VEDIC AGE

(वैदिक काल)
Vedic Age (वैदिक काल)

Introduction (परिचय)
• Between 1500 BC and 600 BC in India.
• Period during which Vedas were composed(वह काल जिसमें वेदों की रचना हुई)
• Associated culture - Vedic civilization (वैदिक सभ्यता)
• Centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
• Beginning of the historic period in India as it can be studied through literary
records i.e., the Vedas.
• Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans.
(माना िाता है कक वेदों की रचना आयों ने की थी)

Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)

• ‘Aryan’ - a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages.
('आर्यन' - इं डो-र्ूरोपिर्न भाषा बोलने वाला भाषाई समूह)
• Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc. Emerged from these languages.
• Vedic people belonged to the Nordic race. (वैपदक लोग नॉर्डि क िातत के थे)
Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)
Original Homes (मूल र्नवास स्थान)
• Based on the philological and archaeological evidence, Aryans may have lived
somewhere in the Steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia and
migrated to northwest India and came to be called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans. .
• They migrated in several waves spanning several hundred years, the earliest
wave of migration seems to have been around 1500 BCE.

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans(आयों के मूल र्नवास के ललए महत्वपूर्ण
ससद्ाांत)
• Advocated German orientalist Max Mueller through a comparative
study of “Avesta” and “Vedas”("अवेस्ता" औि "वेि" का तुलनात्मक अध्ययन)
Central concluded that original homeland of the Aryans must be the region
Asian Theory adjacent to India and Iran.
(मध्य एशियाई
ससद्ाांत) • The vegetation and animals (वनस्पततयों औि जानविों)which are
mentioned in "Vedas" and "Avesta" are similar to those found in
Central Asia making their original homeland Central Asia.
Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans(आयों के मूल र्नवास के ललए महत्वपूर्ण
ससद्ाांत)

European • Forwarded by Sir W. Jones in 1786, based on comparative

Theory linguistics, that the continent of Europe was the homeland of Aryans.
(यूिोपीय • Greek, Latin, Gothic, English and Sanskrit language have almost
ससद्ाांत) similar words for mother and father, pointing at common ancestors.
• Dr. Sampurnanand and A. C. Das declared that "Sapta Sindhu”
region was the homeland of the Aryans.
Indian
• According to Ganganath Jha "Brahmarishi Desh" was the land of the
Theory
(इां र्डयन थ्योिी) Aryans.
• L. D. Kala propagated for Kashmir.
• R. B. Pandey believed Madhya Pradesh to be the locale of Aryans.
Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)

5 Important Theories for Original Home of the Aryans (आयों के मूल र्नवास के ललए महत्वपूर्ण
ससद्ाांत)

Tibetan • Swami Dayanand Saraswati gave the theory that Tibet was the
Theory original home( मूल र्नवास) of the Aryans and also tried to give the
(ततब्बती facts by referring to Vedas and other books.
ससद्ाांत)
• This theory was put forward by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• His theory was based on the comparative study of 'Avesta' and
Arctic Region 'Vedas'.
Theory • Vedas speak about 6 months long day and long nights.
(आकणर्िक क्षेत्र
ससद्ाांत) • He believed that Northern Arctic region was suitable for dwelling.
Aryans initially lived there but with the climatic and geographical
changes, Aryans had to move out.
Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)

Archaeology about Aryan Migration (आयणन प्रवासन के बािे में पुिातत्व)

• “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.”
("पुिातत्व आयों के बािे में नहीं जानता, केवल सादहत्य आयों के बािे में जानता है”)
• The archaeological excavations(िुरातात्विक उत्खनन at various sites suggest that :
• Decline of the Harappan civilization(हड़प्पा सभ्यता) was not caused by a
largescale alien invasion.
• Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware were unsuccessful.
(सचतत्रत धूसि मृिभाांड के निर्मातमओ ं की पहचमि करिे के प्रयमस असफल रहे)
• Recent excavations(उत्खिि) at Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda
(Jammu) have shown that the Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could
be found together.
• Conclusion (र्नष्कर्ण)
• No substantial proof in archaeology of large-scale migration around 1500 BCE.
(1500 ईसा िूवय के आसिास बड़े िैमाने िर प्रवासन के िुराति में कोई ठोस प्रमाण नहीं है)
• No proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization.
(इस बात का कोई प्रमाण नहीं है कक आर्ों ने हड़प्पा सभ्यता को नष्ट ककर्ा था)
Advent of Aryans (आयों का आगमन)

Geographical Expansion of Aryans in

India(भाित में आयों का भौगोललक तवस्ताि)
• Aryans first appeared around 1500
BC in the Sapta Sindhu region(सप्त
ससिं धु क्षेत्र) (Land of the Seven Rivers)
around which the Harappan
culture once flourished.
• From 1000 BC onwards, with the
introduction of iron technology(लोहे
की तकिीक), Aryans had started
deserting ‘Sapta Sindhu' region and
expanding further eastwards,
finally settled in Gangetic
plains(गांगा के मैिानी भाग)(1000-600
BC).
 Phases of Vedic Period (वैदिक काल की अवस्थाएँ )
Vedic texts reflect two stages of development in terms of literature as well as social and
cultural evolution. (वैदिक ग्रंथ समदहत्य के समथ-समथ समर्मजिक और समंस्कृततक तवकमस के संिर्ा र्ें तवकमस के िो
चरणों को िर्माते हैं)
The Rigveda which is the oldest Vedic text reflects one stage of social and cultural
development(समर्मजिक एवं समंस्कृततक तवकमस) whereas the other three Vedas reflect
another stage.
The first stage is known as the Rigvedic period or Early Vedic period(ऋग्वैदिक काल या
प्रािांदभक वैदिक काल) and the later stage is known as the Later Vedic period(उत्ति वैदिक
काल).

Phases of Vedic period(वैदिक काल की अवस्थाएँ )

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period Later Vedic Period (उत्ति वैदिक काल)
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1000-600 BC)
(1500-1000 BC)
Rig Vedic period refers to the period Later Vedic period was the period in which three
in which Rig Veda was compiled. Vedas along with their respective Brahmanas,
(ऋग्वैदिक कमल से तमत्पया उस कमल से है जिसर्ें Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed(बमि कम
ऋग्वेि कम संकलि नकयम गयम थम) वैदिक कमल वह कमल थम जिसर्ें तीि वेिों के समथ-समथ उिके
संबंजित ब्राह्मर्, उपर्नर्ि औि आिण्यक की रचिम की गई थी)
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1500-1000 BC)
Geographical Location (भौगोललक अवस्थस्थतत)
• Early Vedic Aryans lived in Sapta Sindhu region - Northwestern South Asia up to
Yamuna.
• Zend Avesta(जेंि अवेस्ता)
• Ancient Iranian text shares similarities with Rig Veda.
• Mentions rivers like Kubha, Indus and its tributaries and Saraswati river.
Rig Vedic Rivers (ऋग्वेदिक नदियाँ)
• More than 25 rivers were mentioned in RigVeda.(ऋग्वेद में 25 से अजिक नपदर्ों का उल्लेख
है)
• Most referred rivers are Sindhu(सबसे संिदर्ि त िदियमाँ जसिं िु) (73 times), Saraswati (19
times), Ganga (twice), Yamuna (thrice) and Sarayu (twice).
• Saraswati was the most pious river and is referred as Matetama, Devitama and
Naditama.(सिस्वती सबसे पतवत्र निी थी और इसे मातेतमा, िेवीतमा औि नादितामा कहा िाता है)
• River Narmada is not and the references of 'Samudra' in Rig Veda is attributed to
the confluence of rivers, not sea.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1500-1000 BC)
River RigVedic Region River RigVedic Region
(निी) Name (क्षेत्र) (निी) Name (क्षेत्र)
(ऋग्वैदिक नाम) (ऋग्वैदिक नाम)

Indus Sindhu Punjab Kurram Krumu Afghanistan

Ravi Parushini, Punjab Kabul Khubha Afghanistan
Iravati
Jhelum Vitasta Punjab Swath Suvastu Afghanistan
Chenab Asikni Punjab Ghaggar Drishadvati Rajasthan
Beas Vipas Punjab Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Sutlej Sutudri Punjab Ganga Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Gomati Gumal Afghanistan Sarayu Guljaram Uttarakhand
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक
काल) (1500-1000 BC)
Economy (अर्थव्यवस्था)
• Society was pastoral.
• Hymns of the Rigveda yield evidence of the importance of cattle –
(ऋग्वेि के र्ंत्र र्वेजर्यों के र्हत्व कम प्रर्मण िेते हैं)
• They domesticated animals like cows (176 mentions in RigVeda), oxen, horses
(215 times), camels, goats, sheep etc.
• Elephants rarely domesticated; wild animal lion was referred but not tiger.
Agriculture (कृतर्)
• Agriculture was their secondary economic activity for subsistence as -(कनवायह के
ललए कृतष उनकी पितीर्क आजथि क गतततवजि थी)-
• The region received low rainfall(क्षेत्र र्ें कर् बमररर् हुई).
• All the rivers mentioned chose to change their courses frequently.
(उल्लिखित सर्ी िदियों िे बमर-बमर अपिम र्मगा बिलम)
• Lack of iron tools restricted taking up of large-scale cultivation.
• (लोहे के औिमरों की कर्ी िे बडे पैर्मिे पर कृति को प्रततबंजित कर दियम)
• Crops (फसलें)
• Only mentioned crops were yava (modern jau or barley)[आधुर्नक जवा या जौ] or
cereals.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Agriculture (कृतर्)
• Agricultural Technology (कृतर् तकनीक)
• Early Vedic people had no knowledge of iron technology.
• Only metal referred is 'Aya' (copper either pure or alloyed).
• Tools mentioned - langala or sira (the plough), the wooden phala
(ploughshare), Khanitra (hoe), the datra (sickle) and the parasue (axe).
• Fire used to burn down the forest cover for shifting agriculture.

Trade and commerce (व्यापाि औि वालर्ज्य)

• Pastoral and self-sufficient agrarian economy with no record of trade and
commerce.
• Limited scale transactions the barter system was practiced.
(सीपमत िैमाने िर लेन-देन के ललए वस्तु तवकनमर् प्रणाली का प्रचलन था)
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग
वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Society (समाज)

Structure of Society(समाज की सांिचना) Nature of Society(समाज की प्रकृतत)

• Basic social unit - the Kula, or the
family, and the Kulapa(बुकनर्ादी
सामाजिक इकाई - कुल, र्ा परिवाि, और
कुलपा)
• Family was part of a larger grouping
called vis or clan( तवस या कुल).
• The clans settled in villages or
grama.(कबीले गाांवों या ग्रामों में बस गए)
• One or more clans made jana or
tribe( जन या जनजातत), also the largest
social unit.
• Chief of the tribe was the raja or
the gopati.
• Society was a tribal(जनजातीय) and
largely an egalitarian society
(समतावािी समाज).
• Social relations were based on
kinship ties(समर्मजिक संबंि ररश्तेिमरी पर
आिमररत थे).
• There was no caste division(िमतत
तवर्मिि िहीं थम).
• Occupation(व्यवसार्) was not based
on birth(िन्म पर आिमररत िहीं थम)
• Economically stratified.
 Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1500-1000 BC)
Society (समाज)

Nature of Society (समाज की प्रकृतत) Occupation(व्यवसाय)

• Gradually, society was divided into
warriors, priests(योद्ा, पुजािी) and the
ordinary people.
• Sudra category came into existence
only towards the end.
• Varna or colour(वर्ण या िांग) was the
basis of initial differentiation between
the Vedic and non-Vedic people.
• Rigveda mentions arya varna and
dasa varna(ऋग्वेि में आयण वर्ण औि िास वर्ण
का उल्लेख है।.
• Various occupational(व्यावसातर्क)
groups mentioned such as those of
weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather
workers, chariot-makers, priests
etc.(बुनकर, लोहार, बढ़ई, चमड़े का काम करने
वाले, रथ बनाने वाले, िुिारी आपद)
• Chariot-makers occupied special
social status and Bronze-smiths and
carpenters were frequently
mentioned.
• Takshan refers to the carpenter and
rathakara refers to the chariot maker.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Society (समाज)
Occupation(व्यवसाय)
• The weaver was called as 'Vaya'
whereas the Charakha was called as
'Tasar’.
• The goldsmith was called as
'Hiranyakar'('दहिण्यकाि') who used to
make Jewellery of gold, both for
human and horses.
• There are no references to beggars,
wage-earners or wages(पभखाररर्ों,
वेतनभोगी र्ा मिदूरी का कोई संदभय नहीं) in
the Rigveda.
• There are multiple references of
slaves.(दासों के अनेक संदभय पमलते हैं)
Trade (व्यापार)
• On the levels of exchanges and
involved only “barter system”("वस्तु
तवर्नमय प्रर्ाली")
• The people involved in trade was
called as 'Pani’.
• Cows were the most favoured
medium of exchange(गार् तवर्नमय
का सबसे पसांिीिा माध्यम थी)
• Society was patriarchal(समाि
दपतृसत्तात्मक था)
• The birth of a son was the common
desire of the people.
• The importance given to the male
members is reflected in the
Rigvedic hymns.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक
काल) (1500-1000 BC)
Society (समाज)
Position of Women (मदहलाओ ां की स्थस्थतत)

• Women in Early Vedic society enjoyed a respectable position.

• Both polygamy and polyandry (बहुतववाह औि बहुपतत तववाह) were present.
• Though Sati(सती) was mentioned, it was never practiced in a strict sense and was
only symbolic(प्रतीकात्मक)
• There were no references of child marriage.(बाल तववाह कम कोई उिेि िहीं है)
• There are few references to widow remarriage(तवधवा पुनतवि वाह)
• Niyoga (levirate) marrying the husband's younger brother after the death of
one's husband was allowed. (अिने ितत की मृत्यु के बाद ितत के छोटे भाई से तववाह करने की
अनुमतत थी)
• Women were educated and had access to the tribal assemblies, and even those
who composed hymns.
• Learned women of Vedic studies were called 'brahmavadinis’(ब्रह्मवादिनी')
• Lopamudra, Gosha and Apala had contributed to the hymns of RigVeda.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Polity (िाजनीतत)
• The polity of the early vedic period was a tribal one where democratic principles
were generally predominant.
• The chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana and the chief of jana was
the political leader(प्रमुख रािनीततक नेता) called rajan.
• The main function of the rajan was to protect the jana and cattle from the
enemies.(रािन का मुख्य कार्य िन और िशुओ ं की शत्रुओ ं से रक्षा करना था)
• He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies(जनजातीय सभाएँ ) called sabha,
samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad(सभा, सदिदि, दविर्, गण और पररषि)
• Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies(महििूणय
सभाएँ ).
• Women were also allowed to participate(तवचार-तवमशय) in the deliberations of the
Sabha and Vidatha.
• Rajan enjoyed no authoritative powers(िाजन के पास कोई आतधकारिक अतधकाि नहीं थे)
and was always checked by these tribal assemblies.
• The tribal assemblies exercised deliberative( तवचाि-तवमिण), military(सैन्य) and
religious functions(धादमि क कायों).
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक
काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Polity: Tribal Assemblies of Early Vedic Period(िाजनीतत: प्रािांदभक वैदिक काल की जनजातीय
सभाएँ )
• It was the council of elders of the clan referred as 'Narista'-meaning its
Sabha resolutions cannot be denied.
(सभा) • Women had special representation in this assembly.

Samiti • It was the General assembly of the entire clan.

(सदिदि) • Its most important function was the election of Rajan.
• Rigveda refers to this assembly 122 times- probably it might be the most
important one.
• This assembly was a kind of dispute resolutionary body, but was not
Vidhata
directly involved in administrative functions.
(तवधाता)
• It took up the task of distribution and re-distribution of wealth among
the clan.
• Women had special representation in this assembly.
Gana • No much information is available regarding this assembly.
(गर्) • It also participated in distribution of wealth of the clan.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक
काल)(1500-1000 BC)

Polity: Functionaries (िाजनीतत: पिातधकािी)

• In the day to day administration, the king was assisted by the following
functionaries -
• Purohita(पुिोदहत) - He was the most important functionary. His role was to offer
prayers and perform rituals. Two priests who played a major part in the time
of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
• Senapati(सेनापदि) - He was the next important functionary. He assisted Rajan
in waging wars.
• Vrajapati(व्रजपदि) - He was the officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture
lands. He led the heads of the families called kulapas or the heads of the
fighting hordes/units called gramanis to battle.
• Gramani(ग्रामर्ी) - He was the head of village or fighting hordes/units, He was
referred as 'Rajakarte' (king-maker) in RigVeda.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग
वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Polity (िाजनीतत)

Army (सेना) Tribal Conflicts(जनजातीय सांघर्ण)

• The sena or army was not a • Possession of cattle and the

permanent fighting group.
• In times of war, Rajan mustered a
militia whose military functions
were performed by different tribal
groups called vrata, gana, grama,
sardha.
• The warrior category was the
‘rajanya’.
pastoral lands led to occasional
intertribal fights and conflicts.
• When gramas clashed with one
another, it caused Sangrama
(war).
• The most decisive intra-tribal
conflict (Gavisti) referred in
RigVeda is Dasarajna( Battle of
Ten Kings). Dasarajna( Battle of
Ten Kings).
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1500-1000 BC)
Dasarajna ( The Battle of Ten Kings) (िसिाजन (िस िाजाओ ां का युद्))
• This battle was fought on the banks of river Parushini (Ravi).
• The battle was fought between the Bharata tribe(भित जनजातत) and a
confederation of 5 Aryan and 5 non-Aryan tribes led by the Puru tribe(पुरु
जनजातत के नेतृत्व में 5 आयण औि 5 गैि-आयण जनजाततयों का एक सांघ).
• 5 Aryan Tribes - Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu and Druhyu.
• 5 Non-Aryan Tribes - Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin.
• This battle is also known as “Priests' conflict”("पुजारियों का सांघर्ण"), since Sudasa of
Bharata tribe was supported by Vasista while Purukutsa was supported by
Viswamitra.
• Reason(कािर्)
• Dispute among tribes in matters of cattle issue, river water sharing and control
over pastures of Sapta Sindhu region.(र्वेजर्यों के र्ुद्दे, ििी के पमिी के बंटवमरे और सप्त
जसिं िु क्षेत्र के चरमगमहों पर नियंत्रण के र्मर्ले र्ें िििमततयों के बीच तववमि)
• Outcome(नतीजा)
• Bharata tribe won the battle and this battle had established the supremacy of
Bharata tribe.(भरत िनिातत ने लड़ाई िीत ली और इस लड़ाई ने भरत िनिातत का वचयस्व स्थापित
कर पदर्ा)
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)
Religion (धमण)
• The religious ideas are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda.
• It is materialistic in nature (यह प्रकृतत में भौततकवािी है)- Prayers for physical
protection and for material gains were the main concerns.
• It was sacrificial in nature i.e., sacrifices or yajnas were performed – for boons,
or victory in battles, or acquisition of cattle, birth of sons, etc.
• RigVedic Gods(ऋग्वेदिक िेवता)
• Worshipped the natural forces(प्राकृततक ितियों की पूजा) like wind, water, rain,
thunder, fire etc.
• Gods reflect the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society - no goddess
mentioned. (िेवता समाज की आदिवासी औि दपतृसत्तात्मक प्रकृतत को ििाणते हैं - ककसी देवी का
उल्लेख नहीं है)
• Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male
gods.
• In comparison, only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc
occupying secondary positions in the pantheon.
 Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)

Religion (धमण)

• Indra(इां द्र) was mentioned most frequently as Rigvedic people were engaged in wars
with each other. He carried the thunderbolt and was also respected as a weather god
who brought rains.
○ Maruts(मारुत) the god of storm aided Indra in the wars.(तूफान के देवता मारुत ने र्ुद्धों में इं द्र
की सहार्ता की)
○ Agni, the fire god was the god of the home and considered an intermediary
(मध्यस्थ)between gods and men.
○ Soma(सोम) was associated with plants and herbs. Soma was also a plant from which
an intoxicating juice was extracted and drunk at sacrifices.
○ Varuna(वरुर्) was the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita - an important
aspect of tribal set-up.
○ Pushan(पूर्न) was the god of the roads, herdsmen and cattle(सड़कों, चरवाहों और िशुओ ं के
देवता).
• Other gods were similarly associated with other aspects of nature and life.
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल) (1500-1000 BC)

RigVedic Gods(ऋग्वेदिक िेवता)

Indra • Most important God - the god of strength and the god of thunder.
(इां द्र) • RigVeda devoted 250 hymns to him.(ऋग्वेि िे उन्हें 250 सूक्त सर्दपि त नकए)
• Water god(जल िेवता) and the upholder of Rta (cosmic and moral
order).
Varuna • Punishes immoral(अनैततक) people with Pasha and worshipped for
(वरुर्)
forgiveness.
• RigVeda devoted 20 hymns to him.(ऋग्वेद ने उन्हें 20 सूक्त समपिि त ककए)
Agni • Agni is Fire god and priest of gods (intermediary b/w men and god).
(अदि) • RigVeda devoted 200 hymns to him.(ऋग्वेद ने उन्हें 200 भिन समपिि त ककए)
• Soma is god of plants and King of gods.(सोम वनस्पततर्ों के देवता और देवताओ ं
Soma के रािा हैं)
(सोम)
• RigVeda devoted 120 hymns to him.(ऋग्वेद ने उन्हें 120 सूक्त समपिि त ककए)
Vayu(Wind god), Marutha(God of storms), Yama(God of death), Aswins
Other Gods
(Healers of diseases), Pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus(God of Heaven).
Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period
(प्रािांदभक वैदिक या ऋग वैदिक काल)(1500-1000 BC)

RigVedic Gods (ऋग्वेदिक िेवता)

RigVedic Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Godess of
Godesses forests); Savitri(Godess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).
• Soma is god of plants.
• King of gods.
Soma
• RigVeda devoted 120 hymns to him.
Other • Vayu(Wind god); Marutha( God of storms); Yama(God of death);
prominent Aswins(Healers of diseases), pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus (God
Gods of Heaven).
RigVedic • Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Godess of
Godesses forests); Savitri(Godess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).
 Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्ति वैदिक काल)
About
• Period that followed Rig Vedic period is known as the Later Vedic period.
(ऋग्वैपदक काल के बाद के काल को उत्तर वैपदक काल कहा िाता है)
• Also marked as Iron- PGW Age because of the use of iron in agriculture and
painted grey ware (PGW).
• Based mainly on the Vedic texts completed after the age of the Rig Veda.

Geographical Expansion(भौगोललक तवस्ताि)

• The literature of this period mentions the Arabian sea, the Vindhya range and
the Northern plains of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
• During this period, the Aryans moved into Eastward(पूवण) and southward(िलक्षर्)
regions.
• In the East, Aryans inhabited the Awadh region and after that they entered
into Bihar.(आर्ों ने पूवण में अवध क्षेत्र में कनवास ककर्ा और उसके बाद उन्होंने तबहाि में प्रवेश ककर्ा)
• A proof of the Eastward march was given in the Satapatha Brahmana
through the story of Agni and Videha.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)
Geographical Expansion (भौगोललक तवस्ताि)
• The Later Vedas give three broad divisions of India:
• Aryavarta (Northern India) (आर्ायवतय (उत्तरी भारत))
• Madhyadesa (Central India) (मध्यदेश (मध्य भारत))
• Dakshina Patha (Southern India) (दलक्षणािथ (दलक्षणी भारत))

Panchal (Bareilly, Badayun & Farrukhabad in U.P.)

Kushinagar (Eastern region of Uttar Pradesh)
Major Kashi (Modem Varanasi)
Kingdoms Koshal (Faizabad in Uttar Pradesh)
of the
Southern Madra (Near Amritsar)
Later
Vedic Uttara Madra (Kashmir)
Period Eastern Madra (Near Kangra)
Kekaya (On the bank of Beas River east of Gandhar kingdom)
Gandhar (Rawalpindi & Peshawar)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्ति वैदिक काल)
Economy (अथणव्यवस्था)
• The pastoral economy was replaced by a sedentary agrarian economy.
(िेहाती अथणव्यवस्था का स्थान एक गततहीन कृतर् अथणव्यवस्था ने ले ललया)
• Agriculture (कृतर्)
• Agriculture was the mainstay of the Later Vedic people due to(उत्तर वैपदक लोगों
का मुख्य आिार कृतष था) -
• Settlements in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna doab and mid-Gangetic valley
which are suitable for high agricultural productivity.
• The use of iron tools(लोहे के औजािों) and agricultural implements in land
reclamation.
• Major crops(प्रमुख फसलें) - Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat.
• Use of Iron
• The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture at this time was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
• The iron metal is called Syama or Krishna ayas in the later Vedic texts.
• Iron implements buried with dead bodies(िवों के साथ लोहे के औजाि) have been
discovered.
• Archaeological evidence at Baluchistan , Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
has shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्ति वैदिक काल)
Economy (अथणव्यवस्था)
• Crafts(शिल्प)
• This period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts mentioned in the Later
Vedic texts include - Vyaya (Weaver), Kulala (Potter), Tashta (Carpenter),
Karmara (Black-smith), Hiranyakara (Gold-smith), and Rathakara (Chariot-
maker).
• Pottery(दमट्टी के बतणनों) - Black and red ware, Black slipped ware, Painted Grey
Ware and Red Ware (सचतत्रत धूसि मृिभाांड औि लाल मृिभाांड).
• Trade and Commerce(व्यापाि एवां वालर्ज्य)
• There was growth of trade and commerce effecting the rise of urban centers
in Indo-Gangetic basin viz.(भारत-गंगा बेजसन अथायत), Hastinapur, Kausambi,
Ahichchatra, etc.
• There was no mention of coined money and the Barter system continued.
(गढे हुए िि कम कोई उिेि िहीं थम और वस्तु तवनिर्य प्रणमली िमरी रही)
• Nishka, Satamana(र्नष्का, सतमन) (100 silver units) and Krishala(कृिाला) (copper
object having fixed value) were used as means of exchange.
• Money-lending activity had become an important profession. (साहूकारी का कार्य
एक महििूणय िेशा बन गर्ा था)
• Kusidin (usurer) is referred for the first time in Satapatha Brahmana.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्ति वैदिक काल)

Society (समाज)
• Patriarchal Family System(दपतृसत्तात्मक पारिवारिक व्यवस्था) - Eldest of male members
of the family perceived as the head of family, called as 'grihapati'('गृहपतत').
• Varna System(वर्ण व्यवस्था)
• The 10th Mandala in Purushsukta of Rigveda mentions a clear-cut division of
the society.(ऋग्वेि के पुरुर्सूि में 10वें मांडल में समाि के स्पष्ट तवभािन का उल्लेख है)
• Duties assigned to each varna(प्रत्येक वर्ण को सौंपे गए कतणव्य):
• Brahman(ब्रह्म) - Teaching, learning, performance and hosting of sacrifice
• Kshatriya(क्षतत्रय) - Learning, hosting sacrifice and protection of people and
land
• Vaishya(वैश्य) - Trade and agriculture(व्यािार और कृतष); the agriculturists(कृषक,),
traders and artisans(व्यािाररर्ों और शशल्पकारों) belonged to this varna, and
• Shudra(िूद्र) - Submission of service to upper three classes; this was the
lowest of the varna-ladder and had no powers or rights in the society.
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्ति वैदिक काल)
Society (समाज)
• Varna System (वर्ण व्यवस्था)
• The three Varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya) in combination were
perceived as men of higher Varnas, i.e. traivarnikas.(संर्ोिन में तीन वणों (ब्राह्मर्,
क्षतत्रय, वैश्य) को उच्च वणों के िुरुषों के रूि में माना िाता था)
• Traivarnikas(त्रैवलर्ि क) were entitled to upanayana (investiture) with the
sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.
• Sudras and women were not entitled to upanayana.
• Chatur-Varnashrama System(चतुि-वर्ाणश्रम व्यवस्था)
• In this system, a person's life is divided into four parts and he was assigned
some duties with respect to his age -
• Brahmacharya ashrama-Studentship(तवद्यमथीत्व)
• Grihastha ashrama-Householder(गृहस्थ)
• Van-prastha ashram-Partial retirement from household life(गृहस्थ िीवि से
आं जर्क निवृजि)
• Sanayas ashrama -Complete retirement from social life(समर्मजिक िीवि से पूणा
सन्यमस)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्ति वैदिक काल)

Society (समाज)

• Concept of Purushartha (पुरूर्ाथण की अवधािर्ा)

• Every man was expected to follow four main duties in his life - Artha
(economic values), Kama (pleasure), Dharma (righteousness), and Moksha
(liberation).
• System of Marriage (तववाह प्रर्ाली)
• 'Inter-Varna' marriages were disliked, whereas 'same gotra/ family’ marriages
were forbidden.
• There were two types of legalized structures of marriages:
• Anuloma marriage(अनुलोम तववाह) was used to perform between bridegroom
from higher Varna and bride from lower Varna.
• Pratiloma marriage(प्रततलोम तववाह) was used to perform between
bridegroom from lower varna and bride from higher varna.
• Asta-vivaha (आर्ण-तववाह)-This refers to the eight types of marriages prevalent
during the period.
 Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्ति वैदिक काल)
Astavivaha (अष्टवििाह)
S.N Type of Marriage Description (वििरण)
o. (वििाह का प्रकार)
1 Brahma(ब्राह्म) Most idealistic marriage; duly dowried, and marriage in same Varna
with the consent of parents
2 Daiva (दैि) Giving daughter to a priest in lieu of dakshina(िक्षक्षणम के बिले पुरोदहत को
कन्यम िेिम)
3 Arsa(आर्ष) Marriage with a token bride-price of a cow and a bull
4 Prajaprathya Marriage without dowry or bride-price(िहेि यम विु-र्ूल्य के तबिम तववमह)
(प्राजापत्य)
5 Gandharva Clandestine marriage with the consent of the both parties; meant for
(गान्धिष) kshatriyas(िोिों पक्षों की सहर्तत; क्षदत्रयों के क्षलए है)
6 Asura(आसुर) Marriage by purchase which was meant for Vysyas(क्रय द्वमरम तववमह िो वैश्यों के
क्षलए)
7 Rakshasa(राक्षस) Marriage by capture(बंदी) which was also meant for Kshatriyas
8 Paisacha(पैशाच) Marriage by seducing gir(बहलम-फुसलमकर)l with intoxicants, meant for
Shudras
Note: First four marriages were permissible to Brahmans.(ब्रमह्मणों को पहले चमर तववमह की अिुर्तत थी)
 Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Position of Women (मपहलाओ ं की स्थस्थतत)

• This period onwards status of women had started deteriorating(मदहलाओ ां की स्थस्थतत में दगिावि).
• Husband received the status as a Patiparmeshwar(पततपिमेश्वि) (God).
• According to the Satapatha Brahmana(ितपथ ब्राह्मर्), a wife was supposed to eat only after
the husband had finished eating.
• Manusmriti(मनुस्मृतत) laid down various restrictions regarding the traditional rights for
women in his book Manusmriti(उिकी पुस्तक मनुस्मृतत र्ें र्दहलमओ ं के क्षलए पमरंपररक अजिकमरों कम उिेि
नकयम गयम है)
• Hindu Dharmashastras denied(अस्वीकृत) offering prayers(प्राथणना) and sacrifices(बलल),
practices of penances and undertake religious pilgrimages for women(र्दहलमओ ं के क्षलए िमतर्ि क
यमत्रमएं ).
 Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Polity (िाजनीतत)
• The small tribal states (Janas) of Rig Vedic period were replaced by large territorial
states (Janapada). (ऋग्वैदिक कमल के छोटे िििमतीय रमज्यों (जन) को बडे क्षेत्रीय रमज्यों (जनपि) द्वमरम
प्रततस्थमदपत नकयम गयम थम)
• Puru and Bharata tribes of RigVedic period were merged to form Kuru
rajya.(ऋग्वैदिक कमल के पुरु और र्रत िििमततयों को कुरु रमज्य बिमिे के क्षलए तवलय कर दियम गयम थम)
• Srijanya, Krivi, Turuvasa, Somaka, Keshin tribes were merged into Panchala
kingdom.(श्रीिन्य, कृतव, तुरुवमसम, सोर्कम, केजर्ि िििमततयों को पंचमल समम्रमज्य र्ें तर्लम दियम गयम थम)
• Monarchy(साम्राज्य) - Tribal polity was now replaced by a monarchical system of
governance. (िििमतीय रमज्य व्यवस्थम कम स्थमि अब र्मसि की रमितंत्रीय व्यवस्थम िे ले क्षलयम थम)
• To assert his authority over subjects, the king began to perform public rituals to
get religious sanctity and to secure titles like Samrat, Virat, and Bhoja.(सम्राि, तविाि,
औि भोज)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Polity (िाजनीतत)
• Popular assemblies lost their importance as there is absolute power in the
hands of the king.(रमिम के हमथों र्ें निरंकुर् सिम होिे के कमरण बहुसांख्यक सभाओ ां कम र्हत्व सर्मप्त
हो गयम)
• A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element.
• There were five types of State System(पाँच प्रकाि की िाज्य व्यवस्था) that include-
• Rajya(Central kingdom) - Ruled by the Raja
• Bhojya (Southern kingdom)- Ruled by the Bhoja
• Swarajya (Western kingdom)- Ruled by Svarat
• Vairajya (Northern kingdom)- Ruled by the Virat
• Samrajya (Eastern kingdom)- Ruled by the Samrat.
• Tax system-The king levied taxes like ‘Bali’, ‘sulka’ and ‘Bhaga’.
(कर व्यवस्था-रािा ने 'बलल', 'सुल्का' और 'भाग' िैसे कर लगाए)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)
• Officers/ministers - ‘Ratnins’('िसिनों') - assisted the king.
Bureaucracy • Note: Satapata Brahmana calls Suta and Gramani as
(नौकििाही) 'Arajano Rajakarte'.र्तपथ ब्रमह्मण सूत और ग्रमर्णी को 'अरमिमिो
रमिकमते' कहते हैं)(

Ratnins Position Ratnins Position

Purohita Chief Priest, also called the Senani Supreme Commander
Rastra Gopa of the Army
Vrajapati Officer Incharge of the Pasture Jivagribha Police Officer
land
Spasas/Dutas Spies, who sometimes worked Gramani Leader of the village
as messengers
Madhya Masi Mediator of disputes Kulapati Family head
Bhagadugha Tax Collector Sangrahitri Treasurer
Mahishi Chief Queen Suta Charioteer
Govikartana King's campanian in games Akshavapa Accountant
Sthapati Chief Judge Gramyavadin Village Judge
Rathakara Chariot maker Adhikrita Village officer
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Religion (धिथ)
• The religion became very complex in the Later Vedic period.
(उत्तर वैदिक काल में धमम बहुत जर्िल हो गया था)
• Speculative philosophies like transmigration of soul, salvation, karma etc
began to dominate Vedic religion
(सट्टा दशयन िैसे आत्मा का देहांतरण, मोक्ष, कमय आपद वैपदक िमय िर हावी होने लगे).
• Trinity Worship(तत्रमूतति पूजा) (worship of three supreme Gods) - Prajapati, Vishnu,
Rudra were predominant.
• Rigvedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and Surya became unpopular.
(ऋग्वैपदक देवता िैसे इां द्र, वरुर् औि सूयण अलोकदप्रय हो गए)
• All the Natural forces(प्रमकृततक र्जक्तयों) were made subordinate to the Trinity(
दत्रर्ूतति ) were reduced to the position of Astadikpalas(अस्तदिकपालों)
• Pushan became the God of the shudra, who was the protector of cattle in the
early Vedic period.(पूर्न िूद्र का िेवता बन गर्ा, िो प्रारंपभक वैपदक काल में मवेशशर्ों का रक्षक
था)
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Religion (धिथ)
• Sacrifices became far more important in rituals.(कर्ाकमंडों र्ें बक्षलिमि कहीं अजिक
र्हत्वपूणा हो गयम)
• Sacrifices varied and codified with various types of rules and regulations i.e.
karmakanda(कमणकाांड)
• The right of performance of sacrifices became the monopoly of the priestly class.
• Public Sacrifices performed in the Later Vedic Period include -
(उिर वैदिक कमल र्ें नकए गए सावणजर्नक बललिानों र्ें र्मतर्ल हैं)
• Asvamedha(अश्वमेध यज्ञ) - Horse sacrifice to establish kings supremacy over
other kings
• Rajasuya(िाजसूय) - Consecration ceremony conferring supreme power to the
kings
• Vajapeya (वाजपेय)- Chariot race to re-establish a king’s supremacy over his
people.
• Private rituals(र्नजी सांस्काि) -Shodasakarmas (16 rituals)(16 कमयकांड) were expected
to be performed by an individual to get salvation during his lifetime from
conception to cremation
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)(उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Shodasakarmas (16 rituals) र्ोडस सांस्काि (16 कमणकाांड)

Ritual Description
(धादमि क सांस्काि) (तवविर्)
Garbhadana ⮚ A ceremony to promote conception in women
Pumsavana ⮚ A ceremony to procure a male child
Simantonyaya ⮚ A ceremony to ensure the safety of child in womb
Jatakarma ⮚ A birth ceremony before cutting umbilical chord
Namakarna ⮚ A ceremony of naming child
Nishkramana ⮚ Child is taken outside house to get exposed to the sun
Annaprasana ⮚ A ceremony to introduce solid food to a child
Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) (उत्तर वैदिक काल)

Shodasakarmas (16 rituals) र्ोडस सांस्काि (16 कमणकाांड)

Ritual Description
(धादमि क सांस्काि) (तवविर्)
Chudakarma ⮚ Tonsure ceremony
Karnabheda ⮚ A piercing ceremony
Vidyarambha ⮚ A ceremony to introduce formal learning to a child
⮚ Initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of three
Upanayana
higher Varnas
Vedarambha ⮚ A ceremony to start Vedic education
Keshanta ⮚ Shaving of head at gurukul
Samavartana ⮚ Home-coming ceremony from student-hood
Vivaha ⮚ Marriage ceremony
Antyesti ⮚ Funeral rites by son
Vedic Literature (वैदिक सादहत्य)
Classified into two sets of literature.(सादहत्य को िो समूहों में वगीकृत र्कया गया)
• Shruti Literature (श्रुतत सादहत्य)
• The term ‘Shruti’ literally means “what was heard('श्रुतत' शब्द का शाब्दब्दक अथय है "जो
सुना गया)
• It is thought to be eternal and thought to be revealed by gods to rishis.
• They are orally transmitted for many centuries and later compiled into written
texts. Includes – Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• These are believed to be during 1500 BC-500 BC.
• Smriti Literature (स्मृतत सादहत्य)
• The term ‘Smriti’ literally means “that which was remembered”.
• These texts are usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down but
constantly revised.
• These are believed to be written after Vedas i.e. post 1000 BC.
(ये वेिों के बमि यमिी 1000 ईसम पूवा के बमि क्षलिे गए र्मिे िमते हैं)
• Includes - Vedangas, Shutras, Puranas, Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata),
Dharshana and Upavedas.(इसमें शापमल हैं - वेदांग, शूत्र, िुराण, महाकाव्य (रामार्ण और
महाभारत), दशयन और उिवेद)
Shruti Literature: Vedas (श्रुतत सादहत्य : वेि)

1. Rig Veda (ऋग्वेि)

• Dasarajna (Battle of Ten Kings) is described in VII Mandala.

• Purusha Sukta gives the first reference of Varna system is in X Mandala - four
Varnas came from the mouth, arms, belly and legs of the Creator respectively.

2. Yajur Veda (यजुवेि)

• Has hymns for rituals and sacrifices, and prescribes the procedures to be
adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.
• Consists of two parts namely - Krishna Yajurveda (in prose form) and Shukla
Yajurveda (in verse form).
Shruti Literature: Vedas (श्रुतत सादहत्य : वेि)

About (बारे में)

• Four vedas are collectively known as 'Vedatrayi’(चमर वेिों को सम्मिक्षलत रूप से 'वेित्रयी'
कहम िमतम है). Many scholars consider Bharatamuni's “Natyasastra” or sometimes,
Mahabharata as Panchama Veda (5th Veda).

1. Rig Veda (ऋग्वेि)

• Earliest of entire Vedic literature.(संपूणा वैदिक समदहत्य कम सबसे प्रमचीि)
• Consists of hymns(mantras) for nature gods like Varuna (rain), Vayu (wind),
Indira (thunder), Surya(sun), and Usha (dawn).
• It is in verse form and contains 1028 hymns divided into 10
Mandalas/Books.(र्ह िद्य रूि में है और इसमें 10 मांडलों / पुस्तकों में तवभासजत 1028 सूि हैं)
• Each Mandala is ascribed to a particular family of seers, e.g. III Mandala is
associated with Viswamitra and VI Mandala is to Vasista.
• Famous Gayatri mantra in III Mandala is dedicated to Goddess Savitri.(तृतीय र्ंडल
र्ें प्रससद् गायत्री मांत्र समतवत्री िेवी को सर्दपि त है)
Shruti Literature: Vedas(श्रुतत सादहत्य : वेि)

3. Sama Veda (सामवेि)

• It is the Rig Veda set in musical form.(यह संगीतर्य रूप र्ें स्थमदपत ऋग्वेि है)
• Has 1063 hymns from Rigveda arranged to keep requirements of melody. (रमग की
आवश्यकतमओ ं को रििे के क्षलए ऋग्वेि के 1063 सूक्तों की व्यवस्थम की है)
4. Atharvan Veda (अथवणवेि)
• It is believed to be composed by non-Aryans.
(ऐसम र्मिम िमतम है नक इसकी रचिम अिमयों िे की थी)
• Contains 711 hymns divided into 20 Khandas.(इसर्ें 711 सूक्त हैं िो 20 िण्डों र्ें तवर्मजित हैं)
• Most of these hymns are used to ward off evil spirits.
(इिर्ें से अजिकतर र्ििों कम उपयोग बुरी आत्ममओ ं को र्गमिे के क्षलए नकयम िमतम है)
• It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of humble folk due to non-
Aryan influence.
(इसर्ें आयेतर प्रर्मव के कमरण तविम्र लोक की प्रचक्षलत र्मन्यतमओ ं और अं ितवश्वमसों कम वणाि है)
Shruti Literature (श्रुतत सादहत्य)

Brahmanas (ब्राह्मर्)
• Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas.(ब्रमह्मण वेिों की ऋचमओ ं की व्यमख्यम करते हैं)
• Written in prose and they elaborately describe the various sacrifices and
rituals(बक्षलिमि और कर्ाकमंड), along with their mystic meanings.
• A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant - RigVeda (2), Sama Veda (10), Yajurveda (6)
and Atharvan Veda (1). (कुल 19 ब्रमह्मण तवद्यर्मि हैं - ऋग्वेि (2), समर्वेि (10), यिुवेि (6) और
अथवावेि (1))
• Important Brahmanas - Aithareya Brahmana (RigVeda), Taittariya Brahmana
(Krishna Yajurveda), Satapata Brahmana (Shukla Yajurveda), Tandyamana
Brahmana (Samaveda), Gopatha Brahmana (Atharvan Veda)
महििूणय ब्राह्मण - ऐतिेय ब्राह्मर् (ऋग्वेद), तैत्तिीय ब्राह्मर् (कृष्ण र्िुवेद), ितपथ ब्राह्मर्
(शुक्ल र्िुवेद), ताांड्यमन ब्राह्मर् (सामवेद), गोपथ ब्राह्मर् (अथवयन वेद)

Aranyakas (आिण्यक)
• Aranyakas are the appendices (concluding portions) of the Brahmanas.
(आरण्यक ब्राह्मणों के िररशशष्ट (अं ततम भाग) हैं)
Shruti Literature (श्रुतत सादहत्य)

Aranyakas (आिण्यक)

• They deal with philosophical doctrines(िमर्ानिक जसद्मंतों ) and mysticism(रहस्यवमि) to

answer the various complex questions related to human life.
• The word Aranyaka means 'the forest' and these are called 'forest books' written
mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles.
• (आरण्यक र्ब्द कम अथा है 'वि' और इन्हें र्ुख्य रूप से िंगलों र्ें रहिे वमले समिुओ ं और तवद्यमतति यों के क्षलए
क्षलिी गई 'वि पुस्तकें' कहम िमतम है)

Upanishads (उपर्नर्िों)

• Literally means 'sitting at the foot of' guru to get knowledge and the concluding
portions of Vedas - referred as “Vedantas”("वेिाांत").
• They are in prose as well as verse form and contain highly philosophical and
metaphysical writings about the soul (atman) and Brahman. (वे गद्य के समथ-समथ पद्य
रूप र्ें र्ी हैं तथम इसर्ें आत्मम (आत्ममि) और ब्रह्म के बमरे र्ें अत्यजिक िमर्ानिक एवं आध्यमत्मत्मक लेिि
र्मतर्ल हैं)
Shruti Literature (श्रुतत सादहत्य)

Upanishads (उपर्नर्िों)
• There are 108 Upanishads(108 उपनििि) classified according to the Vedas - 10(वेि -
10) out of them are considered as 'Dasa or Mukhya Upanishads’ - Aithareya('िास
या मुख्य उपर्नर्ि' - ऐतिेय) (Rigveda), Kena and Chandogya (Samaveda), Isa and
Brihadaranyaka (Shukla Yajurveda), Katha and Taittariya (Krishna Yajurveda),
Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya (Atharvan Veda).
• Note
• Our national motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is a part of a mantra from Mundaka
Upanishad.(हर्मरम रमष्ट्रीय आिर्ा वमक्य 'सत्यमेव जयते' र्ुंडकोपनििि के एक र्ंत्र कम दहस्सम है)
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains discussion between Yagnavalka and his
two wives, Gargi and Maitreyi.(बृहिमरण्यक उपनििि र्ें यमज्ञवल्क और उिकी िो पजियों, गमगी
और र्ैत्रेयी के बीच की चचमा है)
• The first reference of Ahimsa is in Chandogya Upanishad.(अदहिं सा का िहला उल्लेख
छांदोग्य उिकनषद में पमलता है)
 Shruti Literature (श्रुतत सादहत्य)
Upanishads Vs Vedas (उपर्नर्द् बनाम वेि)

• The Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas(उपनिििों र्ें वेिों कम समर निदहत है). They are
the concluding portions of the Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta philosophy(वेिमंत
िर्ाि).
• The Vedas start out as mythical(पौरमक्षणक) and ritual texts. Whereas Upanishads have been
telling man what he should or should not do, what path leads to good, etc.
• The thoughtful way of Upanishad is deemed to be a bit more advanced than the
outward-looking nature of Vedas(वेिों कम बदहर्ुाि स्वरूप). Each Upanishad represents any of
the four Vedas, thereby explaining the profound truths hidden in that Veda.
• Upanishads laid the foundation for various philosophical systems that developed in
India. The three most famous Vedanta systems still prevalent in India are Advaita, Dvaita
and Vishishtaadvaita(र्मरत र्ें अर्ी र्ी प्रचक्षलत तीि सबसे प्रजसद् वेिमंत प्रणमक्षलयमाँ अद्वैत, द्वैत और तवजर्ष्टमद्वैत
हैं).
• Upanishads are key texts that helped to develop and grow Samkya, Yoga, Mimamsa,
Buddhism, and Jainism (समंख्य, योग, र्ीर्मंसम, बौद् और िैि)
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)
Vedangas (वेिाांग)
• They are the supplements/limbs of Vedas and help in understanding the Vedas.
(वे वेदों के िूरक/अं ग हैं और वेदों को समझने में सहार्क हैं)
• There are 6 such Vedangas- (ऐसे 6 वेदांग हैं)-
• Shiksha(शिक्षा) - It deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation(Phonetics)
of Vedic hymns.
• Kalpa(कल्प) - It deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspect
of the Vedas.
• Vyakarana(व्याकिर्) - It deals with Sanskrit grammar used in Vedic hymns.
• Nirukta(र्नरुि) - It deals with etymology (study of origin of words) of the words
used in Vedas.
• Chhanda(छांिा) - It deals with metrics( pattern in which one must recite any
mantra).
• Jyotisa(ज्योतति) - It deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of
fixing auspicious date and time to perfom vedic rites and rituals, etc.
 Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Sutras (सूत्र)

• Kalpasutra is based on Vedic literature and has four sub divisions -(कल्पसूत्र वैपदक
सापहत्य िर आिाररत है और इसके चार उिखण्ड हैं)-
• Srauta Sutras(श्रौत सूत्र) - They deal with major rituals such as the asvamedha and
the rajasuya.(र्े अश्वमेि और रािसूर् िैसे प्रमुख अनुष्ठानों से संबंजित हैं)
• Griha Sutras(ग्रह सूत्र) - They lay down the norms for domestic rituals(घरेलू रीतत-ररवािों
) including rites of passage.
• Dharma Sutras(धमण सूत्र) - They lay down social norms and conduct.(ये सामासजक मानिांड
औि आचिर् र्नधाणरित किते हैं)
• Sulba Sutras(िुल्व सूत्र) - They lay down principles of geometry that were used for
constructing the sacrificial altar.
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Puranas (पुिार्)
• They are mythological works that propagate religious and spiritual messages through
parables and fables. (ये पौरादिक कृदियााँ हैं जो दृष्ाां िोां और िां िकथाओां के माध्यम से धादममक और
आध्यात्मिक सांिेशोां का प्रचार करिी हैं )
• They contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with the mysteries
of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies (dynastic history).
• There are 18 Puranas(18 पुिार् हैं) and some of the well-known Puranas are(तथा कुछ प्रससद्
पुिार् हैं) - the Markandeya, Vayu, Brahmanda, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagvata, Kurma,
Vamana, Linga, Varaha, Padma, Narada, Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda, Brahmavaivarta
and the Bhavisya Purana.
• Puranas as Scripture of Masses (पुिार् जनता के िास्त्र के रूप में)
• The Puranas were recited in popular gatherings. (ििसर्मओ ं र्ें पुरमणों कम पमठ नकयम िमतम थम)
• Puranas are of special value as they present Vedic truths in a simple manner.
(पुरमणों कम तवर्ेि र्हत्व है क्योंनक वे वैदिक सत्य को सरल तरीके से प्रस्तुत करते हैं)
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Puranas (पुिार्)
• Puranas as Scripture of Masses (पुिार् जनता के िास्त्र के रूप में)
• The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings
of the Vedas(वेिों की जर्क्षमएाँ ) and to generate in them devotion to God.
• The Puranic literature is encyclopedic(पुरमण समदहत्य तवश्वकोर् है), and it includes
diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses,
kings, etc. (इसर्ें तवतवि तविय र्मतर्ल हैं िैसे ब्रह्ममंड तवज्ञमि, ब्रह्ममंड तवज्ञमि, िेवी-िेवतमओ ं, रमिमओ ं
आदि की वंर्मवली)
• The Puranas not only educated the masses and infused them with noble
ideals(िेक आिर्ा), they also tactfully solved social and economic problems that
arose due to social upheavals and foreign invasions.
Epics (महाकाव्य)
• Two Mahakavyas (Epics) compiled by 400 AD reflecting social, economic and
political conditions(रािनीततक िररस्थस्थततर्ाँ) from the 10th century BC to the 4th
century AD.
• Ramayana (िामायर्)
• Considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed(रचना) by Valmiki.
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Epics (महाकाव्य)
• Ramayana (िामायर्)
• Considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed by Valmiki.
(इसे वाल्मीकक िारा रजचत आपदकाव्य के रूि माना िाता है)
• Originally consisted of 6000 verses than 12,000 verses and was finally expanded
to 24,000 verses in 7 Kandas (sections).(र्ूल रूप से 12,000 छं िों की तुलिम र्ें 6000 छं ि
र्मतर्ल थे और अं त र्ें 7 कमंडों (िंडों) र्ें 24,000 छं िों तक तवस्तमररत नकयम गयम थम)
• Mahabharata (महाभाित)
• It is believed to be composed by Ved Vyasa.(रचिम वेि व्यमस द्वमरम की गई र्मिी िमती है)
• It originally consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita(जया गीता) (a song
dealing with victory) and later got expanded to 24,000 verses(24,000 श्लोकों र्ें
तवस्तमररत), known as Bharata, for containing the stories of the descendents of
one of the earliest Vedic tribes called Bharata.
• A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named Mahabharata in 18
Parvas(books) plus Harivamsa supplement. (1,00,000 श्लोकों के एक और तवस्तमररत
संस्करण को 18 पवों (पुस्तकों) में हरिवांि के पूिक के रूप में महाभाित िमर् दियम गयम थम)
• Note: Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata.(भगवद् गीता महाभारत
के भीष्मिवय का पहस्सा है)
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Dharshana (ििणन)
• There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana(र्ड्ििणन).
• They all propagate the virtues of life.(ये सभी जीवन के सद्गुर्ों का प्रचाि किते हैं)
• Nyaya by Gautama ( न्याय -गौतम द्वािा)
• It is a school of logic and realism.(र्ह तकय और र्थाथयवाद की िाठशाला है)
• It held that liberation is gained through right knowledge i.e. by negating
both illusion and unhappiness using logic( तका कम उपयोग करके भ्रर् और िुुःि िोिों को
िकमर कर).
• Vaishesika by Kanada ( वैिेशिका -कर्ाि द्वािा)
• It postulated that all the objects in the physical universe(भौततक ब्रह्माण्ड) are
reducible to ‘paramanu’ (atom).
• It held that knowledge and liberation was achievable by fully recognizing the
atomic nature of the Universe(ब्रह्ममंड की परर्मणु प्रकृतत) and its difference from
the soul.
• This atomic theory marked the beginning of Physics in India.
(इस िरमाणु जसद्धांत ने भारत में भौततकी की शुरुआत की)
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Dharshana (ििणन)
• Purvamimansa by Jaimini पूवणमीमाांसा- जैदमनी द्वािा)
• It regards Vedas as eternal and rituals are of primary importance to attain
salvation (ritualism)[मोक्ष (कमयकांड)].
• Sankhya by Kapila (साांख्य -कदपला द्वािा)
• It has no faith in existence of God.(इसे ईश्वर के अत्मस्तत्व र्ें कोई तवश्वमस िहीं है)
• It held that world was created and evolved by Nature/Prakriti.(यह र्मिम िमतम है नक
प्रकृतत द्वमरम िुनियम कम निर्माण और तवकमस नकयम गयम थम)
• It further asserts that soul can attain liberation(मुजक्त) only through real
knowledge that is to be acquired through observation(अवलोकि) and inference(
अनुमान).
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Dharshana (ििणन)
• Yoga by Patanjali (र्ोग - ितंिलल िारा)
• It believes in salvation through meditation and physical application.
(र्ह ध्यान और शारीररक प्रर्ोग से मुजक्त में तवश्वास करता है)
• It had influenced the development of physiology and anatomy in ancient
times.(इसने प्राचीन काल में शरीर तवज्ञान और शरीर रचना तवज्ञान के तवकास को प्रभातवत ककर्ा था)
• Uttaramimansa by Bhadarayana (उत्तरमीमांसा - भद्रार्ण िारा रजचत)
• It is the summary of the teachings of the Upanishads.It dealt with
metaphysical concepts(र्ह तिमीमांसा अविारणाओ ं से संबंजित है)- like aatma-brahma,
karma doctrine, meditation, devotional Hinduism etc.
• It held that brahma is reality and everything else is myth.(इसने माना कक ब्रह्म
वास्ततवकता है और बाकी सब पमथक है)
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)

Upavedas
(उपवेि)

Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda Silpaveda Ayurveda

Deals with the Deals with the Deals with are Deals with
art of warfare. music. and architecture. medicine.

It is upaveda to It is part of It is part of It is part of

Rigveda. Yajurveda. Samaveda. Atharvana Veda.
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)
Dharmasastras (धमणिास्त्र)
• Source of religious law for
Hindus.
• There are eighteen main
Smritis or Dharma Sastras.
• The most important are those
of Manu, Yajnavalkya and
Parasara.
• The other fifteen are those of
Vishnu, Daksha, Samvarta,
Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa,
Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba,
Gautama, Devala, Sankha-
Likhita, Usana, Atri and
Saunaka.
Manusmriti (मनुस्मृतत)
• The earliest Hindu Law book,
dated 2nd -3rd century AD, and
translated into English by
William Jones in 1794.
• While 58 verses are attributed
to Manu, the remaining 2000+
to his disciple Bhrigu.
• It is mainly targeted to
Brahmans (1034 verses) and
Kshatriyas (971 verses).
• Important commentaries on
Manusmriti were by Bharuchi
(7th -11th c) and Medhatithi
(9th -11th c).
Smriti Literature (स्मृदि सादित्य)
Dharmasastras (धिथशास्त्र)

Narada Smriti (नािि स्मृतत)

• Dated 100-400 AD, it is known as judicial text par excellence(इसे न्यमजयक पमठ सर्
उत्कृष्टतम के रूप र्ें िमिम िमतम है).
• It exclusively deals with procedural( प्रदक्रयमत्मक) and substantive law(र्ूल कमिूि ).

Yagnavalka Smriti (याज्ञवल्का स्मृतत)

• It is dated between 3rd and 5th century AD (Guptan period). (र्ह तीसरी और 5वीं
शताब्दी ईस्वी (गुप्तकाल) के बीच का है)
• It divides dharma into three categories (र्ह िमय को तीन श्रेलणर्ों में तवभाजित करता है) -
Achara, Vyavahara, and Prayaschitta (आचाि, व्यवहाि औि प्रायशित).
• It is more advanced and unconventional Law(अपरंपरमगत कमिूि) book so that it
allows widows to inherit property.
UPSC Previous Years
Mains Questions
(यूपीएससी दपछले वषों के
िुख्य प्रश्न)
Prelims (प्रािांदभक पिीक्षा)

1. Which one of the following four Vedas contains an account of magical charms and
spells? (दिम्नदलत्मिि चार वेिोां में से दकस एक में जािु ई आकर्मि और मांत्र का दववरि है ?)

a) Rig-veda (ऋग्वेि)
b) Yajur-Veda (यजुवेि)
c) Atharva-Veda (अथवमवेि)
d) Sama-veda (सामवेि)
Ans: (C)
 Prelims (प्रािांदभक पिीक्षा)
2. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus
Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(ऋग्वैपदक आर्ों और जसिं िु घाटी के लोगों की संस्कृतत के बीच अं तर के संदभय में, कनम्नललखखत में से कौन सा/से कथन
सही है/हैं?)
1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people
of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew
only copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of
Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (C)
 Mains (मुख्य पिीक्षा)
1. Describe the social life of the later vedic people. How was it different from the Rig
vedic life.(उत्तर वैपदक काल के लोगों के सामाजिक िीवन का वणयन कीजिए। र्ह ऋग्वैपदक िीवन से ककस प्रकार
पभन्न था)
2. Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of social exchange in vedic
India. (इस तवचार का िरीक्षण कीजिए कक वैपदक भारत में बललदान एक कमयकांड और सामाजिक आदान-प्रदान का
एक रूि था)
3. Evaluate the conceptual basis of the vedic deities. (वैपदक देवताओ ं के संकल्पनात्मक आिार का
मूल्ांकन कीजिए)

4. Evaluate the contributions of the Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge among

the masses in ancient India. (प्राचीन भारत में िनता के बीच िमयकनरिेक्ष ज्ञान के प्रसार में िुराणों के र्ोगदान
का मूल्ांकन कीजिए)
5. “The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of vedic thought.” Discuss.
("उिकनषद के जसद्धांत वैपदक तवचार के प्रतीक हैं।" चचाय कीजिए।)

6. “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.” Critically examine.

("िुराति आर्ों के बारे में नहीं िानता, केवल सापहत्य आर्ों के बारे में िानता है।" समालोचनात्मक िाँच कीजिए।)
Thank you
MAHAJANAPAD
AS AND RISE OF
MAGADHAN
EMPIRE (महाजनपद और
मगध साम्राज्य का उदय)
Mahajanapadas ( महाजनपद)

Introduction( पररचय )

•From the sixth century B.C onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar
Pradesh and western Bihar facilitated the formation of large territorial states known
.
as Mahajanapadas (छठी शताब्दी ईसा पूर्व से, पूर्ी उत्तर प्रदेश और पश्चिमी बिहार में लोहे के व्यापक उपयोग ने िडे क्षेत्रीय राज्यों के
गठन की सुबर्धा प्रदान की, जिन्हें महािनपद के रूप में िाना िाता है।)
•This period between 600-300 BC in the history of India has different names such as
“Pre-Mauryan period” , “Age of Shodasa Mahajanapadas” (16 Mahajanapadas),
“Age of Second urbanization”, “Age of Buddha” and “Age of Sutras”. (पूर्-व मौयव काल",
"षोडस महािनपदों का युग" (16 महािनपद), "द्वितीय शहरीकरण का युग", "िुद्ध का युग" और "सूत्रों की आयु"।)
Sources ( स्त्रोत )

Literary Sources (साहहत्यिक स्रोत)

•Vedic Literature: Mentions about 9 Janapadas.

•Panini: Mentions about 22 Janapadas including Kosala, Magadha and Vatsa.
•Buddhist Texts: Mahavastu Buddhist scripture and Anguttara Nikaya (Fourth of the
five Nikayas in SuttaPitaka, one of the three Tripitaka Buddhist texts in Pali)
mentioned about 16 Mahajanapadas.
•Jaina Text: Bhagavati Sutta mentioned 16 Mahajanapadas.
•Brahmana Texts: They dealt with the methods of performing Vedic rituals. They
referred to many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and provided us insights into the
settlement of agricultural communities.
Sources
Archaeological Sources (पुरातत्व स्रोत)

•Pottery: Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
•Note: Pottery will be discussed in detail in art and culture class.
•Coins: Punch- Marked Coins (पंच-माकव र्ाले जसक्के)(marked the beginning of the use of
money in the subcontinent).
•Material Evidences: House remains and objects used by people.
Reasons for the Growth of Mahajanapadas/Urban Centres
Resources
संसाधन The area was rich in resources, had fertile Ganga plains and surplus
agriculture production.गंगा के उपिाऊ मैदान और अजधशेष कृबष उत्पादन था।
Use of Iron and
Wet Rice Iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough shares could
Cultivation लोहे facilitate agricultural operations.
और गीले चावल की खेती
का उपयोग Beginning of Paddy transplantation(the practice of removing the
seedling where it has grown and planting it in another place) lead to
the surplus production.धान की रोपाई शुरू होने से अबतररक्त उत्पादन हुआ।
Geography
भूववज्ञान High rainfall, along with its fertile alluvial soil made the region
particularly well suited for paddy cultivation.उच्च र्षाव, इसकी उपिाऊ िलोढ़ बमट्टी के
साथ-साथ इस क्षेत्र को धान की खेती के ललए बर्शेष रूप से उपयुक्त िना द्वदया

Society
समाज Society in the Indo-Ganga divide, the upper Ganga valley and the
Ganga-Yamuna doab was well settled and well-established agrarian
society.
Reasons for the Growth of Mahajanapadas/Urban Centres
Revenue and taxes Growth in crop production increased the collection of
राजस्व और कर agricultural taxes by the kings of the mahajanapadas.

Revenue from these taxes helped in maintaining the

Democratic growth administrative and military apparatus.
लोकतांविक ववकास As per studies, rice consuming societies have higher
fertility rates.
Thus paddy production in the fertile Ganga valley would
have led to demographic growth.

This increased population was necessary for the emerging

urban centers.
Other important
members of societies
The city was inhabited by a range of non-agrarian
professionals such physicians, scribes, entertainers,
craftspersons, artisans, etc.
Mahajanapadas

The Mahajanapadas

•In the age of Buddha, there were 16 large states called Mahajanapadas.
•The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya (part of Sutta Pitaka) mention the names of
these 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas).िौद्ध ग्रन्थ अं गुत्तर ननकाय में इन 16 महािनपदों के
नामों का उल्लेख है।
•Even the Jaina text Bhagwati Sutra and another Buddhist text Mahavastu have the
names of the 16 Mahajanapadas.
•However, Vanga and Maleya had replaced Gandhara and Kamboja in Bhagawati
Sutra whereas Mahavastu added Sibi and Dasarna in place of Gandhara and
Kamboja.
•Geographical location - The 16 Mahajanapadas were mostly situated north of the
Vindhyas and extended from the north-west frontier to Bihar.
Mahajanapadas
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts

1 Anga Champa Eastern • It had a port city called
अंग चंपा Bihar & Tamralipti and merchants sailed
Bengal from here to Suvarnabhumi
(South East Asia).इसका एक िंदरगाह शहर
था जिसे ताम्रललद्वि कहा िाता था और व्यापारी यहााँ से
सुर्णवभूबम िाते थे।
• Bimbisara annexed Anga to
Magadha .
2. Magadha Rajgir/ Southern • Magadha became the most
मगध Rajagriha Bihar important mahajanapada in
राजगगरी about in about two hundred
years.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)
S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts
3. Vajji Vaishali Northern • Vajji was a confederation of 8
वज्जि वैशाली Bihar republican states (Astakulika) like –
Lichchavians of Vaishali, Jnatrikas of
Kundagrama, Vaidehas of Mithila.
• Most powerful clan of Vajji was
Lichchavians of Vaishaliवज्जी का सबसे
शविशाली वंश वैशाली के ललच्छववयों का था।.

• Lichchavian ruler Chetaka was a

contemporary to Buddha.
• Both Buddha and Mahavira visited
Vaishali several times.
• Vajji gave 16 years of tough
resistance to Ajatasatru before its
annexation to Magadha.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)
S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts
4. Kasi Kashi/ Varanasi • Annexed by Kosala during the
Banaras lifetime of Buddha; part of it was
कासी given to Bimbisara (Magadha) as
काशी dowry. िुद्ध के िीर्नकाल के दौरान कोशल िारा संलग्न; इसका
एक भाग बििं बिसार (मगध) को दहेि के रूप में द्वदया गया।Later

Ajatasatru had annexed it to

Magadha.
5. Kosala Sravasti Eastern UP • Kosala contained an important
city called Ayodhya.
कोसल श्रावस्ती • Kosala also included the tribal
republican territory of Sakyas of
Kapilavastu, the birthplace of
the Buddha. कोशल में कद्वपलर्स्तु के शाक्यों के
िनिातीय गणतंत्र क्षेत्र भी शाबमल थे, िो िुद्ध का िन्मस्थान था
• Kosala ruler Prasenajit was
contemporary to Buddha.
• It was annexed to Magadha
during the reign of Ajatasatru.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts

6. Malla Two Parts of UP • Oligrachy or Republic form of
capitals- and Bihar government was followed in
मल्ला
Kusinara Malla and they were referred to
and Pava as Gana Sanghas. मल्ला में सरकार के
कुलीनतंत्र और गणतंत्र रूप का पालन नकया गया और उन्हें गण
कुसीनारा/ संघ कहा गया।

पावा • Buddha died at Kusinara and

Lord Mahavira attained Nirvana
at Pava.
• It was annexed to Magadha by
Ajatasatru.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)
S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts
7. Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad • Lord Buddha visited Kausambi
region of UP and stayed at Gositarama
वत्स कौसम्बी
monastery.
• Its ruler being Udayana was a
contemporary to Buddha.
• Udayana was the hero of many
romantic legends like-
“Swapnavasavadatta” (Bhasa),
“Ratnavali” (Harsha). उदयन कई र
नकिंर्दंबतयों के नायक थे िैस-े "स्वप्नर्ासर्दत्ता" (भाषा), "रत्नार्ली" (हषव)

• Vatsa was annexed to Avanti

during the reign of Palaka of
Pradyota dynasty.
8. Kuruकुरु Indraprast Delhi- • The epic Mahabharata tells a
ha Meerut conflict between two branches
region of the reigning Kuru clan.
इन्द्रप्रस्थ
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts

9. Panchala Two Western • According to ancient texts,there
पंचला capitals- Uttar were two lineages of Panchalas
Ahichchatr Pradesh – northern Panchalas and
a and southern Panchalas. These two
Kampilya lineages were divided by the
काज्जिल्य river Bhagirathiउत्तरी पांचाल और दक्षिणी
पांचाल। इन दो वंशों को भागीरथी नदी द्वारा ववभाजजत
ककया गया था।.
• Ahichchatra was the capital of
northern Panchalas whereas
Kampilya was the capital of
southern Panchalas. अद्वहच्छत्र उत्तरी
पंचालों की रािधानी थी ििनक काम्पिल्य दलक्षणी
पंचालों की रािधानी थी
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)
S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts
10. Avanti Two Central • Chanda Pradyota Mahasena
अवन्ती Capitals- Malwa and was the powerful ruler of the
Ujjain & adjoining Avanti .
Mahismati parts of MP • Sisunaga had annexed Avanti to
Magadha.
11. Shurasena Mathura Western UP • It had the Oligarchy or Republic
शूरसेन मथुरा form of government and were
referred to as Gana Sanghas.
• Avantiputra, one of the
prominent rulers of Surasena
was a chief disciple of Buddha.
He ensured the spread of
Buddhism in Mathura.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)
S.No. Mahajana Capital Location Major Facts
pada
12. Matsya Viratanag Jaipur region of • It once formed a part of the Chedi
मत्स्य ara Rajasthan Mahajanapada, which is evident
गवराटनगर from the fact that king Sujata
ruled over both Matsya and Chedi.
13. Chedi Sothivati/ Bundelkhand • Chedis were mentioned in the
चेदी Suktimati region Rigveda.
14. Asmaka or Potali Parts of • It was the only Mahajanapada
Assaka पोटली / Maharashtra situated to the south of the
अस्माक Podana and Telangana Vindhya Range and was in
और पोदना on the banks of Dakshinapatha.
अस्सका River Godavari • Brahmadatta and Aruna were the
important rulers of the Asmaka.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts

15. Kamboja Poonchपूूँछ Rajouri and • Arthashastra refers this as as
कम्बोज /Rajpura Hajra Varta-Sastropajivin Samgha
राजपुरा (Kashmir), which means confederation of
NWFP agriculturists, traders, herdsmen
(Pakistan) and warriors.
• Famous for excellent breed of
horses.
• It was under Persian rule by 6th
c BC, later under Greeks; resisted
Alexander’s invasion.
The 16 Mahajanapadas (Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.No. Mahajanapada Capital Location Major Facts

16. Gandhara Taxila Parts of • Taxila was an important
गंधार तक्षगशला Pakistan learning centre in ancient India.
and • Its ruler Pukkusati was a
Afghanistan contemporary of Buddha and
Bimbisara.
• Persians conquered it in the
second half of 6th c B.C. and later
was ruled by Greeks too.
• Later Chandragupta Maurya
liberated it from foreign rule by
annexed it to Magadha.
Polity of Mahajanapadas महाजनपदों की राजनीवत

Features Monarchy (Kingdoms) Gana-Sangha (Republic)

Centralized and Hereditary • Decentralized and was not
Government
केंद्रीकृत और वंशानुगत hereditary.
शासन
• Authority was vested in the
council of the chief of the
clan.
Great alluvial plains of Ganga • Foothills of the Himalayas
Spread
and its tributaries. गंगा और उसकी
विस्तार
सहायक नद्वदयों के महान िलोढ़ मैदान।
Administrative Through King, who was advised • Through debate, discussion,
working by Mantri-Parishad (ministers) and voting in the assembly
प्रशासगनक रािा के माध्यम से जिसे मंत्री-पररषद (मंद्वत्रयों) called Santhagara
िारा सलाह
कामकाज
Polity of Mahajanapadas

Features Monarchy (Kingdoms) Gana-Sangha (Republic)

The Brahmanical system did • Tolerant to unorthodox views
Opinions
not tolerate other views. e.g. Mahavira and Buddha
गवचार ब्राह्मणर्ादी व्यर्स्था
views contrary to Vedic system.
Loyalty कनष्ठा Caste and King loyalty • Clan loyalty
All others • Vajji (Confederation of many
Mahajanapadas
clans)
महाजनपद
• Shakya and Malla (single clan)
Society During the Age of Mahajanapadas
समाज महाजनपद के युग के दौरान
Advances Cities came into existence for the first time in historical India.
during 4th ऐबतहाजसक भारत में पहली िार शहर अस्तस्तत्व में आए।
Century BC
चौथी शताब्दी ईसा Aliterate tradition began. Towards the end, society had
पूवव के दौरान अहिम acquired the knowledge of writing.

The earliest script of ancient India is

called the Brahmi script.
Society During the Age of Mahajanapadas

Various sections of society during this period इस काल में समाज के ववहभन्न वगों

Brahmanas Born but may change profession, still will remain a Brahman.
ब्राह्मण
Texts give them privilege of mediation between man and god.

Had exclusive rights of performing sacrifices.

Kshatriyas Equated with the warrior caste as per texts.

क्षविय
Second highest caste in the varna order.

Buddha and Mahavira belonged to this group.

Society During the Age of Mahajanapadas

Various sections of society during this period

Vaishyas and Third caste in the ritual order.

the Gahapati Entrusted with cattle herding, agriculture and trade.
िैश्य और Buddhist literature used the term Gahapati more frequently - the
गहपवि master of the household.
Setthi - a high-level businessman, associated with trade and
money-lending.
Shudras शूद्रों Lowest caste in the Brahmanical order.
Only duty was service to the other three castes.
Wandering People who had renounced their homes.
Ascetics Travelled from place to place and held discussions on the meaning
(Paribrajakas of life, society and spirituality.
and Sramanas)
E.g. - Buddha and Mahavira.
Society During the Age of Mahajanapadas

Condition of Women मवहलाओों की स्थिवि

• Women were looked down on compared to men.

• They were described as incapable of sitting in a public assembly.
• They were permanently in the charge of men-father, brother or son.
• Their main function was producing legitimate heirs.
• Many women spent their lives labouring for their masters and
mistresses.
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
Growth of Cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were produced over the
Food wider areas of land.
Production
खाद्य उत्पादन में
वृलि Preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was
encouraged.

Crafts Major industries were clay
Industries working like pottery,
लशल्प उद्योग terracotta figurines.
modelling and to some
extent also brickmaking;
carpentry and wood-
working; metal-working;
stone-working; glass
industry; bone and ivory-
working etc.
The Pali canon refers to many different
kinds of artisans - the vehicle maker
(yanakara), ivory worker (dantakara),
metal smith (kammara), goldsmith
(suvannakara), silk weaver
(kosiyakara), carpenter (palaganda),
needle maker (suchikara), reed worker
(nalakara), garland maker (malakara),
and potter (kumbhakara).
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
Occupations व्यवसाय

• Early Buddhist texts mention both urban and rural occupations (sippa, kamma).
• In the king’s service (rajaporisas) -
• Soldiers (yodhajivas) of various kinds—foot soldiers, archers, members of the
cavalry, elephant corps, and chariot wing.
• Ministers (mahamachchas), governors (ratthikas), estate managers
(pettanikas), the royal chamberlain (thapati), elephant trainers (hattirohas),
policemen (rajabhatas), jailors (bandhanagarikas), slaves (dasas and dasis),
and wage-workers (kammakaras).
• Urban occupations - physician (vejja, bhisakka), surgeon (sallakata), scribe
(lekha), accounting (ganana) and money changing.
• Entertainers - actor (nata), dancer (nataka), magician (sokajjayika), acrobat
(langhika), drummer (kumbhathunika), and woman fortune-teller (ikkhanika).
• Accomplished courtesan (ganika) and the ordinary prostitute (vesi).
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
Guilds संघ
• Voluntary associations of merchants that undertook administrative, economic,
charitable and banking functions roles.
• Number of artisans who were organized in guilds as per Buddhist texts.
• Terms such as shreni, nigama, puga, vrata, and sangha are used to refer to such
various kinds of corporate organizations.
• The Vinaya Pitaka mentions the guilds (puga) of Shravasti providing a regular
supply of food for monks and nuns.
• More details about guild organization and activities are available in the Jatakas
(18 guilds).
• The guild normally worked under the leadership of a chief who was elected by its
members.
• The Gautama Dharmasutra enjoins upon the king to consult guild
representatives while dealing with matters concerning guilds
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
महाजनपद के युग में अथवव्यवस्था

Welfare of Members सदस्यों का कल्याण

Money Lending to artisans as per Mathura Inscription

(2nd century AD). A guild member
Functions of Guilds

Undertook works of piety and charity as a matter of had to abide by

duty. both guild and
state laws.
Judicial Functions
However, the
Guild merchants also acted as the custodians of jurisdiction of
religious interests संघ के व्यापारी धाबमि क द्वहतों के संरक्षक के रूप में भी कायव करते थे guild courts was
confined to civil
Many guild chiefs acted as the representative of their cases alone.
members on the local administrative councils.
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
महाजनपद के युग में अथवव्यवस्था

Trade and Trade Routes व्यापार और व्यापार मागव

• Both inland and foreign, was fairly active.

• Dealt in articles like silks, muslin, amour, perfumes, ivory, ivory works and
jewellery etc.
• Merchants travelled up and down the great rivers of the country, and even
undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and
from Broach in the west.
• The two major trans-regional routes:
• The Uttarapatha was the major trans-regional trade route of northern India. It
stretched from the north-west, across the Indo-Gangetic plains, up to the port
of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal.
• The Dakshinapatha stretched from Pataliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on
the Godavari, and was also connected to ports on the western coast.
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas

Coinagev टंकण

• Pali texts contain the first definite references to coins,

e.g., kahapana, nikkha, kamsa, pada, masaka, and
kakanika.
• The literary evidence is corroborated by
archaeological evidence of punch-marked coins
mostlymade of silver. साद्वहस्तिक साक्ष्य की पुद्वि ज्यादातर चांदी से िने
आहत जसक्कों के पुरातास्तत्वक साक्ष्य से होती है
• The beginning of money did not mean the end of
barter system.
• It also ushered in usury (money-lending).
• References to money-lending, instruments of
credit, pawning of possessions, pledging of
wife/children by debtors, and bankruptcy found in
Pali texts.
• Debtors were in fact debarred from joining the
Buddhist sangha until they had paid their debt
Economy During the Age of Mahajanapadas
महाजनपदों के युग में अथवव्यवस्था
Punch-Marked Coins आहत जसक्के

• Also known as Aahat coins, are a type of early, irregular shaped coinage
of India, dating to about the 6th and 2nd centuries BC.
• Numerous punch-marked coins were found in Ai-Khanum hoard at the
Greek site of Ai-Khanum on the Amu-Darya River (the ancient Oxus) in
1970.
• Their characteristic set of five punches was attributed to the Mauryan
emperors and their predecessors, the kings of Magadha.
• Later identified as five series of punch-marked coins with four
punches attributed to the Kosala empire.
• Ashtadhyayi cites that the metallic pieces were stamped (ahata) with
symbols (rupa).
• These weight units were called Ratti, weighing 0.11.
• The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like
the sun, animal motifs, trees, hills etc.; some were geometrical
symbols.
Religion During the Age of Mahajanapadas
महाजनपद युग के दौरान धमव

The sixth century B.C. was an important stage in Indian history for the development of
new religions is concerned.छठी शताब्दी ईसा पूर्व नए धमों के बर्कास के ललए भारतीय इबतहास में एक
महत्वपूणव चरण था।

Opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas Among these Buddhism and Jainism
of the Brahmanas grew, ultimately leading developed into well organised popular
to the emergence of many heterodox religions. इनमें िौद्ध और िैन धमव सुसंगठठत लोकद्वप्रय
religious movements.ब्राह्मणों के कमवकांडर्ादी रूद्वढ़र्ादी धमों के रूप में बर्कजसत हुए।
बर्चारों का बर्रोध िढ़ता गया, अं ततः कई बर्धमी धाबमि क आं दोलनों का
उदय हुआ।
Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
By 350 BC , Magadha emerged to be the most powerful and thus succeeded in
founding an empire. 350 ईसा पूर्व तक मगध सिसे शजक्तशाली िनकर उभरा और इस तरह एक साम्राज्य स्थाद्वपत करने में सफल रहा।
Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
Causes of the Rise of Magadha

Political factors राजनीवतक कारक

• Magadha was governed by capable and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara,

Ajatashatru, and Mahapadmananda.
Geographic factors भौगोललक कारक

• Rajagriha, Magadha's capital, was also known as Girivraja because it was

encircled by a set of five hills that served as a natural fort.
• Pataliputra was known as Jaladurga, being situated at the confluence of the
Ganga, the Gandak, the son, and, the Ghagra, serving as natural defense.
Economic factors आजथि क कारक
• Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha, important for:
• (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile.
Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
मगध साम्राज्य का उदय और ववकास
Causes of the Rise of Magadha मगध के उदय के कारण

Economic factors आजथि क कारक

• Parts of Magadha were forested.
• Elephants, which lived in the forest were captured and trained for the army.
• Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots.
• Iron ore mines in the region could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons.

Reason behind superior weaponry श्रेष्ठ हजथयार के पीछे कारण

• Magadha had achieved superior military technology due to the use of two
weapons, mahashilakantaka and rathamusala.
• Mahashilakantaka: a large sized catapult used for hurling rocks.
• Rathamusala: a chariot fitted with a mace which caused terrific destruction
when driven through the enemy ranks.
Political History of Magadha

Dynasty King/ Ruler Facts related to them

• He was a a contemporary to Buddha and Mahavira.
• His capital was Rajagriha.
• He annexed Anga and followed the policy of
Haryanka matrimonial alliances with Kosala, Vajji and Madra
Dynasty clan of Punjab to consolidate his position. पंिाि के
Bimbisara
हयंक राजवंश कोसल, र्ज्जी और मद्र र्ंश के साथ र्ैर्ाद्वहक गठिंधन की नीबत का पालन
(544-493 B.C.) नकया।
• He sent his famous physician, Jivaka, to the
(560 BCE to neighbouring state of Avanti when its ruler, Chanda
413 BCE) Pradyota fell ill . उसने अपने प्रजसद्ध जचनकत्सक, िीर्क को पडोसी राज्य अर्ंती
में भेिा, िि उसके शासक चंद प्रद्योत िीमार पड गए।
• His son Ajatasatru killed him and became the next
ruler.
Political History of Magadha

Dynasty King/ Ruler Facts related to them

• Pali literature described him ‘Uposatha’ (Buddhist
confession). पाली साद्वहि ने उन्हें 'उपोसथ' के रूप में र्लणि त नकया।
• He was a contemporary to both Mahavira and Buddha.
• He annexed Kosala, Vajji , Kasi and Malla to Magadha.
Haryanka • According to Hiuen Tsang, the fortified capital Rajagriha
was built by Ajatasatru. ह्वेन त्सांग के अनुसार, अिातशत्रु िारा नकलेिंद
Dynasty Ajatasatru रािधानी रािगृह का ननमावण नकया गया था
हयंक राजवंश(493-462 • During his regib, Magadha was able to produce two new
B.C.) weapons of war namely- Mahasilakantaka and
(560 BCE to
Rathamusala. उनके शासनकाल के दौरान, मगध युद्ध के दो नए हजथयारों का
413 BCE) उत्पादन करने में सक्षम था- महाजशलाकंटक और रथमुसला।
• With his patronage the first Buddhist Council was held
under Mahakasyapa at Rajgriha in 483 BC.
• Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son
Udayabhadra/Udayana.
Political History of Magadha मगध का राजनीवतक इवतहास

Dynasty King/ Ruler Facts related to them

• He was the founder of Sisunaga dynasty; he ascended the
Sisunaga
throne after the popular rebellion.
Dynasty
Sisunaga • He shifted his capital to Vaishali.
गशशुनाग • He annexed Avanti and Vatsa to Magadha.
राजवंश • He was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna.
• He shifted capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra.
(430-364
Kalasoka • During his reign, the Second Buddhist Council was held at
B.C.)
Vaishali under Sabakami in 383 BC.
Political History of Magadha मगध का राजनीवतक इवतहास

Dynasty King/ Ruler Facts related to them

• Puranas call him Mahapadma while Mahabodhivamsa
Mahapadma describes his name as Ugrasena.
Nanda Nanda • He completed the work which was started by Bimbisara,
(364-324 महापद्म नंदा made Magadha the most extensive and powerful kingdom
B.C.) in India and ushered in the age of the Empire in this country.
नंदा (364- • He is the last ruler of Nanada Dynasty.
324 ईसा Dhana • Alexander invaded north-western India during his reign and
पूर्)व Nanda reached up to the banks of the Beas.
धना नंदा • Chandra Gupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan
dynasty with the help of Chanakya in 321 BC.
Notes नोट्स
The period c. 600–300 BCE marks the early historical period in north India.600-300 ईसा
पूर्व की अर्जध उत्तर भारत में प्रारंद्वभक ऐबतहाजसक काल को जचद्वित करती है।

It was an age when the increasing social, economic, and political complexities of the
previous centuries manifested themselves in the emergence of cities.

The vast majority of people, however, continued to live in villages. Urbanism created
new socio-economic divisions and elites. हालााँनक, अजधकांश लोगों ने गााँर्ों में रहना िारी रखा। शहरीकरण ने
नए सामाजिक-आजथि क बर्भािन और अद्वभिात र्गव का ननमावण नकया।

The institution of jati (caste) started taking shape. The strengthening of patriarchal
control within the household led to the increasing subordination of women.

These centuries were marked by a remarkable prominence of the ideal of

renunciation and an intense level of philosophical debate and questioning.इन शतास्तब्दयों को
िाग के आदशव की एक उल्लेखनीय प्रमुखता और दाशवननक िहस और पूछताछ के गहन स्तर से जचद्वित नकया गया था।
UPSC Previous Years
Mains Questions
Prelims
1. Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha
(ननम्नललखखत में से कौन से साम्राज्य िुद्ध के िीर्न से िुडे थे)?

1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2 and 4
c) 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 3 and 4
Ans: (C)
Prelims
2. With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very
important role in the country’s economy, which of the following statements is
/are correct? प्राचीन भारत के संघों (श्रेणी) के संदभव में, जजन्होंने देश की अथवव्यवस्था में बहुत महत्वपूणव भूहमका कनभाई,
कनम्नललखखत में से कौन सा/से कथन सही है/हैं?
1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the
king was the chief administrative authority on them.
2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (C)
Thank you
 Latervedicperiod

society

0
Patriarchal family system
Eldest male head of
family talled
I

Grihapati

o
Varna system
Became rigid
10th Mandal of Rigveda a division of society

0 Duties assigned to each varna

Brahmana Trashing Learning

Kshatriya protection of people land
Vaishya a Trade and agriculture
Shudra serve upper three classes

First three varna called Traivamikar

T
Allowed
upnaynas
 people's life divided into Ashrama

concept of
o
Purughartha

duties in life

I
Artha Kame Dharna Moksha
economy pleasure righteousness Liberation

o
systemof marriage

Inter Verna marriage disliked

same marriage Forbidden
gotra
 Two marriage

typed
Andamarriage Pratamarriage
Groom higher varna Groom lower varna
Bride lower varna Bride Higher vara

disliked
T
Control woman

Not
onsidered
good
Positionofwoman

o
status of woman deteriorated

According to Satapatha Brahmana

Husband uncieved statue of God

o
Manusmriti laid restrictions on woman

Asuryaprushya sun can't touch

rays

Antahpura Inner corner of House

o
Prayers for birth of male child

Polity

Expanding territory Janas Janpada

Tribal polity replaced by monarchishaf system

King performed rituals and gave themselves

titles like Samvat Virat and Bhoja
 Popular assemblies lost importance

Rudimentary army emerged

Tax system Bali shulka and Bhaga

o
Bureaucracy

Ratnins officer minister

Increased bureaucratic system

4 complex state
Religion

Religion became very complex

Trinity of worship Prajapati

Vishnu
I Rudra

o
Rigvedic gods lost importance

Sacrifices become more important

I I l
Arramedha Rajaruya vajpeya

Religion f Practioners

Priestly mediation
 Before common people shrdasakarmas
I
16 rituals

17 categories of priests
Vedicliterature

skaters
if smritiliterature

what was heard 4 which was remembere

vedas vedanga
Brahmanas shutras
Aryanakas Puranas
Upnishadas Epic
Dharshand
upreda

V
Four vedas collectively called vedatrayi
Many scholars consider Natya astra or
Mahabharata

1 Rigveda

Earliest vedic literature

Consist hymns
 divided into to Mandala
T
Gayatri Mantra TI'd mandala

Jundt procedure and time for performing

different sacrifices

Krishna Yajurveda
parts
Shukla Yajurveda

3 Samaved
Hymn from Rigveda arranged
in musical form

a
Atharvaveda
Hymn to ward off evil
Believed to be composed by
non aryans
Mention Rudra
Ayurveda
Shrutiliterature

Brahmani
Explaination of hymns of vedas
described various sacrifices and
rituals
Important Brahmans
Aithaveya Brahmana
satapata Brahmana
Gopatha Brahmana

AMMI
deals with philosophical doctrine
mysticism
It means forest books

Uphishad
Literally means sitting at the foot
of to get knowledge
guru
These are referred as Vedanta
There are los upnishadar
Important
kenaf chandogya Samveda
Panna 4 Mundaka Atharva veda
NFatyamera Mundaka upnishada
Jayate
Ahimsa Chandogya upnishada

Influenced
Buddhism 4 Jainism

Vedanta sinha phonetic I Pronounciation

Kalpa Rituals
Vyakarana Grammar
Nivulata Etymology word origin
Chhanda pattern to recite mantra
Jyotisq Astronomy Astrological
aspects
 f
sutras
kalpasutra divided into

Santa sutra deals with rituals like

Asuamedha 4 Rajasuya

Griha Sutra Norms for domestic rituals

Dharma sutra social norms and conduct

Suba Sutra principle to Geometry to

construct sacrificial alter

Parang 18 Puranas
Great source of history

Rise
saga
Pratisarga fall
Parts vansha Genealogy

ranshany charifa Hagiology

They are mythological works to propagate

religious and spiritual message
state project to wright them
o
Ramayana
considered as AdiKavya
Have different versions
written by Valmiki

Mahabhar.at
composed by red Vyasa
contains 100000 verses
Bhagavad Gita
I
Part of Bhishma
parra
 MAHATANAPAD

o
Buddhist and Jaina text mention about
and

Reforgrowthof Mahjanpadas

1
Read taxation

Anthapindaka very rich person

o Sethi's
o
Growth and crop production

2 Democratic growth

3 cities were inhabited by important persons

like physicians merchants ele

4 Resource Fertile area of Ganga Yamuna

51 Use of iron and rice cultivation

 ImportanfMahajanpad

First t
Republic

Features Tolerant to unorthodoxisal seat

Material revolution Iron discovered
Intellectual revolution
Hetrodox sects

Emergence of Brahmi script

Sethi and Ganapati Businessman

Shveni Guilds
con onomwonan

Looked down compared to man

considered incapable of sitting in public
o

patriarchal society

NewProfession

Nata Actor
nataka dancer
Ganika High class prostitute

Guilds Association of merchants undertook

administrative economic's and banking
functions

different names shveni vrata

nigama puga
Sangha etc

TradeRout
Uttarpatha Dakshinapatha
Coinage
punch marked coin

Names Kahapana nikkha Kamsa pada

masaka and Kakanika
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