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Performance Evaluation and Economic Feasibility of a Solar-Biomass

Hybrid Greenhouse Dryer for Drying Banana Slices

Kiburi F.G., Kanali C.L., Kituu G.M., Ajwang P.O., Ronoh E.K.

PII: S1755-0084(20)30036-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2020.06.009
Reference: REF 281

To appear in: Renewable Energy Focus

Received Date: 16 October 2019

Revised Date: 19 November 2019
Accepted Date: 20 June 2020

Please cite this article as: Kiburi FG, Kanali CL, Kituu GM, Ajwang PO, Ronoh EK,
Performance Evaluation and Economic Feasibility of a Solar-Biomass Hybrid Greenhouse
Dryer for Drying Banana Slices, Renewable Energy Focus (2020),
doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2020.06.009

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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

Performance Evaluation and Economic Feasibility of a Solar-Biomass Hybrid Greenhouse
Dryer for Drying Banana Slices
Kiburi F.G.*, Kanali C.L., Kituu G.M., Ajwang P.O. and Ronoh E.K.
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Department, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
*Corresponding author, Email address: florencekiburi@jkuat.ac.ke

Highlights

 There was insignificant difference between drying rates of solar and solar-biomass as well as
biomass and solar-biomass.
 Providing supplemental heat to solar drying in an overcast day raises the drying air temperature

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with magnitudes similar to those achieved on a clear day
 Solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes showed comparable energy and exergy results
 Biomass mode can be used to effectively shorten the drying periods

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 The developed dryer has a low payback period

ABSTRACT

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A greenhouse dryer consisting of drying chamber, drying trays, biomass unit and heat exchanger
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was used in this study. Three energy modes were considered namely solar, biomass and solar-
biomass. The dryer performance was evaluated based on drying air properties, drying rates, energy
efficiency, energy utilization and exergy efficiency. During drying, the temperature difference
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between inside and outside was found to be 12.96±5.25, 8.88±1.38 and 13.21±6.21oC for solar,
biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. This had a corresponding relative humidity
difference of 8.76±8.28, 24.26±8.83 and 27.51±10.24%, respectively. The mean drying rates were
found to be 0.28±0.04, 0.21±0.03 and 0.23±0.06 g/gdm/hour for solar, biomass and solar-biomass
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modes, respectively. The results showed significant difference between means of the drying rates
of banana slices for the three energy modes. Further analysis showed insignificant difference
between drying rates of solar and solar-biomass as well as biomass and solar-biomass. Energy
efficiency and exergy efficiency for solar mode were found to be lower than that of biomass and
solar-biomass modes. In addition, average energy utilization ratio in the greenhouse dryer was
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noted as 35.58±24.78, 40.60±10.52 and 33.46±13.45% for solar, biomass and solar-biomass
modes, respectively. The corresponding average hourly exergy efficiency of drying air was found
to be 64.60±24.78, 59.37±10.52 and 66.50±13.47%, respectively. There was no statistical
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difference between the exergy efficiency of drying air for the three energy modes used. The
payback period of the dryer was found to be <1 year which is lower than expected life of the dryer
(4 years).

Key Words: Banana; Greenhouse dryer; Drying rate; Energy; Exergy

1. Introduction
Bananas are tropical climacteric fruits rich in vitamin B6, vitamin C, dietary fiber, minerals such
as potassium and manganese. Worldwide, banana is a significant crop in enhancing food security

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as it is ranked fourth most important crop after maize, rice and wheat (Viljoen, 2010). In Kenya,
banana is ranked the most important fruit crop among the fruit crops followed by mangoes and
oranges (Kilalo et al., 2009). In counties where bananas are grown, the average production ranges
from 0.3 to 17 tons per hectare depending on farmer’s extent of venture (Rioba and Mwaura, 2018).
Bananas are consumed either ripe or cooked. Recently, studies exploring the various possible
banana products for value addition have been on the rise. Among the products is banana flour
which can be used as a flour substitute especially for gluten free products. Similar to green banana
flesh, the peel is a good source of dietary fiber, antioxidants, polyphenols, essential minerals and
vitamins (Türker et al., 2016). In Kenya, farmers exercise little or no value addition to their
produce at farm level due to knowledge gap and other constraints such as availability of reliable
technologies for use. Consequently, whenever there is an increase in banana supply in the market,
farmers tend to sell the product at low prices to avoid spoilage which would otherwise be disastrous
to them.

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Banana is considered to have high moisture content whether ripe or green. Drying of bananas is
vital so as to reduce their moisture content, prevent microbial spoilage, and reduce bulkiness.

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Additionally, dried products require less packaging, handling and transportation costs as well as
increased shelf life compared to fresh products. Sun drying of bananas as whole, slices or cubes
has been practiced for decades. However, sun drying yields low quality and quantity of products

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as compared to drying systems such as solar dryers (Habwe et al., 2008). Besides, products dried
in uncontrolled systems results in discoloration, loss of flavor, texture and important
micronutrients. At farm level, most of the developed drying technologies for bananas have less
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control on drying parameters such as air flow rate, drying temperature and relative humidity.
Banana farming is a venture that can improve the livelihood of small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan
Africa in general, and in Kenya, mainly by broadening their income sources (Mbuthia et al., 2018).
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Studies have shown growing demand for banana and banana products at local and national levels
(Mbuthia et al., 2018). Currently, the demand for dried banana products even in regions where
banana farming is thriving outweigh the supply due to limited production of dried products. A
study performed by Rioba and Mwaura, (2018) showed that banana value addition improved the
living standard at house hold level, positively impacted on social economic indicators and created
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youth employment opportunities. In Kenya, there currently few established firms dealing with
banana and other fruit drying mainly as cottage industries.

The agro-processing has gained vast interest from small scale entrepreneurs (SMEs) and Counties
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mainly due to the potential in the value chain and readily assessable funds from the government
and private investors. Additionally, banana is among the fruits listed under the national
industrialization policy statement for agro-processing industry in Kenya (Government of Kenya,
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2012). In this regard the government aims at providing incentives in the agro-processing industries
with the aim of creating employment and increasing the value of agricultural products. Further,
due to awareness of the health benefits of gluten free products among consumer’s (Masih and
Sharma, 2016) demand for gluten free products such as dried banana products has been on the
increase. The Ministry of Energy, Kenya, has polices and regulations in favor of renewable energy
sources hence increasing the uptake of these technologies as outlined by Adwek et al., (2019).

Exergy analyses have been widely used as an important instrument to study and optimize various
types of energy systems. Exergy is a powerful tool for advancing the objective of more efficient

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energy-resource use and determining the locations, types, and true magnitudes of wastes and losses
in the drying systems consequently providing optimum drying conditions (Rabha et al., 2017;
Erbay and Hepbasli, 2013). More also, the evaluation of the actual thermodynamic inefficiencies
in any drying system is valuable for enhancing the drying operation as the process is energy
demanding. Application of exergy in the evaluation of drying processes leads to improved and
proper use of energy, reducing not only the operating costs associated to energy but also the impact
of energy on the surrounding environment.

In this study, a solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer developed for drying banana slices was
used. The performance of the system based on drying air parameters, drying rate, energy and
exergy analysis was performed and reported in this work. Further, the economic viability of the
developed dryer was performed and reported.

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2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site

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The solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer was developed at the Department of Agricultural and
Bio-systems Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT).
The site is approximately 10 km West of Thika town and 36 km North East of Nairobi, Kenya.

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The institution is located on latitude 1.0891o south, longitude 37.0105o east and 1460 m above sea
level.
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2.2. Experimental Set Up
The hybrid greenhouse dryer consisting of greenhouse dryer, biomass stove, double duct heat
exchanger and drying trays was designed and developed. The dimensions of the greenhouse dryer
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were 8 m by 4 m by 3.6 m (L*W*H), respectively, and was glazed with ultra violet (UV) stabilized
polythene film of 0.2 mm thick. The dryer was of standard peak even span positioned in an east
west orientation in order to maximize available solar energy throughout the year. The drying tray
had a total effective area of 24 m2 with a banana loading capacity of 240 kg. The biomass stove
had dimensions of 0.48 m by 0.4 m by 0.4 m (L*W*H), respectively, fabricated using a 1.290 mm
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plain aluminum sheet and lagged with fiber glass of 25.4 mm thickness. The study used briquettes
made from charcoal dust as source of fuel. The biomass stove was coupled to a double duct heat
exchanger such that the inner duct conveyed the flue gases and outer ducts had the drying air. The
double duct heat exchanger run across the center of greenhouse dryer with the flue gases exhausted
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via a chimney provided at the end of west side. The drying air was redirected to the drying trays
through ducts that had outlet holes designed to discharge the drying air direct to the product. In
order to maintain a steady flow of air in the duct, a blower of 2378 to 2551 m3/hour
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(FDA250R2/ST, China) was mounted on the biomass heater. Humid air from the dryer was
exhausted to the outside using a fan of 1868 to 2803 m3/hour (FDA250SL, China) mounted on the
west roof of the dryer. The exhaust fan was controlled using a speed regulator (Orient fans, India)
in order to achieve the desired air flow rate. The fans were powered using a solar power system
consisting of a 125 Wp, 24 V PV module (TPS-105S-125W, China) recharging a 100 AH, 24 V
solar battery. A 20 A PWM solar charge controller was used to protect the battery. In addition, a
350 W direct current to alternating current converter (HT-M-350-12, Taiwan) was used for current
conversion. The floor of the dryer was made of black-painted concrete to help increase the

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effectiveness of heat absorption and radiation inside the greenhouse dryer. Figure 1 shows the
schematic diagram of the hybrid greenhouse solar-biomass dryer.

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Figure 1: Schematic of the solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer.

2.3. Sample Procurement and Preparation

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Mature green bananas of four varieties namely Apple Banana (sweet banana), Gros Michel AAA
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(Kampala), Kiganda AAA and Muraru AAA were used in this study. The bananas were obtained
from identified banana farmers in Kiambu and Murang’a Counties, Kenya. The bananas were
harvested and transported to the experimental site with great care to minimize any mechanical
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injuries. On reception, the bananas were inspected for any physical damage and the selected
healthy bananas were washed in clean water to remove any dirt on them. For the pulp drying
(peeled), bananas samples were hand peeled using a clean stainless steel kitchen knife. The peeled
bananas were then sliced into required thickness of 2, 3 or 4 mm, respectively. For unpeeled
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treatments, the bananas were also sliced as for the above procedure. During slicing, the samples
were dipped in pre-treated water which constituted of 0.5% (w/v) sodium meta-bisulphite and
0.5% (w/v) salt. This treatment was necessary for both peeled and unpeeled banana samples in
order to reduce enzymatic browning and microbial growth (Islam et al., 2012). The samples were
removed from the treating water using a colander freely draining as much water as possible. Excess
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moisture on the surface of the banana slices was drained using paper towels. The prepared samples
were then weighed in lots of 500 g using a high precision balance (HZT-A 200, China) with a
precision of ±0.01g. These samples were immediately loaded on the drying trays in a thin layer
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while avoiding overlapping of slices to commence the drying process. Each drying tray was
divided into 24 equal parts and each part randomly held one treatment. The parts were labelled
with the respective treatment before placing the samples on them. Initial moisture content of the
banana slices for both peeled and unpeeled was determined using constant temperature oven
method.

2.4. Experimental Procedure

The experimental runs in the greenhouse dryer were spread from November 2018 to February
2019. The considered period was ideal in order to perform the experiments when the weather

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conditions were most suitable for each mode. Solar drying was performed on 31 st January 2019.
Biomass mode only was performed during the night of 6th February 2019 from 8.00 pm to 6.00 am
when there was no solar radiation. The experiment for combined solar-biomass mode was
performed on a relatively overcast day that experienced intermittent rain (20th November 2018).
Measurements and readings of all required parameters were done between 8.00 am and 6.00 pm
for solar, and solar-biomass modes. Time recording and data acquisition commenced immediately
after loading. An Arduino Mega (ATmega 2560) microcontroller was used for data acquisition
using DHT22 and LDR sensors for temperature humidity and radiation readings, respectively. The
DHT22 sensors are laboratory calibrated with a measurement range of 0-100% (±5%) for humidity
and -40-125oC (±0.2oC) for temperature. The LDR sensors were calibrated using an LI-200R
pyranometer- (LI-200R, U.K.) and were used to measure solar radiation inside and outside the
greenhouse dryer at 2.6 m above the ground level. Twelve DHT22 sensors were used to measure
temperature and humidity inside the greenhouse dryer with each drying bed having three sensors

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placed at the two ends and middle of the bed. Ambient air temperature and humidity were also
recorded using a DHT22 sensor strategically installed outside the greenhouse dryer. Duct surface
temperature was recorded using ASSTech professional series high temperature infra-red

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thermometer (ST677, South Africa). Data collection on weighing of samples was done at three-
hour intervals while other parameters were on hourly basis. Random samples were picked from
the final dried product in order to ascertain the final moisture content using the constant

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temperature oven method. The three energy modes were each tested when the prevailing weather
conditions were most apt so as to eliminate the uncertainty of extreme scenarios. During the solar-
biomass mode 18 kg of biomass were used to provide supplemental heat while for biomass mode
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26 kg of biomass were used.

2.5. Data Analysis

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2.5.1. Drying Rate of Banana Slices

The instantaneous moisture content M, on wet basis (% wb), was evaluated using equation (1). The
drying rate (DR) of banana slices (g/gdm/hour) for each mode was determined according to
equation (2). In the equations, Ww is the amount of moisture removed (g), Wp is the quantity of
product (bananas) to be dried (g), Wdm is total bone dry weight of a sample (g), T is the time of
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drying (hours), and Mo is the initial moisture content (% wb).

𝑊𝑤
𝑀= × 100 (1)
𝑊𝑝
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𝑊𝑝 (𝑀0 −𝑀)
𝐷𝑅 = 𝑇 𝑊 (2)
𝑑𝑚 (100−𝑀)
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Graphs relating inside and outside solar radiation, air temperature and relative humidity for the
respective modes were plotted. Additionally, graphs relating drying rate and time for the different
energy modes were also plotted. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also performed to determine
whether or not there existed significant differences between the drying rates of banana slices when
using the different energy modes. These analyses were carried out using MS Excel 2016TM.

2.5.2. Energy Analysis of the Dryer

The hourly energy input in the solar-biomass hybrid dryer for solar, biomass and solar-biomass
modes was determined using equations (3) to (5), respectively. In the equation, Is is solar radiation

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(W/m2), A is the greenhouse surface area (m2), τ is the transmittance coefficient of the cover
material, ͘mf is fuel mass rate (kg/s), Hv is the heating value of biomass (J/kg), and ηs is the stove
efficiency.

𝐸𝑖𝑛(𝑠) = 𝐼𝑠 𝐴𝜏 (3)
𝐸𝑖𝑛(𝑏) = 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐻𝑣 𝜂𝑠 (4)
𝐸in(𝑠−𝑏) = (𝐼𝑠 𝐴𝜏) + (𝑚̇ 𝑓 𝐻𝑣 𝜂𝑠 ) (5)

The useful heat gained by the drying air from the solar energy, Eu(da) (W) was determined according
to equation (6). In the equation, ͘ ּּma is the mass flow rate of drying air (kg/s), Cpa is the specific
heat capacity of air (J/kgoK), Ta and Tda are ambient and drying air temperatures, respectively (oK)
(Almuhanna, 2012).

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𝐸𝑢(𝑑𝑎) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑑𝑎 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (6)

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Energy efficiency (ηe) was computed according to equation (7). In addition, the energy utilization
ratio (EUR) of the dryer which is given as a ratio of magnitudes of heat utilization by the system
to useful heat gained was evaluated according to equation (8). Tea is the exit air temperature (oK),

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which was determined using the psychometric chart.

𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝜂𝑒 = ( 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ) ∗ 100 (7)
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𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑑𝑎 −𝑇𝑒𝑎 )
EUR = (8)
𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑑𝑎 −𝑇𝑎 )
Graphs of energy efficiency and energy utilization against time were plotted in MS Excel 2016TM.
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2.5.3. Exergy Analysis of the Dryer

Exergy analysis are based on second law of thermodynamics and represents a measure of useful
work performed by a thermodynamic system. The exergy values were thus, computed based on
energy and entropy balances for each sub-system components in the solar-biomass hybrid dryer.
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The exergy input in a system represent the maximum useful energy supplied to the system that
results into a change of the thermodynamic properties of the system or material within the
surrounding of the system. Thus, hourly exergy input, Exrad(input) and output, Exrad(output) (W) due to
solar radiation in the greenhouse dryer was determined using equations (9) and (10), respectively.
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In the equation, Ts is sky temperature (oK) adopted from literature (Panwar et al., 2016).
4 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝐸𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝐸𝑖𝑛(𝑠) [1 − 3 ( 𝑇𝑎) + 3 ( 𝑇𝑎)4 )] (9)
𝑠 𝑠
𝑇𝑎
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𝐸𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝐸𝑢(𝑠) [1 − (𝑇 )] (10)

𝑑𝑎

The hourly exergy input for the biomass mode, Exb(input), (W) and exergy transfer accompanying
heat transfer for biomass mode, Exb(output) (W) was determined using equation (11) and (12),
respectively (Kazanci et al., 2016). In the equation, ɛ is the emissivity coefficient of the duct
material, σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant (W/m2K4), Ad is the duct surface area (m2), and Tdst
denotes the duct surface temperature (oK).

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 𝑇 𝑇𝑑𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑥𝑏(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑑 (𝑇𝑑𝑠𝑡 4 − 𝑇𝑑𝑎 4 )(1 − (𝑇 𝑑𝑎 ) + 𝑚̇𝑑𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑑𝑎𝑑 − 𝑇𝑑𝑎 ) − 𝑇𝑎 𝑙𝑛 ) (11)
𝑑𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑑𝑎
𝑇
𝐸𝑥𝑏(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝐸𝑢(𝑏) (1 − (𝑇 𝑎 )) ( 12)
𝑑𝑎

The exergy input for combined solar-biomass mode, Exs-b(input) (W) and exergy output, Exs-b(output)
(W) was determined according to equations (13) and (14), respectively.

𝐸𝑥𝑠−𝑏(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝐸𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) + 𝐸𝑥𝑏(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) (13)

𝐸𝑥𝑠−𝑏(out𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 𝐸𝑥𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) + 𝐸𝑥𝑏(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) (14)

The hourly exergy potential of the drying air inside the dryer, Exinside(da) (W) and hourly exergy of
the exhausted air Exout(ea) (W) was determined according to equations (15) and (16), respectively.

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𝑇
𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒(𝑑𝑎) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 ((𝑇𝑑𝑎 − 𝑇𝑎 ) − 𝑇𝑎 ln( 𝑇𝑑𝑎) (15)
𝑎
𝑇

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𝐸𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑒𝑎) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑎 ((𝑇𝑒𝑎 − 𝑇𝑎 ) − 𝑇𝑎 ln( 𝑇𝑒𝑎) (16)
𝑎

General form of exergy efficiency was adopted for all energy modes given in equation (17).

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𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑒𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 × 100 (17)

The results were visualized by plotting graphs of exergy efficiency against time using MS Excel
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2016TM. ANOVA was used to determine whether there was any statistical difference between the
exergy efficiency for the three energy modes
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2.5.4. Economic Analysis of the Dryer

For the success and commercialization of any developed technology it is important to establish the
economic viability of the product. In order to judge the economic viability of the developed solar-
biomass greenhouse dryer economic analysis was performed. The total capital cost (Cc),
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annualized capital cost (Cac), annualized salvage value (Sa), annualized cost (Ca), benefit cost ratio
(BCR) and payback period (PBP) all expressed in monetary terms were computed using equations
(18) to (23), respectively, (Sajith and Muraleedharan, 2014). In the equations, Cmf is cost of
materials used for fabrication of dryer, Cl is the labor cost, d is discount rate, n is dryer life span
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(yrs), S is the salvage value, Cm is annualized maintenance cost, Cf is biomass fuel cost.

𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶mf + 𝐶𝑙 (18)
𝑑(1+𝑑)𝑛
𝐶𝑎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 × (1+𝑑)𝑛−1
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(19)
𝑑
𝑆𝑎 = 𝑆 × (1+𝑑)𝑛−1 (20)
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐶𝑎𝑐 + 𝐶𝑚 + 𝐶𝑓 − 𝑆𝑎 (21)
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐵𝐶𝑅 = (22)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑦𝑒𝑟
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐵𝑃 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑠−𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
(23)

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3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Variation of Temperature, Relative Humidity and Solar Radiation
Figure 2 shows the variation of temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation for the solar
mode. It can be seen from the figure that the relative humidity of ambient air decreased with
increase in time due to increased solar radiation. Similar behavior was observed with inside relative
humidity. However, inside relative humidity was lower than outside as a result of temperature rise
in the greenhouse. Additionally, outside solar radiation was higher than recorded inside radiation.
This was attributed to the optic properties of the glazing material used. These observations are in
agreement with observations made by Yassen et al. (2014).
Maximum solar radiation was recorded between noon and 3.00 pm in the day with a corresponding
high value of 896.29 W/m2. During the experiment period, the average hourly solar radiation from
8.00 am to 6.00 pm recorded was 494.01±337.35 W/m2 for the solar mode with an average hourly
temperature and relative humidity difference between the outside and inside the greenhouse dryer

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of 12.96±5.25 and 8.76±8.28%, respectively. During this test period, the dryer had an average
inside temperature of 45.23±9.58oC with a corresponding ambient temperature average of
32.89±5.27oC. Observations of similar magnitudes were made by other scholars (Ayyappan, 2018;

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Yassen et al., 2014; Almuhanna, 2012).

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900 Inside radiation_LS
70 (W/m²)
800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

700 60 Relative Humidity (%) Outside radiation_LS

re Temperature (oC);

(W/m²)
600 50
500 Outside temperature_LS
40 (ᵒC)
400
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30 Average inside
300
temperature_LS (ᵒC)
20
200
Outside relative
100 10
humidity_LS (%)
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0 0
Average inside relative
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
humidity_LS (%)
Time (Hrs)

Figure 2: Variation of temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation with time of the day for
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solar mode.

Comparison of inside and outside relative humidity and temperature during the biomass mode only
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experiments are as shown in Figure 3. During this test period, the dryer had an average inside
temperature of 26.22±4.09oC with a corresponding ambient temperature average of 17.26±2.67oC.
The corresponding average hourly temperature difference between the outside and inside of the
greenhouse dryer was found to be 8.88±1.38oC. In addition, average hourly inside and outside
relative humidity was found to be 68.37±7.26 and 92.57±1.38%, respectively. The corresponding
average hourly relative humidity difference between the outside and inside of the greenhouse dryer
was found to be 24.26±8.83%.

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 35 100
Outside

Relative humidity (%)

Temperature (oC)
temperature_LB (ᵒC)
30 80

25 60 Average inside
temperature_LB (ᵒC)
20 40
Outside relative
15 20 humidity_LB (%)

10 0 Average inside
7:12 PM

9:36 PM

12:00 AM

2:24 AM

4:48 AM

7:12 AM

9:36 AM
relative humidity_LB
Time (Hrs) (%)

Figure 3: Variation of temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation with time of the day for

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biomass mode.

The variation of solar radiation, temperature and relative humidity versus time of the day for the

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solar-biomass mode is shown in Figure 4. The average inside temperature was found to be
34.97±6.59oC with average corresponding ambient temperature of 21.76±1.99oC and average solar
radiation of 192.43±168.80 W/m2. In addition, average hourly temperature and relative humidity

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difference between the outside and inside of the greenhouse dryer was 13.21±6.21oC and
27.51±10.24%, respectively. These observations are in agreement with the findings of Mondru et
al. (2017) who reported solar radiation values of 291.84 - 562.13 W/m2 during the month of
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December in Bapatla, India. With these variations in solar radiation, Mondru et al. (2017) also
reported an increase in greenhouse dryer temperature of 6.3 - 13.2°C compared to ambient air at
no load conditions.
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80
900
70 Inside radiation_LSB
800 (W/m²)
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700 60 Outside radiation_LSB

Solar radiation (W/m2)

(W/m²)
(oC)

600 50
Outside temperature_LSB
Temperature

500 (ᵒC)
40
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400 Average inside

30 temperature_LSB (ᵒC)
300
Outside relative
20
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200 humidity_LSB (%)

100 10 Average inside relative

humidity_LSB (%)
0 0
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
Time (Hrs)

Figure 4: Variation of temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation with time of the day for
solar-biomass mode.

9
3.2. Drying Rate of Banana Slices
The initial moisture content of bananas was found to be 74.1±4.9, 78.3±3.9 and 73.0±5.3% during
the solar, biomass and solar-biomass mode experiments, respectively. After a drying period of 10
hours the moisture content was reduced to 33.52±10.15, 62.4±6.2 and 40.27±9.12% for solar,
biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. The 10-hour period was considered for purposes
of analysis as carrying on with biomass mode on two consecutive nights was not feasible. The
limit was preserving the large quantities of samples involved. Similar results have been made by
Genobiagon Jr. and Alagao (2019). The authors noted that after drying sliced green bananas for
10 hours the moisture content reduced from 78.6 to 33.3% in a clear sunny day when using a solar
cabinet dryer with a heat exchanger. In addition, the moisture content reduced from 78.6 to 38%
in cloudy day. In both experiments, the maximum solar radiation recorded was 1043 W/m2. The
computed average drying rates were found to be 0.28±0.04, 0.21±0.03 and 0.23±0.06 g/gdm/hour
for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. Again these observations are

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comparable to those noted by Genobiagon Jr. and Alagao, (2019). They reported drying rates of
banana slices as 0.27 and 0.32 g/gdm/hour for clear sunny day and cloudy day, respectively.

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Drying rate for the 10-hour drying period of banana slices for the three energy modes was
compared as shown in Figure 5. From the graph, it was observed that the drying rate increased
with increase in drying time during the initial drying period and later decreased as the drying time

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increased. This observation shows that drying took place during increasing and falling rate periods.
At any given period, there was moisture removed because temperature in the greenhouse was
higher than ambient causing the air to require more moisture vapor to become saturated. The solar-
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biomass mode curve shows fluctuations due to variation in solar radiation. Biomass mode behaved
similar to other modes during the increasing period. This is attributed to the fact that during this
period ambient temperatures were relatively higher compared to subsequent drying time. In
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addition, radiation from the concrete floor was also experienced contributing to air heating in the
greenhouse. However, drying rates were lower during the falling rate period compared to other
modes. This is because during this period the ambient temperatures were lower and relative
humidity was high requiring more energy to heat the drying air. Further, during monitoring, cold
air rushes in through the door increasing the heating requirement. Additionally, the heat stored on
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the concrete floor was depleted and the floor was thus a heat sink.

0.35
Average drying rate (g/gdm/hr)
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0.30

0.25

0.20
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0.15
Solar
0.10 Biomass
Solar-Biomass
0.05

0.00
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
Time (Hrs)
Figure 5: Variation of drying rate of banana slices with drying time for the three energy modes.

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Generally, it was observed that the curves for three energy modes did not plateau showing that the
equilibrium moisture content was not reached. Further drying of the product was done for solar
and solar biomass modes and the moisture content achieved after 11 and 13 hours was 16.2±3.6
and 11.4±5.5%, respectively which are good ranges for safe storage. Other studies have reported
longer drying periods of bananas as noted by Ndirangu et al. (2018). In their review of analysis of
designs and performance of existing greenhouse solar dryers in Kenya, the authors noted the
average drying time for bananas was 56 hours with most of the drying occurring in the first 48
hours.

The results of a one-way ANOVA confirmed there was significant difference between the drying
rates of banana slices for the three energy modes used (Fcalc, = 6.55, Fcrit,0.95 = 3.35, Fcrit,0.99 =5.49
and p-value = 0.0048). Further analysis using Bonferroni's method which is a criterion to compare
means from multiple processes was performed at 5% significance level. The results are shown in

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Figure 6. From the chart, comparison of solar and biomass modes did not include a zero indicating
that the means of drying rates of banana slices for the two energy modes are significantly different
from each other. In addition, pairing solar with solar-biomass and biomass with solar-biomass

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showed no significance difference between the drying rate means.

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(Solar) - (Biomass)

(Solar) - (Solar-
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biomass)

(Biomass) - (Solar-
-1.000 -0.500 0.000 0.500 1.000
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biomass)
Confidence Intervals

Figure 6: Bonferroni's confidence interval chart for each pair of treatment levels.
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From these results, it was observed that using biomass as supplemental heat for drying in an
overcast day enhanced moisture removal similar to clear sunny day. In addition, drying rates of
banana slices during the biomass mode compared well to that of solar-biomass mode.
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3.3. Energy Analysis of the Dryer

Figure 7 shows a graph of energy efficiency against time for the three energy modes used in this
study. On the x-axis, the time for solar and solar-biomass was from 8.00 am to 6.00 pm while the
biomass experiment ran from 8.00 pm to 6.00 am. From the figure, the solar mode exhibited the
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least energy efficiency as compared to the biomass and solar-biomass especially during the higher
solar radiation hours. The average energy efficiencies were found to be 2.07±3.58, 3.07±0.65 and
7.23±4.30% for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. The energy efficiency for
solar was lowest because during high solar radiation hours, the amount of solar energy available
was higher than the energy gained in the greenhouse dryer. This is because the whole greenhouse
dryer was considered as large solar collector area and the heat gain was low. Alike observations
were made by Panwar et al. (2016).

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 16
Energy efficicency (%) 14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00
Time (hrs)

solar Biomass Solar-biomass

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Figure 7: Energy efficiency of the greenhouse dryer for the three energy modes used.

The energy utilization ratio (EUR) is a function of drying air temperature as expressed in equation

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(8). Figure 8 shows the variation of EUR against time for the three mode. From the figure, it was
observed that EUR generally decreased with increase in drying time for solar and biomass mode.
However, for the solar-biomass mode there were fluctuations observed due to variations of solar

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radiation experienced during the drying period. In addition, the average EUR was noted as
35.58±24.78, 40.60±10.52 and 33.46±13.45% for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes,
respectively. Similar observation was made while experimenting on a solar cabinet dryer where
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values of EUR varied from 41.56 to 8.57% (Akpinar, 2011).

90
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Solar mode
80
Solar-Biomass mode
Energy utilization ratio

70
Biomass mode
60
50
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40
30
20
10
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0
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
Time (Hrs)
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Figure 8: Variation of energy utilization ratio of drying air against time for the three energy
modes.

3.4. Exergy Analysis of the Dryer

Figure 9 shows a graph of exergy efficiency against time for the three energy modes used in this
study. From the graph, solar mode exhibited the least exergy efficiency as compared to the biomass
and solar-biomass, especially during the higher solar radiation hours. The average exergy
efficiencies were found to be 0.63±0.81, 1.11±0.57 and 2.76±1.44% for solar, biomass and solar-
biomass modes, respectively.

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 6

Exergy efficicency (%)

5
4
3
2
1
0
8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00
Time (hrs)

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solar Biomass Solar-biomass

Figure 9: Exergy efficiency of the greenhouse dryer for the three energy modes used.

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The exergy efficiencies of drying air for the solar-biomass greenhouse dryer against time for the
three energy modes are shown in Figure 10. It was observed that exergy efficiency increased with
the increase of drying time. Solar-biomass had fluctuations as earlier explained in Section 3.3.

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Average hourly exergy efficiency was found to be 64.60±24.78, 59.37±10.52 and 66.50±13.47%
for solar, biomass and solar biomass modes, respectively. Fudholi et al. (2016) noted an exergy
efficiency of 29 to 82% while experimenting catfish drying in a greenhouse solar dryer with heat
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exchanger. The results of a one-way ANOVA confirmed there was no significant difference
between the exergy efficiencies for the three energy modes used (Fcalc, = 0.50, Fcrit,0.95 = 3.32,
Fcrit,0.99 =5.34 and p-value = 0.61).
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100
90
80
Exergetic efficiency (%)

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70
60
50
Solar mode
40
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30 Solar-biomass mode

20 Biomass mode
10
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0
8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00
Time (Hrs)
Figure 10: Variation of exergy efficiency of drying air against time for the three energy modes

3.5. Economic Analysis of the Dryer

Economic analysis of the developed solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer was based on actual
cost incurred and other necessary parameters were taken based on the present-day economic
situation in Kenya as shown in table 1.

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 Table 1: Economic analysis of the solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer
S/No. Item Value Units
1 Capital cost of dryer solar-biomass dyer 600,000 KES.
2 Life span of dryer 4 yrs
3 Capacity of dryer 240 kg
4 Price of fresh green bananas 60 KES. /kg
5 Price of dried banana 300 KES./kg
6 Salvage value 30% of capital cost KES.
7 Maintenance cost 3% of annual cost KES.
8 Cost of briquettes 16 KES./kg
9 Operational labor cost 2000 KES./batch

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*1 USD equals 102.68 KES. (as per 7/11/2019 rates)

The total number of sunshine hours in Nairobi and its environs are reported be about 2,492 hours
as computed from the works of Onyango and Ongoma, (2015). Similar duration was considered

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for biomass mode while for solar-biomass it was presumed that biomass will provide supplemental
heat energy for cloudy hours of about 1,265 hours increasing the drying period to 3,757 hours.
Since banana production is year round and considering the drying periods taken by each mode,

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solar and biomass would result into production batch of 200 batches per annum while solar-
biomass would have 315 batches per annum. The cost benefit ratio for solar, biomass and solar-
biomass modes were found to be 2.32, 1.41 and 2.8 years, respectively indicative of a high positive
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net present value to an investor. The calculated payback period for solar, biomass and solar-
biomass modes was found to be 0.43, 0.70 and 0.35 years respectively. The payback period is short
considering the life span of developed dryer to be 4 years suggesting the dryer to be cost effective.
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Additionally, combination of solar drying with biomass as supplemental heat increases annual
revenue by 147.59% compared to relying solar mode only. These computations outline the
economic viability of the developed solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer.

4. Conclusions
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The temperature differences between inside and outside were found to be 12.96±5.25, 8.88±1.38
and 13.2±6.21oC for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. This had
corresponding relative humidity differences of 8.76±8.28, 24.26±8.83 and 27.51±10.24% for
solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. The mean drying rates were found to be
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0.28±0.04, 0.21±0.03 and 0.23±0.06 g/gdm/hour for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes,
respectively, during a period of 10 hours. Analysis of variance results showed that there was a
significant difference between the drying rates of banana slices for the three energy modes used.
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Further analysis showed that using biomass as supplemental heat source to solar energy during
drying yields comparable drying rates to solar energy. On the other hand, biomass energy drying
rates were comparable to the solar-biomass mode. Energy efficiency and exergy efficiency for the
solar mode were found to be lower than that of biomass and solar-biomass modes. In addition,
energy utilization ratio in the greenhouse dryer varied from 75.76 to 6.49, 56.57 to 23.93 and 53.93
to 14.62% for solar, biomass and solar-biomass modes, respectively. Further, exergy efficiency of
drying air varied from 24.22 to 93.51, 43.40 to 76.05 and 46.00 to 85.36% for solar, biomass and
solar biomass modes, respectively. There was no statistical difference between the exergy
efficiency for the three energy modes used. Accordingly, to save on drying time, night drying can
be performed using biomass and followed by daytime drying using appropriate energy mode. It is
14
important to carry out performance optimization for the three energy modes in order to maximize
the performance of solar-biomass hybrid greenhouse dryer in those modes. The benefit cost ratio
was high (>1) indicating high positive net present value to an investor. Additionally, the payback
period of the developed solar-biomass greenhouse dryer was found to be 0.43, 0.70 and 0.35 years
for solar and solar-biomass modes, respectively, which is shorter period compared to dryer’s
lifespan of 4 years. Use of biomass as supplemental heat source increases annual revenue by
147.59% in reference to solar mode only.

Conflict of Interest and Authorship Conformation Form

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o All authors have participated in (a) conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of
the data; (b) drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and

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(c) approval of the final version.

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This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at, another journal or other
publishing venue.
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o The authors have no affiliation with any organization with a direct or indirect financial
interest in the subject matter discussed in the manuscript
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Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the National Research Fund (NRF) of Kenya and Jomo Kenyatta
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University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) for funding this study.

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