RADIO INSTRUMENTS

SL INST BAND AND PRINCIPLE ACCURACY WORKING ERRORS AND

NO FREQUENCY RANGE LIMITATION
1. ADF UPR LF & LWR MF BEARING BY +/- 5obeyond -Sense=Omnidirectional antenna. Receive signal from all -NIGHT
(A1A/A2A) 190 – 1750 KHZ LOOP THEORY 70 nm. directions. Polar Dig CIRCLE. -QUADRANTAL
HECTOMETRIC +/- 2o upto 70 -Loop=Rotating Antenna. Directional Property Polar Dig figure -COSTAL
SURFACE WAVE
AIRCRAFT nm. of EIGHT. -STATION
-To reduce the ambiguity, we combine the reception of both INTERFEENCE
the antenna and make a CARDIOID. Which removes the -STATIC
confusion of 180o. -LACK OF
-Hdg Increases, Relative Bearing Decreases. FALIURE WARN.
-ADF reading 360o to the Station, 180o from the station.
-RB = 360 – Right Drift, RB = 360 + Left Drift.(for TO)
-RB = 180 + Right Drift, RB = 180 - Left Drift.(for FROM)
-Don’t take track for Numerical Purpose.
2. NDB UPR LF & LWR MF BEARING BY R=2√PWR LAND -Types:
(A1A/A2A) 190 – 450 KHZ LOOP THEORY R=3√PWR SEA -Low Pwr 10-25 nm=Fan shaped marker used for locator
GROUND beacon.
-Med Pwr 25-50 nm=Homing and holding.
-High Pwr 50-250nm=Enroute Nav.
-Factors effecting Range:
-Pwr of Tx=Range ∝ √PWR-Freq increases, Range Decreases.
-Day Less range, Night More range.
-Plain area More Range, Hilly area Les Range & Sea Max Range
3. VDF (A3E) VHF, 118 – 135 MHZ BEARING BY -There is no special equipment, we only need VHF.
METRIC ADCOCK -Class:-Class A = +/- 2o. -Class B = +/- 5o. -Class C = +/-10o.
AERIAL -Class D = Accuracy less than Class C. But DEV more than 10o.
4. DVOR(A9W) VHF, 108 – 117.95 MHZ BEARING BY +/- 5 o -It has 51 antennas. -AIRBORNE
METRIC 108 – 112 MHZ PHASE 95% TIMES BY -Reference antenna = 30Hz AM, center antenna. EQUIPMENT.
EVEN DECIMALS. COMPARISION DAY / NIGHT -Variable antenna = 30Hz FM, 50 antennas. -SCALLOPING.
-We cannot identify which VOR we and using in A/c, it is (PROPAGATION)
mentioned in the Charts. -AGGREGATE
-Removes Site Error. -PILOTAGE.
5. ILS(A8W) VHF, 108 – 112 MHZ BEARING BY LOCALIZER: -LOCALIZER:
-METRIC LOC ODD DECIMALS.(40 CH) LOBE 25NM 10oSIDE -Bearing By Lobe Comparisons.
-DECIMETRIC GS = UHF,329–335MHZ COMPARISION 17NM 35oSIDE -We are following Line of Equal Signal for zero DDM (Diff. in Depth
G/S (Difference in GLIDE SLOPE: Modulation), both lobes are in same strength but Diff Modulation.
Depth .45θ TO 1.75θ 150Hz Right Blue, 90Hz Left Yellow.
Modulation) θ = Glide Slope -Full Scale Deflection 2.5o, Elevation 7o.
Angle. -GLIDE SLOPE:
-150Hz Down Blue, 90Hz Up Yellow.
-8o left or right from the center line 10 nm.
- Full Scale Deflection 0.7o.
-MARKERS:
-Tx Vertical Polarized signal up to 3000ft, they are Fan shaped.
-OM=75 MHZ, 400 HZ, BLUE, 3.5 – 6NM.
-MM=75 MHZ, 1300 HZ, AMBER, 0.6NM.
-IM=75 MHZ, 3000HZ, WHITE, 250 to 1500 FT.
-ILS Reference Datum:
-It is a point at which Localizer and Glide Slope cut each other.
-It is 50ft above threshold and is mentioned in AIP.
False Glide Slope:
-Due to Arial Propagation Characteristic turn lobe pattern of G/s
appears multiple times 1 above the other.3o, 6 o, 9 o, 12 o…
-Ht above OM is More. -Localizer Failure warning may come.
-ROD to maintain the G/S will be steeper.
6. VOR (A9W) VHF, 108 – 117.95 MHZ BEARING BY +/- 5 o -Reference=Aligned to Mag North, Tx 30Hz FM. -SITE.
METRIC 108 – 112 MHZ PHASE 95% TIMES BY -Variable=Rotating antenna around Reference antenna 30 cycles in a -AIRBORNE
EVEN DECIMALS. COMPARISION DAY / NIGHT second, Tx 30Hz AM. EQUIPMENT.
(Ref Signal–Variable Signal = Phase Diff./QDR) -SCALLOPING.
-Dif. Between Reference and Variable is called Radial. (QDR) (PROPAGATION)
-Equipment: -AGGREGATE
-OBS=Omni Bearing Selector, you can select any 360o Radial. -PILOTAGE.
-To/From:
-Present Radial and Selected Radial is within 90o FROM.
-Present Radial and Selected Radial is more than 90o TO.
-CDI=deflection Left or Right, full scale Deflection 10o.
- Don’t take Hdg for Numerical Purpose.
-Cone of Confusion:
-Due to horizontally Polarized signals transmission is below 60o to
80o, so we are unable to Rx signal overhead VOR.
-To/From indicator show To or From.
-CDI flicker Left to Right or Right to Left.
-Failure flag may also flicker.
BASIC RADIO: PROPAGATION:
2 COMPONENTS: -Travelling of radio wave in medium is called Propagation.
-Electrical Component.
-Magnetic Component. SURFACE WAVE
-Both are perpendicular to each other and eletrical will decide polarisation. -Radio wave propagating with the help of Ground.
-Range is more on sea than on land, sea is a better conductor.
PROPERTY OF RADIO WAVE: -Freq increase attenuation increase range decrease wavelenght decrease.
-It travels with the Speed of light. ( 3x108 m/s)
-It follows Great Circle path. SKY WAVE
-When radio wave travell from dencer(Land) to rare(SEA) medium it will -Radio wave which is received by reflection of radio wave.
acclerate and bend away fromNORMAL. -Inosphere: Layer of negetivly charged atoms due to UV rays.
-When radio wave travell from rare(SEA) to dencer(Land) medium it will de- -When UV rays are max, Inospheric Density is max, Sun at the meridian.
acclerate and bend towards NORMAL. - Range = 143√Ht of Reflecting Layer (km)
-Inosphere is divided into 3 layers:
COMPONENTS OF RADIO WAVE: -D layer: 80 – 100 km.(dissapears in Night)
-Wavelength = Dist travelled b/w 2 similar or adjecent point.(meter) -E layer: 100 – 150 km.
-Frequency = No. of cycle/second. -F layer: 150 – 350 km.
-Amplitude = Max displacement from Mean Position. -Skip Distance: The Distance travelled b/w the Tx and the place where first
-Phase = Position of radio wave in cycle. reflected Sky Wave is received.
-Cycle = One complete set of event from 0o to 360o. -Dead Space: It is the space where end of Ground wave and first reflected Sky
- C = f x λ.-C=3x108 m/s, -f=Frequency (Hz),- λ=Wavelength(meters). Wave is received.(Skip Zone)
-Critical Angle: It is the highest Angle of Incidence above which no reflection is
FADING received.
-Sudden Increase or Decrease in signal strength. -Critical Freq: It is the highest Freq above which no reflection is received.(30
-Max at Dawn and Dusk. Mhz we need 90o Critical Angle)
-It is overcome by AVC (Automatic Volume Control) and AGC (Automatic Gate -Attenuation: It is the absorption of Radio Wave by Medium.
Control).
-Modulation: Super Impose of Information on Carrier Wave. SPACE WAVE
-AM: Change in Amplitude in accordance with information by Freq remains -The radio wave travelling direct from Tx to Rx.
same. -Range(nm)=1.25(√Ht of Tx + √Ht of Rx).(Ht in ft)
-FM: Change in Freq in accordance with information by Amplitude remains -Range is less coz of curvature of Earth and it follows Line of Sight Propagation.
same. -Free from Static Interference.

-QDM= Mag Bearing of A/c TO the station.

ADF Tuning Identification -QDR= Mag Bearing of A/c FROM the station.
-NON A1A (unmodulated) (not A1A BFO ON BFO ON -QTE= True Bearing of A/c FROM the station.
audible) to make it audible we use A2A BFO ON BFO OFF -QUJ= True Bearing of A/c TO the station.
BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator). -Relative Bearing + Hdg (M) = QDM.
VOR (VOT)
GROUND IN AIR
-Tune to VOT freq. -Tune to VOT freq. -Tune to VOT freq. -Tune to VOT freq.
-Select OBS 360o. -Select OBS 180o. -Select OBS 360o. -Select OBS 180o.
-CDI = Center. -CDI = Center. -CDI = Center. -CDI = Center.
-To/From = From. -To/From = To. -To/From = From. -To/From = To.
-Max Tolerance = +/- 4o. -Max Tolerance = +/- 4o. -Max Tolerance = +/- 6o. -Max Tolerance = +/- 6o.

CAT OF ILS
SL NO. CATERORY RVR DH
1. CAT I 550 m 200 ft (Barometric Alt)
2. CAT II 350 m 100 ft (Radio Alt)
3. CAT III A 200 m 50 ft (Radio Alt)
4. CAT III B 75 m 0 ft (Radio Alt)
 RADAR INSTRUMENTS (Pg 1)
SL INST BAND AND PRINCIPLE ACCURACY WORKING ERRORS AND
NO FREQUENCY RANGE LIMITATION
1. DME UHF, 960 – 1213 MHZ SECONDARY +/-0.25NM + -It is the Short Range Nav System and give you Slant Range.
DECIMETRIC RADAR 1.25% OF -In DME Ground is Transponder and A/c is Interrogator.
RANGE -the Txing and Rxing freq. has a difference of 63Mhz to avoid
SELF TRIGRING.
-Can handle 100 a/c at a time.
-To identify each A/c DME gives Unique code to each A/c.
-It also uses the principle of random PRF TECH.
-When A/c is over head the DME it gives you Ht in NM at this
time error is Max.
-DME error is negligible when A/c is at or less than 1000ft/nm.
-Formula: {(A2+B2)=C2}
-DME/DME FIX=Most Accurate. (Rho-Rho)
-DME/VOR FIX=Less Accurate. (Rho- θ)
-VOR/VOR FIX=Least Accurate. (θ - θ)
2. AWR SHF, 9375MHZ/ 10 GHZ SEARCH LIGHT 150 NM -ECHO principle for range, search light for Bearing.
CENTIMETRIC AND ECHO 300 NM (EFIS) -Ground Mapping:
PRINCIPLE -In this we use fan shaped beam. It requires more energy for
more distance coz of which it is called Cosec2 Beam.
-Weather Radar:
-It is req to point/map the weather.
- It uses pencil beam. Range is more than 70nm to 350nm.
-No Info from CAT and Dry Snow.
-Reflection from precipitation is shown, the amount of
precipitation will tell you amount of Turbulence.
-Screen Display:
-BLACK=No precipitation or Off -GREEN=Light precipitation.
-YELLOW=Moderate Precipitation -RED=Heavy precipitation.
-MEGENTA=Extremely high Precipitation.
-Black surrounded by White shows Extremely high
Precipitation in a Black and White AWR.
-STRAIGHT LINE MEANS AWR IS NOT WORKING.
Ht of Base Cloud=[{A/c tilt – (I/2 Beam Width)}x Range x 100]
 RADAR INSTRUMENTS (Pg 2)
SL INST BAND AND PRINCIPLE ACCURACY WORKING ERRORS AND
NO FREQUENCY RANGE LIMITATION
3. RADIO ALTI SHF, 4200 – 4400 MHZ FREQ +/- (3% + 5ft) -It works on ECHO Principle, it is a Primary Radar. -FIXED ERROR.
CENTIMETRIC Freq changes at an MODULATED above 500 ft. -It uses Freq Modulation. -MUSHING
known rate. CONTINOUS +/- (2% + 2ft) -It gives you Absolute Ht.(Ht above Terrain Lvl) ERROR.
WAVE. Below 500 ft. -It Utilizes continuous wave, advantage is to eliminate min
(ECHO 0 – 2500FT range restriction.(It can give reading in negative also)
PRINCIPLE) AGL
4. SSR UHF, 1030(Grd)& SECONDARY -In SSR Ground is Interrogator and A/c is Transponder.
DECIMETRIC 1090(A/c) MHZ RADAR -There are 4096 codes.0000 to 7777,8 and 9 digits are omitted.
PRINCIPLE -It has 4 modes:
-Mode A & B: Identification
Spc Codes: -No requirement of special maneuver for identification
7500 Hijack purpose.
7600 Radio Faliure -There will be BLIP on radar screen.
7700 Distress -Ident Switch: If you press there is a special pules Tx by your
0000 Transponder antenna and controller will identify you.
Faliure -Mode C: Altitude
2000 FIR Boundary - It includes A & B, it give you altitude in Flight Levels.
1200 VFR -It gives Altitude in interval of 50 ft.
-Mode D: Not in Use
-Mode S:
-Advance version of mode C.
-Same as Mode C plus can handle large data in ZIP form.
-It gives Altitude in interval of 25 ft.
-For A/c having AUW > 5700, want to fly IFR Mode S is
Mandatory.
5. TCAS / ACAS UHF,1030 & 1090 MHZ SSR MODE C RANGE 30 NM -Works with the help of Transponder and it’s the heart of TCAS
DECIMETRIC AND ABOVE -Transponder of both A/c cross talk with each other and
generate TA and RA.
-TCAS I:
-It gives you TA only and will generate audio and visual
warnings.
-TCAS II:
-It gives you TA and RA only and will generate audio and visual
warnings.
 RADAR INSTRUMENTS (Pg 3)
SL INST BAND AND PRINCIPLE ACCURACY WORKING ERRORS AND
NO FREQUENCY RANGE LIMITATION
-TA is generated 40 sec before potential collision.
*Audio warning: Traffic Traffic.
*Visual Warning: Solid Yellow Circle.
-RA is generated 15 to 25 sec before potential collision.
-It is course of action to avoid collision.
-It will be generated only in vertical plain. It is not generated
below 1000ft AGL.
*Audio Warning: Climb Climb (1500ft)
Increase Climb (2500ft)
Descent Descent (1500ft)
Increase Descent (2500ft)
-RA is not generated if A/c ROC or ROD is 10000ft/Min.
-It will not come is the A/c is not capable to maintaining 1500
ft/min ROC and ROD.
6. GNSS(GPS) UHF, SIMILAR TO L1- 30m -It will create fixes using 2 satellites.
L1 – 1575.42 MHZ, DME RANGE L2- 1 to 3m. -It gives you Rho-Rho fix.
L2 – 1227.6 MHZ POSITION LINE. Look below for GPS Explanation and Errors.
7. ASMR SHF, 15 – 17 GHZ PRIMARY
(60 RPM) RADAR
2.5 TO 6 NM
8. PAR SHF, 10 GHZ PRIMARY TERMINATES
RADAR (TAKE AT 0.5 NM
DOWN
APPROACH)
BASIC RADAR: DIFFERENCE B/W PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RADAR:
-Freq of Radar is VHF and above therefore it follows Line of Sight PRIMARY SECONDARY
Propagation because of which it is free from Static Interference and Night It works on ECHO Principle. It works on SSR principle. Tx and Rx should be at both
Effect. places.
-Range(nm)=1.25(√Ht of Tx + √Ht of Rx). (Ht in ft). Tx and Rx freq. is same. Tx and Rx on Different frequency.
-Pulse: Short Burst of Radio Energy.
Transmits Single Pulse. Transmits Pair of Pulses.
-Pulse Width: The dist. travelled b/w Start off Pulse to End off Pulse.
Range will be less. Range will be more.
- PRP/PRI: Pulse RecurringPeriod / Interval.
Affected by weather. Not Affected by weather.
- Start of one pulse to start of next pulse timings in radar will be in Micro
Requires more Power. Requires less Power.
Sec.
AWR, RA, ASMR, Doppler DME, SSR, TCAS,GPS.
- 1 Seconds = 106 Micro Sec.
Radar.
- PRF/PRR: Pulse Recurring Freq. / Rate.
- No of pulse in one second.
- Unit is PPS (Pulse per Second). FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE OF RADAR:
- Range(m) = 150 x PRP. (to calculate one way Distance) - Power: Range ∝4√Power. (2 x Range = 16 times the Power)
- PRP = 106/PRF. -Ht of Radar Head. (Range ∝Ht of Radar)
- For MAX Range use PRF, for MIN Range use PRP. -Type of terrain. (Line of Sight)
AWR:
-Hold Switch: Radar has a Sweep needle, it moves left to right. When it moves from left to right then it will point the Weather and when it falls back, it will
eliminate the previous image and paint the new one. But if you do not want the previous image to be deleted the press and hold the HOLD Switch. By this you can
see the Weather Movement.
-TGT ALT: For navigating in Weather, we are selecting less range for clear Weather picture. If there is Weather out of your selected range then TGT ALT will alert
you and you can increase the Range.
-A/c Tilt: 15o up or Down.
DME: -Frequency Pairing:
-Search Mode: -We can Freq. pair any two equipment.
Aircraft Ground *by this we reduce the Pilot Work Load.
It will Tx 150PPS for 100 Sec. It will Tx 27PPS. *freq. selection is easier and quicker.
It will Tx 60PPS till Lock On. *by one switch we can select both equipment.
-VOR & DME:
It will Tx 25PPS After Lock On.
-It can be freq paired if they are collocated or within 7nm. If Collocated or
-Memory Mode:
within 600m there will be no extra letter added in call sign, if out of 600m
-When you are going out of your Range and coming back in your range DME will
but within 7nmthen extra letterZ will be added in the CALL SIGN.
automatically get the Range.
-ILS & DME:
-VOR Call Sign every 10 Sec and DME every 30 Sec.
-It will give you correct range in Localizer Coverage Area. This is the only
-If VOR and DME and freq paired then we will hear 3 times VOR and 4times DME Call
DME which will read 0. (ZERO)
Signs. (DME will be High Pitch)
TCAS/ACAS: -RAVSI: RA Vertical Speed Indicator
-We always fly in green eyebrow of RAVSI.
-Other Traffic: : Cyan Hollow Diamond. (+/- 2700ft) -If AUW > 5700, TCAS II is mandatory.
-Proximate Traffic: : Solid Cyan Diamond. (6nm, +/- 1200ft)
-TA: : Yellow Solid Circle. (40 sec) PRIORITY OF MESSAGES:
-S = Stall
-RA: : Red Solid Square. (15 – 25 Sec)
-W = Windsheer
-G = GPWS
-T = TCAS
: Arrow (means ROC more than
-3 : -3 (Means 300 ft below your a/c)

GPS:
It is divided into 3 segments:
1. Space 2. Control 3. User
Space:
-There are 24 satellites 21 active and 3 spare, they are rotating in 6 circular orbits. Each orbit has 4 Satellites, each satellite has 4 atomic clocks which give time in nano
seconds. (1 nano sec = 10-9sec) Satellite is place at a height of 20180 km at an angle of 55 o to the equator they complete one revolution in 12 hrs they transmit on 2
bands L1 and L2. L1 Band – It transmit Course Acquisition Mode or Y code. It’s used by Civil users and accuracy is 30 m but reduced to 100 m. L2 Band – It transmits
Precision Code it is in-scripted to prevent unauthorized user from using it, accuracy is 1 to 3 m and used by defense.
Control:
-It has master station in Colorado, USAand other station at different places. Master will make calculations others will communicate and send correction to satellite. If
any satellite is out of orbit it can correct the orbit of satellite.
User:
-It take 12.5 mins to download the info. We are all users.
Errors:
-Clock Bias: Difference between Quart and Atomic Clock.
-Satellite Ephemeris: sometime due to wrong trajectory Satellite transmit their wrong position this is called Pseudo Position.
-GDOP: Geometric Dilution of Position
-Ionospheric Refraction Error.
-Satellite availability Error: 2D – 3 Satellites, 3D – 4 Satellites, 4D – 5 Satellites (RAIM).
-Instrument Error.
RAIM- Remote Autonomous Integratory Monitoring for RAIM we need 6 Satellites 5 will be in use and one will be spare. It also have function of FDE(Fault detection
and Exclusion)
DGPS – Differential GPS
LAAS – Local Area Augmentation System, It will enhance the accuracy of Approach and Landing.
WAAS – Wide Area Augmentation System, it will enhance the accuracy of En-route Navigation.
 MAGNETISM
INSTRUMENT WORKING ACCURACY
M COMPASS -Magnet showing Magnetic North with influence of Earth Magnetic field. +/- 10 O
-Magnetic field has two components:
PRINCIPLE 1. Horizontal - Directive Force - H=T Cos θ – Max at equator Min at poles.
FREELY 2. Vertical – DIP – Z=T Sin θ – Max at Poles Min at Equator. (T is Magnetic force and θ is Latitude)
SUSPENDED -DIP is the angle between freely suspended magnets with the Horizontal Plane.
MAGNET WILL Isoclinal line joining places of equal DIP. Isogonal lines joining places with equal Variation. (Green Dash Line)
ALLIGN IT SELF Aclinic lines joining places with zero DIP. (Mag Equator) Agonic lines joining places with zero Variation.
TO EARTH’S Property of COMPASS:
MAG -Horizontality: It should be horizontal at all times. It should not DIP or tilt and is achieved by pendulous suspension system and CG is always
FIELD(N/S) below Pivot.
-Sensitivity: It should be enough sensitive to detect small changes in Heading and is achieved by using:
1. Lightweight magnet. 2. By joining small pieces of magnet. 3. By reducing pivot Friction.
-Aperiodicity: it should be a periodic and it is achieved by using dampening wire and liquid.
(Dampening wire bring the magnet to Dead Beat)
Property of Liquid:
1. It should be colorless and transparent. 2. High boiling point. 3. Low Freezing Point.
4. Low Viscosity 5. Low coefficient of Expansion. 6. Non-Corrosive.
Errors:
- Turning Error: No error on equator, it is max on N/S heading and Zero on E/W heading. When turning through North toward E/W in NH it will
Under-read Pilot action Roll-out Early. When turning through North toward E/W in SH it will Over-read Pilot action Roll-out Late. (Heading
Hemisphere same Under-read, Heading Hemisphere Different Over-read)
Liquid Swirl: It will increase or decrease the Turning Error. In case of Under-read it will increase the error and In case of over-read it will decrease
the error.
- Acceleration Error: No error on N/S heading or Equator. when Acc on Easterly or Westerly heading compass will show apparent turn toward
nearest Pole, when De-accelerating it will show apparent turn to further Pole. (Card will move opposite to the Compass)
Deviation:To find deviation we do compass swing test.
Requirements of Compass Swing Test: (At time of Compass Swing Test all Equipment should be working)
1. After heavy landing. 2. After Change of Engine 3. After Major Overhaul.
4. After aircraft received in new organization. 5. After permanent change in Latitude. 6. After passing Magnetic Storm (Sun Flare)
7. After carrying Electric/ magnetic payload. 8. After heavy hammering on Aircraft. 9. At a given time interval.
Two Types of Magnet:
Hard Iron Magnet: Permanent Magnet.It has 3 Components:P- Longitudinal Q - Lateral R - Vertical
There are 3 coefficients: a - Constant of all Axis. N, W, S, E, NE, NW, SE, SW.b and c - is compensated with micro adjuster total DEV on θ Hdg = A +
B Sin θ + C Cos θ.
Soft Iron Magnet: Temporary Magnet.
It has 6 coefficients:
a, b, c, d, e, f. c and f - vertical axis a, b, d, e - horizontal axis.
 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
SL NO INSTRUMENT PRINCIPLE WORKING ERRORS AND LIMI ACCURACY
1. ASI Dynamic Pressure -It measures a/c speed w.r.t to relative airflow. B- BLOCKAGE 5KTS OR +/- 3%
-Open ended tube filled with Total Pres. (Dy + St) L- LAG
-Total – St Press = Dynamic. (TERI DCP) (1/2 ρV2) I - INSTRUMENT
-WHITE ARC = VSO TO VFE. -GREEN ARC = VS1 TO VNO. P- POSITION
-YELLO ARC = VNO TO VNE. -RED LINE = VNE. D- DENSITY
-BARBER POLE VMO. (EAS) C- COMPRESSIBALITY
-Pitot Block will make ASI work as Altimeter.
B- BLOCKAGE = SCUDO & PCODU.L- LAG = MECHANICAL LINKAGE. I - INSTRUMENT = MANUFACTURE ERROR.P- POSITION = DUE TO POSITION IN THE PITOT AND
STATIC PORTS.D- DENSITY = ASI IS CALIBERATED WITH ISA CONDITIONS, (TEMP , DENSITY ERROR)( HUMIDITY , DENSITY ERROR)( ALTITUDE , DENSITY
ERROR). C- COMPRESSIBALITY = AIR IS A FLUID AND IT CAN BE COMPRESSED EASILY. AT HIGH LEVEL WITH SPEED MORE THAN 300 KTS THE AIR GETS COMPRESSED
BECAUSE OF WHICH ASI WILL OVER-READ.
2. VSI RATE OF CHANGE OF -Gives you ROC & ROD. B- BLOCKAGE 50o C to -20o C
STATIC PRESSURE -2 St inputs, One instantaneous St and other Delayed St. L- LAG +/- 200ft/min.
Outside the
-Instantaneous St press. Fed in Capsule & delayed in Case. I - INSTRUMENT Temp range +/-
-Nine O’clock Position of Needle is Level Flight P- PRESSURE 300 ft.
3. IVSI RATE OF CHANGE OF -Dashboard Acc is used to remove Lag Error. B- BLOCKAGE
STATIC PRESSURE -Steep turn it will show a climb. I - INSTRUMENT
P- PRESSURE
4. ALTIMETER DECREASE IN STATIC -Gives you Vertical Dist. of A/c from a set Datum. B- BLOCKAGE +/- 100FT MSL.
PRESSURE WITH -Partially evacuated capsule filled with St Pres.(Contract High Pres & L- LAG +/- 1K FT FL350
HIEGHT Expand Low Pres.),the movement is picked by Leaf Spring. I - INSTRUMENT
-QFE= Aerodrome Level Pres. P- POSITION
-QNH= Aerodrome Level Pres. Reduced to MSL in ISA Condition. T-TEMPERATURE
-QNE= Standard Pres. Datum 1013.25 mba/hpa. B- BAROMETERIC
-PA= ELEVATION/MOCA + {(QNE -QNH)30} OR = (QNE-QFE)30 H- HYSTERESIS
-DA= PA + (Dev + 119), DEV = (OAT-ISA) S- SIDE SLIP
-TA= PA + {(DEV x PA)/250}
B- BLOCKAGE = SCUDO & PCODU.L- LAG = MECHANICAL LINKAGE. I - INSTRUMENT = MANUFACTURE ERROR. P- POSITION = DUE TO POSITION IN THE PITOT AND
STATIC PORTS. T- TEMPERATURE = HLH AND LHL. B-BAROMETRIC = HLH AND LHL. H- HYSTERESIS = WHEN FLYING AT A CONSTANT LEVEL/ ALTITUDE FOR A LONG
FLIGHT THE ALTIMITER TENDS TO GO N A SLEEP MODE BECAUSE OF WHICH WE HAVE PLACED A VIBRATOR IN THE ALTIMETER WHICH REMOVES THIS ERROR.
S- SIDE SLIP = SIDE SLIP RIGHT AND STATIC BLOCK SIDE IS ALSO RIGHT THEN OVERREAD. SIDE SLIP RIGHT AND STATIC BLOCK SIDE IS LEFT THEN UNDERREAD. (SAME
SIDE OVERREAD, OPPOSITE SIDE UNDER-READ)
5. SERVO ALTI DECREASE IN STATIC -Has a pick off device on I and E bar. B- BLOCKAGE +/- 30ft MSL.
PRESSURE WITH -Has less Mechanical linkage. I - INSTRUMENT +/- 60 ft FL300
+/- 100 ft FL400.
HIEGHT P- PRESSURE
T-TEMPERATURE
B- BAROMETERIC
6. MACH ASI/ALT -MACH No. is the ratio b/w TAS and LSS. (M=TAS/LSS) B- BLOCKAGE 0.1 MACH
DYNAMIC / STATIC -It has 2 capsule 1 ASI and other Altimeter capsule 90o to each other. I - INSTRUMENT
-Not affected by Temp. P- PRESSURE
-LSS = 39√K(K= TEMP IN KELVIN)
7. TEMPERATURE -RAM Rise = (TAS/100)2
- TAT= SAT(1 + 0.2 K M2) (ALL TEMPERATUR ARE IN KELVIN)
- TAT=SAT + RAT(RAT IS RAM RISE)
 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS (Pg 1)
SL NO. INSTRU PRINCIPLE WORKING ERRORS AND ACCURACY
LIMITATION
1. GYROSCOPE -Any fast spinning body containing max mass on its periphery and its free to move in all axis. R- Real -
-All axis should be perpendicular to each other. -Rigidity & Precession. Wander
-Types of Gyro: A-Apparent
-Space Gyro=free to move in 3D=Autopilot. Wander.
-Drift=Shifting on Horizontal Axis. T-Transport
-Drift = 15 x Sin Lat. (Max at Pole, Zero at Equator) Wander.
-Topple= Shifting on Vertical Axis. G-Gimbal.
-Topple= 15x Cos Lat. (Zero at Pole, Max at Equator) V-Varying
Rotor Speed.
2. DGI (AIR) RIGIDITY -Tied Gyro=free to move in 2D=DGI=Horizontal Axis. R- Real +/- 55o
(15000 RPM) (THARP-2) -It gives you Direction of a/c. Wander (Bank
- It utilizes the horizontal axis Gyro, Axis of Gyro is Parallel to the Longitudinal Axis of the A/c. A-Apparent Angle)
-It is free to move in 2D.-Its limit is 55 o if you want to exceed, Gyro must be caged. Wander.
-It does not Suffer from Turning and Acceleration Error. T-Transport
-Drift Increases in SH, Decreases in NH. Wander.
-Reset Lat Nut every 15 mins.
3. DGI (ELE) RIGIDITY Its limit is 85 o if you want to exceed, Gyro must be caged. A-Apparent +/- 85o
(22500 RPM) Wander. (Bank
(same as Air DGI) T-Transport Angle)
Wander.
4. AH RIGIDITY -Earth Gyro=free to move in 2D=AH/AI=Vertical Axis. A- +/- 60
(RAVE-2) -It utilizes the Vertical axis Gyro, Axis of Gyro is Parallel to the Vertical Axis of the A/c. Acceleration PITCH
-3 Gimbals-Outer (Roll) –Inner (Pitch)–Cage Gimbals (Prevents from topple). T-Turning +/- 110
-It has miniature a/c fixed on the glass and horizontal bar which can tilt left and right. P-Pitch ROLL
R-Roll
5. TSI PRECISSION -Rate Gyro=free to move in 1D=TSI=Lateral Axis. For less rpm NIL
(7000 RPM) (THAP-1) -It will tell you whether the a/cis Slipping, Skidding or Coordinated Turn. less rate of
-Axis of Gyro I Parallel to Lateral Axis. turn in
- It has a Ball and a Needle. - All Instrument App are Rate One Turn. indicated
- Ball shows Slip or Skid, Needle shows Turn. Angle of Bank = {(TAS/10)+7}.
-TAS Increases, Rate of turn Decreases, Radius of turn Increases.
-TAS Decreases, Rate of turn Increases, Radius od turn Decreases.
-Angle of Bank Increases, Radius of turn Decreases, Rate of turn Increases.
-Angle of Bank Decreases, Radius of turn Increases, Rate of turn Decreases.
-Ball and Needle Same Direction SLIPPING, Different Direction SKIDDING.
 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS (Pg 2)
SL NO. INSTRU PRINCIPLE WORKING ERRORS AND ACCURACY
LIMITATION
INS -Space Gyro=free to move in 3D=INS and Autopilot. B-Bounded
-It uses conventional Gyro. It is a Gyro pendulous Platform. U-Unbounded
-It is place on roof of the aircraft. I-Inherent
-Its Alignment Period is more. (10 mins)
-It has 2 or more accelerometer, one for N/S and other for E/W.
-It aligns with true North or Physical North.
-It takes Longer time to spin.
-It does not suffer from Laser Lock.
-If INS is reset in Air, it will not give you anything.
-It is cheaper than IRS.
-It has Shorter Life.
-Schuler time 84.4mins.
-Components: CDU (Control Display Unit) – IRU(Inertial Reference Unit) – MSU(Mode
Selector Unit)
-MSU Modes: O(Off) – S(Stand by) – A(Align) – N(Navigation) – A(Attitude)
IRS -Ring Laser Gyro=free to move in 3D=IRS. B-Bounded
-It uses Ring Laser Gyro. U-Unbounded
-It has strap down platform. Accelerometer & Gyroscope are Strapped on a/c body. I-Inherent
-Its Alignment Period is less than INS. (less than 10 mins)
-It has 3 Accelerometer for Lateral, Longitudinal and Vertical they all make a diagram of
TRIHIDRONE.
-It aligns with Mathematically Calculated North.
-It takes Less Spinning time.
-It suffers from Laser Lock and is prevented by Dither Motor by vibrating the Gyro.
-If IRS is reset in air, it gives you Attitude and Heading.
-It is Expensive
-It has a longer Life.
-Schuler time 84.4 mins.
-Components: CDU (Control Display Unit) – IRU (Inertial Reference Unit) – MSU (Mode
Selector Unit)
-MSU Modes: O(Off) – A(Align) – N(Navigation) – A(Attitude)
GPWS
-INPUTS FROM: RA, VSI, GLIDE SLOPE, LANDING GEAR AND FLAP POSITION.
-Range: 50ft to 2450 ft.
-Mode 6B and Mode 7 are of EGPWS. EGPWS uses a terrain database that is not available in GPWS.GPWS is only aware of the ground below it while EGPWS is
aware of a larger area.
MODES HAZARD RANGE ALERT WARNING
2
MODE 1 EXCESSIVE ROD 50FT TO 2450FT (SINK RATE)
MODE 2 EXCESSIVE RATE OF TERRAIN CLOSER. WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP.
MODE 2A LANDING GEAR AND FLAP UP BELOW 1800FT (TERRAIN)2 RED LAMP FLASH IN
MODE 2B LANDING GEAR AND FLAP DOWN BELOW 790FT (TERRAIN)2 COCKPIT.
MODE 3 NEGATIVE ROC AFTER TAKE-OFF OR GO AROUND BELOW 700 FT (DON’T SINK)2
MODE 4 UNSAFE TERRAIN CLEARANCE OF AIRCRAFT NOT IN LANDING CONFIGURATION. (AUDIO AND VISUAL)
MODE 4A LANDING GEAR UP BELOW 500FT (TOO LOW GEAR)
MODE 4B FLAP UP BELOW 200FT (TOO LOW FLAP) (TERRAIN)2 (AUDIO ONLY)
MODE 5 DESENDING BELOW GLIDE SLOPE 50 FT – 500FT (GLIDE SLOPE)2
MODE 6 SITUATIONAL AWAERNESS
(AUDIO ONLY)
MODE 6A DESENDING BELOW DH NO ENVELOPE MINIMUM
MODE 6B CALL OUT OF BANK ANGLE NO ENVELOPE BANK ANGLE
MODE 7 WIND SHEAR INFORMATION NO ENVELOPE (WINDSHEAR)2 AUDIO AND VISUAL
ASI MACH METER
(All the layers) -Normal layer temp decreases with Alt Increase. - CAS = 1/2 ρ TAS2
-Climb TAS Increases CAS Decreases. -Inversion layer Temp increases with Alt Increase. - M=TAS/LSS
-Descent TAS Decreases CAS Increases. -Isothermal layer Temp remains constant with alt.
-IN CLIMB CONST. CAS TAS INCREASES.
-IN DECENT CONST CAS TAS DECREASES.
V Speeds:
V1 The speed beyond which takeoff should no longer be aborted.
V2 Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely be climbed with one engine inoperative
VFE Maximum flap extended speed
VLE Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which a retractable gear aircraft should be flown with the
landing gear extended.
VLO Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft should
be extended or retracted
VMCA Minimum control speed air. The minimum speed that the aircraft is still controllable with the critical engine inoperative while the
aircraft is airborne. VMCA is sometimes simply referred to as VMC.
VMCG Minimum control speed ground. The minimum speed that the aircraft is still controllable with the critical engine inoperative while
the aircraft is on the ground
VNE Never exceed speed.
VNO Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations
Rotation speed. The speed at which the pilot begins to apply control inputs to cause the aircraft nose to pitch up, after which it will
VR
leave the ground
VREF Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed
VS Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable.
VS0 Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration.
VS1 Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific configuration
VX Speed that will allow for best angle of climb.
VY Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb.
VXSE Best angle of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude
gain per unit of horizontal distance following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with
the engine-out climb performance data.
VYSE Best rate of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude
gain per unit of time following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out
climb performance data.
VTGT Target speed