.e. one withowithoutut fric
frictio
tion
n and
opened.
open ed. In prac
practictice,
e, some of the suppl supply y air is lost
lost to other
other losses
losses),), the calc
calcula
ulated
ted relrelati
ationsh
onship
ip betwee
between n
the exhaust
exhaust and the cylinde cylinderr is not scave scavenge
nged d of all indicated
indica ted therma
thermall effici
efficiency
ency (1];1) and Ec varies
varies from