x

A
Report
on
the topic of

GENERAL SEMINAR
on

Characterization of 316L Stainless Steel clad

deposited on mild steel

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering (MMT)
by
JASMEET KAUR
20261A1808

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (A)
Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075
Telangana, India
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CONTENTS

 ABSTRACT

 INTRODUCTION

 REVIEWED LITERATURE

 EXPERIMANTAL PROCEDURES/CASE STUDIES

 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

 CONCLUDING REMARKS

 REFERENCES

 COPY OF SLIDES
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ABSTRACT

The study characterizes 316L stainless steel clad deposited on mild steel, focusing on
dimensional and metallurgical variations, microstructural characteristics, and process
parameters impact. It identifies significant variation in clad thickness, melt pool
penetration, and heat affected zone (HAZ) depth. The research also reports minute
porosities, micro-cracking, and "end-of-track" cracking in the deposited tracks. The
findings, which correlate hardness values with clad thickness, have implications for the
corrosion resistance and overall performance of 316L stainless steel parts, particularly in
repair applications.

Keywords: Characterization, 316L Stainless Steel, Cladding, Mild Steel, HAZ

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INTRODUCTION

The research paper titled "Metallurgical and geometrical characterization of the 316L
stainless steel clad deposited on a mild steel substrate" by R.A. Rahman Rashid, S.
Abaspour, S. Palanisamy, N. Matthews, and M.S. Dargusch, presents an in-depth study on
the metallurgical and geometrical characteristics of 316L stainless steel clad deposited on a
mild steel substrate. The paper provides comprehensive insights into the microstructure,
wear resistance, and corrosion resistance of the clad material, which are crucial aspects in
the field of materials science and engineering. The study was conducted using various
experimental procedures and case studies, and the results were analyzed and discussed in
detail.

Laser Cladding in Metallurgy:

Laser cladding, in the context of metallurgy, is a precision material deposition process that
involves the use of a laser beam to apply a coating or layer of material onto a substrate,
typically a metal component. This technique is employed to enhance the surface properties
of the substrate, such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, or to repair damaged or worn
parts.

During laser cladding, a high-intensity laser beam is focused on the substrate's surface,
creating a molten pool. Simultaneously, a stream of powdered or wire-form material,
known as the cladding material, is introduced into the molten pool. The laser energy melts
both the substrate and the cladding material, allowing them to metallurgically bond and
solidify as a new layer on the substrate.
Process Overview

The laser cladding process involves the following steps:

1. Preparation: The parts to be joined are prepared for the process. This includes
cleaning, deburring, and checking for any defects.

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2. Gas Cladding: The parts are then clad with a gas, typically argon, helium, or a
combination of these gases. This creates a protective layer around the parts that prevents
the laser from directly contacting the material.

3. Laser Welding: A laser is then used to weld the parts together. The laser passes
through the protective layer of gas and the welding takes place on the surface of the part.

4. Post-Welding Treatment: After the laser welding process, the parts are removed
from the protective layer and any necessary post-welding treatments are carried out.

Advantages of Laser Cladding

Laser cladding has several advantages over traditional welding methods:

High Precision: Laser cladding is a high-precision process that can produce high-quality
welds.

Flexibility: Laser cladding can be used to join a wide range of materials, including
metals, ceramics, and composites.

Quality of weld: Very little distortion and dilution, as well as enhanced surface quality
Applications of Laser Cladding

Laser cladding is used in a wide range of applications, including:

Aerospace: Laser cladding is used in the aerospace industry to repair and join parts that
are critical to the structural integrity of aircraft.

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Automotive: In the automotive industry, laser cladding is used to repair and join parts
that are subject to high stress and strain.

Medical: In the medical field, laser cladding is used to repair and join implants and other
devices.

Laser cladding is a powerful and versatile process that is used in a wide range of
industries. It offers high precision, flexibility, and non-destructiveness, making it an
excellent choice for repairing and joining parts in many applications.

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316L Stainless Steel

316L stainless steel is a strong, durable, and corrosion-resistant alloy of stainless steel. It is
one of the most widely used materials in commercial and industrial applications due to its
strength and resistance to rusting.

Composition

316L stainless steel consists mainly of iron with additional chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and manganese. The higher levels of these
elements make the alloy impervious to corrosion from salt water or other chemicals. It also
has a low carbon content which helps to reduce the risk of intergranular corrosion when
heated or welded.
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Properties

316L stainless steel is a low carbon steel that has been extra-low intergranular corrosion
resistant. It is used in many industrial and marine applications where resistance to pitting
from chloride solutions is required. It is also known as marine-grade stainless steel due to
its increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to type 304 stainless steel.

Physical and Mechanical Properties

316L Stainless Steel has many impressive physical properties that make it an essential
material in a variety of industries. Its incredible corrosion resistance makes it ideal for use
in a marine environment or when exposed to harsh chemicals. Inconel sheet is also
incredibly durable and can handle extreme temperatures without losing its structural
integrity. Additionally, 316L Stainless Steel can maintain its strength in both hot and cold
temperatures, making it useful for applications that experience extreme temperature
fluctuation.

UNS S31603 has a high concentration of chromium for corrosion resistance and extremely
low magnetic permeability, allowing it to offer superior protection against rust and ideal
thermal stability in various environments. In addition, 316L stainless steel can be easily
welded with most conventional methods while also being able to be machined into
complex shapes. It is commonly used in industrial process equipment due to its strength
and dependability under extreme conditions.

Uses

316L stainless steel is widely used in various industries due to its excellent corrosion
resistance and high strength. It is used in medical equipment such as surgical instruments
and kitchenware like pots and pans because it won’t corrode from exposure to food or
liquids. It’s also used in marine applications since its high level of resistance to corrosion
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means it won’t be affected by saltwater or other harsh environments.

Conclusion

316L stainless steel is a versatile and widely used material known for its excellent
corrosion resistance and high strength. It is a member of the austenitic stainless-steel
family and primarily consists of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum. Due to its
exceptional combination of qualities, this steel grade is extensively utilized in various
industries, including manufacturing, construction, food processing, and medical equipment.

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REVIEWED LITERATURE

Didier Boisselier et al (2012). Laser Direct Metal Deposition (LDMD) is a rapid

manufacturing technique used for the construction of new parts or repairing worn parts.
The process is dependent on various parameters, with the characteristics of the powder
being one of the most crucial. The size and other properties of the powder directly impact
the process behavior and the mechanical properties of the manufactured component. This
study focuses on the investigation of powder characteristics to better understand their
influence. Different batches of stainless steel AISI316 were analyzed and characterized
before processing. The results from the manufactured samples were discussed, highlighting
the influence of the main powder characteristics and demonstrating the flexibility of the
process when the powders meet the specifications.

Youxiang Chew et al (2016). Laser clad specimens were created to study the axial fatigue
failure behavior of laser clad 4340 steel. Three types of laser clad fatigue test specimens
were used: Type I investigates the clad weld toe region, Type II evaluates fatigue strength
enhancement through pre-clad machining and post-clad surface grinding, and Type III
studies clad specimens with extended clad area and surface grinding. The fatigue S-N
curves for these specimens were compared with the substrate specimens. The fatigue
strength of all laser-clad specimens was found to be lower than the unclad substrate
specimen.

Hamidreza Alemohammad et al (2007). Laser cladding of a Co-Ti alloy on a mild steel

substrate was studied, using premixed powders with 85wt% cobalt and 15wt% titanium.
The clad layer's characteristics were examined using optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction
(XRD), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and microhardness tests. The results
showed the formation of the intermetallic phase TiCo3 and β (i.e., fcc) cobalt in the clad
layer. The clad layer's dilution from the substrate varied with laser scanning velocity.

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Higher laser velocities resulted in a finer microstructure, while lower velocities led to
higher hardness due to the formation of a larger fraction of the TiCo3 phase.

Da-Wei Zhang et al (2001). The wear resistance of stainless-steel components was

enhanced by studying the wear behavior of a Ni-Cr3C2 composite coating laser-clad on a
mild steel substrate. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron
microscopy, and pin-on-ring wear tests were used. The composite coating's microhardness
increased with added carbide amounts. The Cr3C2 particles' partial dissolution in the
melted pool led to carbon and chromium enrichment in the matrix, causing the formation
of Cr7C3, M23(C, B)6, and more CrB in the solidifying structures. The Ni-Cr3C2
composite coating demonstrated higher wear resistance than a single Ni alloy coating under
dry sliding wear conditions, due to the formation of more hard chromium-containing
carbides or borides in the Ni alloy matrix resulting from the dissolution of Cr3C2 particles.

Mani Jayavelu et al (2023). This study aimed to examine the microstructure and wear
resistance of AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel (ASS) cladding deposited on mild steel
(MS) using the constant current (CC-GMAW) gas metal arc welding process. The cladded
region's microstructure was analyzed using optical microscopy (OM), and the wear rate
was studied using the pin-on-disc method and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The
results revealed that the CC-GMAW cladded surface exhibited greater hardness and wear
resistance than the mild steel substrate. The overlay region showed the evolution of
dendritic structures and columnar grains, and the cladding showed martensite laths and
Widmanstätten ferrite plates microstructure in the HAZ region closer to the interface. The
wear rate increased with load, speed, and temperature.

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES/CASE STUDIES

Materials

The study used gas-atomized 316L stainless steel powder from Sulzer Metco. The majority
of the powder particles were spherical with a particle size ranging from 45 to 106 μm. The
powder was chemically homogeneous, as observed through backscatter electron imaging.

A mild steel plate of dimensions 100 × 100 × 25 mm was used as the substrate. The
substrate was sandblasted and cleaned with ethanol before the deposition trials. The
microstructure of the substrate plate consisted of ferrite (α) and pearlite (α + Fe3C) grains.
The hardness of the mild steel plate was 160 ± 20 HV0.3.

Process

Laser cladding was conducted on a 5 kW Trumpf POM505 direct metal deposition

machine. The powder was delivered through a coaxial nozzle with a clearance of 0.55 mm
using a carrier gas of argon (Ar) and helium (He). To prevent oxidation, Ar was delivered
as a shielding gas at a flow rate of 2 l/min. Four single-layered 316 stainless steel tracks of
varying clad thicknesses were deposited on the mild steel plate, with each track 90 mm in
length.

The process parameters used to deposit these tracks were established in preliminary
cladding trials and were found to produce a good metallurgical bond between the 316
stainless steel clad and the mild steel substrate. The distance between the laser head and the
mild steel plate was kept constant at 20 mm.

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Analysis

Samples from the start (S), middle (M), and end (E) of each track were cut to study the
transverse cross-section of the clad. The remaining sections of the tracks were cut across
the center (approximately) of the clad to study the longitudinal cross-section of each track.
The specimens were etched twice; first using Nital solution (2 ml HNO3 and 96 ml
Ethanol) for the mild steel substrate, then with Struers V2A solution (100 ml HCl, 10 ml
HNO3, and 100 ml H2O) for etching the clad.

The microstructures were examined under the Olympus BX-61 optical microscope. The
surface of the as-cladded tracks were inspected using a Gemini SUPRA 40VP scanning
electron microscope. The dimensions of the transverse section of the clad were measured
as depicted in Fig. 2(a), where tc is the clad thickness, wc is the width of the clad, dp is the
depth of penetration of the clad, lHAZ is the length of the heat affected zone (HAZ) on the
substrate, and dHAZ is the depth of the HAZ below the clad region.

The dimensions of the longitudinal section of the clad were measured as depicted in Fig.
2(b) where tc-total indicates the total clad length including the clad thickness (tc) and depth
of clad penetration (dp). The microhardness of the samples was measured using Vickers
indenter by applying 300 gf load for a dwell time of 12 s. At least three measurements were
taken and the average was reported for each data point.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Clad dimensions

The study conducted a detailed analysis of the laser cladding process, focusing on the
observations of the cladding dimensions and metallurgical characteristics of the 316L
stainless steel tracks cladded onto a mild steel substrate. The study found that the clad
dimensions were dependent on the laser spot size and the powder feed rate.

The width of the clad (wc) in T0.25 and T0.5 tracks was mostly constant, approximately
1.9 mm. The T1 track had a higher wc in the middle region (2.35 mm) compared to the
start and end (~2.05 mm). The T1# track showed a higher wc at the start (2.97 mm) than in
the middle and end (~2.8 mm). The wc for T0.25 and T0.5 was smaller than the laser spot
size (2 mm), while the wc for T1 and T1# was larger. The powder feed rate affected the
clad width, with high feed rates resulting in a wider clad.

The thickness of the clad (tc) was found to be directly proportional to the powder feed rate,
less affected by the laser power. The tc was inversely proportional to the scan speed; a
lower speed increased the tc. The tc slightly increased from the start to the end of the tracks
due to heat accumulation and reduced dilution. The depth of penetration of the melt pool
(dp) varied across tracks, with not much change along the track length. The dp/tc ratios
varied, indicating the effects of the powder feed rate and laser power.

The cladding conditions affected the dilution; higher dilution for T0.25 and T0.5 was due
to a low feed rate. The study found an inverse relationship between the average dilution
(D) and the specific energy (SE) during deposition. The dilution remained mostly constant
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along the track, slightly lower at the end. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) depth (dHAZ)
varied across tracks, with more variation in T0.5 and T1.

The study also observed that the profile of the tracks along the longitudinal cross-section
was unique. Three distinctive regions, Zone A, B, and C, were observed in the clad height
profiles. Zone A represented a sharp increase at the beginning of the track till about 15 mm
in length; Zone B represented a plateau in the middle region between 15 and 75 mm in
length; followed by Zone C representing a gradual increase before reaching a peak value
around 85 mm and then a sudden decrease till the end of the track.

The study also observed that the incidence and peak intensity of element lines increase
with increasing laser power. The observed correlation between the laser power, the powder
feed rate, and the scan velocity on the one hand and the line intensity on the other hand
opens an interesting aspect: The measurement of a line or spectrum intensity could be used
for dynamic process control. A first analysis of cross-sections revealed a certain
dependency of the cladding dilution and the type of observed spectrum. The footprint of
full spectra may be suitable for an indirect in-line detection or monitoring of the
composition of the laser-molten powder material. This approach seems to be promising for
avoiding the deposition of non-stoichiometric layers.

In conclusion, the study provides a detailed analysis of the laser cladding process, focusing
on the observations of the cladding dimensions and metallurgical characteristics of the
316L stainless steel tracks cladded onto a mild steel substrate. The study found that the
clad dimensions were dependent on the laser spot size and the powder feed rate, the
thickness of the clad was directly proportional to the powder feed rate and inversely
proportional to the scan speed, and the depth of penetration of the melt pool varied with the
cladding conditions. The study also observed that the profile of the tracks along the
longitudinal cross-section was unique, with three distinctive regions observed in the clad
height profiles. The study also observed that the incidence and peak intensity of element
lines increase with increasing laser power, and the measurement of a line or spectrum
intensity could be used for dynamic process control.

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Fig. 3. Dimensions of the clad from start (S), middle (M), and end (E) sections of the tracks; (a) clad
width (wc), (b) clad thickness above the substrate level (tc), (c) depth of penetration of the clad melt

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pool (dp), (d) dilution, (e) depth of the heat affected zone (dHAZ), and (f) length of the HAZ along the
substrate level (lHAZ).

Microstructure of the clad-substrate regions

A detailed microstructural examination of 316 stainless steel clads was conducted. The
cladding process, known as laser cladding, results in a fine homogeneous austenitic grain
structure. The grain structure is equiaxed in the mid-section, while long columnar grains
are observed near the clad-substrate interface. This is due to the rapid melting and
instantaneous resolidification of the clad-substrate melt pool during the laser cladding
process.

The top clad regions comprise very fine equiaxed grains and several medium-length
columnar grain areas. The mid-segment of the clads consists of a uniform distribution of
the homogeneous equiaxed austenite grains. The presence of long-length columnar grains
is higher than the equiaxed grains closer to the clad-substrate interface. This is due to the
unmelted substrate acting as a heat sink, promoting the growth of columnar grains.

In the heat-affected zone (HAZ), a gradual change in the phases of the mild steel substrate
is observed. This is due to the temperature gradient produced across the clad and the
substrate. Martensite laths and Widmanstätten ferrite plates are observed very close to the
interface. As we advance into the HAZ region from the martensitic region, there is a
presence of fine bainite structure along with the ferrite grains. Coarse bainite along with
ferrite grains is found further away from the clad-substrate interface. At the end of the
HAZ region, a small strip of mostly ferrite grains with no bainite or pearlite is observed.

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Fig. 6. Microstructural examination of the (a) heat affected zone (HAZ) formed in the mid-region of
track T1# showing; (b) martensite-dominant phase formed in the close proximity of the clad-substrate
interface; followed by (c) bainitic phase formation and then (d) coarse bainite grains mixed with
homogeneous ferrite grains

Fig. 5. Microstructure of the 316 stainless steel clad; (a) clad overview consisting of (b) uniform
distribution of equiaxed austenite grains in the centre and top portions of the clad regions with few

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medium-length columnar grains, and (c) long-length columnar grains along with equiaxed austenite
grains in the vicinity of the cladsubstrate interface.

Microhardness

The microhardness profiles of tracks T0.5 and T1# were observed to show distinct
hardness values. For T0.5, the hardness ranged between 400 and 450 HV, with the end of
the track showing slightly higher hardness than the start and center. This is attributed to the

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rapid solidification of the reduced volume of the clad-substrate melt pool towards the end
of the deposition of the track. The hardness of the HAZ region decreased from about 380
HV near the clad-substrate interface to 200 HV closer to the unaffected substrate.

On the other hand, the hardness of T1# was between 320 and 380 HV. The hardness was
marginally higher at the start of the track than the mid region of T1#. The end of T1#
showed significantly reduced hardness closer to the interface, which can be attributed to
the higher proportion of columnar grains formed near the clad-substrate interface. The
hardness of HAZ in close proximity of clad-substrate interface increased to about 390 HV,
then rapidly decreased to about 200 HV in a span of 1.2 mm. The initial increase in the
hardness of HAZ can be attributed to the higher proportion of martensite laths formed
closer to the clad-substrate interface.

The difference in hardness between T0.5 and T1# can be related to the different cooling
rates of the melt pool due to varying scan speeds. The formation of equiaxed and columnar
grains in 316 stainless steel laser deposited onto A3 steel plate is strongly dependent on the
relationship between solidification velocity and the temperature gradient within the rapidly
solidifying melt pool.

In a multi-layer deposition of the 316L stainless steel powder on a mild steel substrate, the
hardness of cladded layers was significantly higher than that obtained via conventional
processing routes. They attributed the increased hardness of clad layers to the formation of
cellular austenite grains of the stainless-steel material with an average grain size of 10 μm.
The average grain size of the equiaxed grains in the clad was about 4–8 μm, which directly
corresponds to the considerably high hardness values obtained.

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Fig. 7. Hardness profile of (a) T0.5, and (b) T1# from the clad through to the substrate at three
different locations along the track, start (S), middle (M) and end (E)

Fig. 8. (a) Trapped mild steel substrate material whipped into the 316 stainless steel clad at the
interface, and (b) overview of the clad with a trail of substrate-rich material formed through the clad

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thickness (Arrows pointing towards the substrate-rich trails)

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Substrate-Rich Trails

The microstructure of clad materials was primarily composed of austenite grains from 316
stainless steel. Occasionally, a small volume of mild steel melt was incorporated into the
clad, resulting in trails of mild steel within the clad. This phenomenon was particularly
noticeable in clads with smaller melt volumes due to high scan speeds, causing the
substrate material to be pulled into the clad region. The random occurrence of these trails
suggests a need for further understanding of localized melt pool dynamics.

Fig. 9. (a) Presence of a pore at the end

of the clad track, and (b) Entrapped
porosity in the as-received 316L
stainless steel powder

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Residual thermal stress and end of track cracking

The report discusses the formation of cracks in deposited tracks due to substrate-rich trails
and porosities. The cracks are categorized into two types: coarse, rounded-edge cracks
formed due to large porosities, and sharp-edged, tear-like shrinkage cracks that occur
during rapid melting and resolidification of steels.

The sharp-edged cracks are often formed along the boundaries of austenite grains,
including those of different grain orientations. This is due to the reduced volume of the
clad melt pool, which results in a decrease in liquid feeding during solidification.

The presence of substrate-rich trails, formed randomly along the track's length, can also
contribute to crack formation. The variation in the metallurgical composition near these
trails can lead to incompatibility of thermal contraction during solidification, thereby
triggering crack formation.

The report also mentions the possibility of cracks being formed along regions of high
impurity concentration. In one case, a marginal amount of substrate-rich material was
found in close proximity to the cracks.

Additionally, the report discusses the presence of residual thermal stress on the surface of
the clads due to the high solidification rates of the laser cladding process. This stress,
usually compressive, can promote micro-cracking on the surface of the clads.

Lastly, the report notes the presence of partially fused powder particles on the surface of
the tracks, which can form an interface with a dendritic microstructure and withdraw heat
from the clad surface, leading to an increase in thermal stresses and the formation of long
and deeper cracks.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

1. The study found three distinct zones along the length of the track: Zone A with a sharp
increase in thickness at the start, Zone B with a constant thickness region, and Zone C with
a sudden decrease in thickness towards the end.

2. Dilution decreases slightly at the end of the deposited tracks due to reduced melt pool
volume.

3. An exponential correlation was discovered between the specific energy during laser
material deposition and the dimensionless parameter, dHAZ / dp + tc.

4. The microstructures of the clads consisted of uniformly distributed equiaxed austenitic

grains with a high proportion of columnar grains near the clad-substrate interface.

5. The HAZ region consisted of martensitic laths and Widmanstätten ferrite phases in close
proximity to the clad-substrate interface, followed by fine bainite plus ferrite and coarse
bainite plus ferrite phases above the unaffected part of the substrate.

6. Hardness values as high as 400–450 HV and 320–380 HV in clads of thicknesses 0.5

mm and 1 mm, respectively, were measured due to the presence of fine austenitic grains of
size ranging between 4 and 8 μm.

7. End-of-track cracking was observed in the deposited tracks, which was explained by
several theories including the presence of minute porosities inherent in the powder
particles, shrinkage cracks at the boundaries of grains growing in different orientations,
substrate material being stirred up into the clad melt pool creating substrate-rich trails, and
a combination of gas pores and inconsistency in substrate material solidification.

8. Micro-cracking on the surface of the clads was observed due to residual thermal stresses
developed by the very high rates of surface solidification.

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