FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

HANDBOOK

COMPILED BY: AKSHEY SOOD

AKSHEY SOOD
 AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Static Air Temperature (SAT) is the temperature of the undisturbed air through which the aircraft
is about to fly.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) is the maximum temperature attainable by the air when brought to
rest, adiabatically.
The increase of air temperature at higher speeds as a result of the adiabatic compression of the air
is known as the “Ram Rise”.
The percentage of the “Ram Rise” sensed, and recovered, by a TAT probe is termed the Recovery
Factor (Kr).
AIR TEMPERATURE THERMOMETERS
Direct Reading
1. A commonly used direct reading thermometer used in low speed aircraft uses a bimetallic strip
consisting of two metals
2. When this strip is heated, the brass, having a higher coefficient of expansion than the Invar, will
expand much more than the Invar, with the result that the strip will bend
3. How much the strip bends depends on the temperature rise to which the strip is subjected, and
is therefore a measure of the temperature
Remote Reading
1. The probe element forms one part of a resistance bridge circuit. As the temperature changes
the resistance of the sensing element changes, and the bridge becomes unbalanced causing
current to flow through the moving coil of the indicator
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE
1. A pure platinum wire resistance-type sensing element is used
2. A heating element is mounted integral with the probe to prevent the formation of ice
3. The bleed holes in the intake casing permit boundary layer air to be drawn off under the
influence of the higher pressure that is created within the intake and casing of the probe.
4. In order to measure air temperature on the ground an air to air ejector (aspirator) may be
fitted to the probe. Engine bleed air creates a negative differential pressure within the casing
so that outside air is drawn through it at a rate sufficient to provide a reliable indication of
temperature.
5. This device is used with turbine engine take off setting and auto throttle systems; it eliminates
temperature soaking inaccuracies caused by bright sunshine heating the probe, or hot ramp
heat radiation.
ERRORS
Aircraft thermometers used for the measurement of air temperature are subject to the following
errors:
Instrument error imperfections in manufacture.
Environmental solar heating of the sensor
error Ice accretion on the probe
Heating error -adiabatic and kinetic (friction)
heating

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AKSHEY SOOD
 PRESSURE HEADS
1. An aircraft at rest on the ground, in still air, is subject to normal atmospheric pressure
which bears equally on all parts of the aircraft. This ambient pressure is known as Static
pressure.
2. An aircraft in flight, while still subject to the static pressure at its height, experiences an
additional pressure on the leading edges due to the resistance of the air to the aircraft’s
movement. This additional pressure is Dynamic pressure, and its value depends on the
speed of the aircraft through the air and on the density of the air.
3. The leading edges, therefore, encounter a total pressure consisting of static pressure
plus dynamic pressure. This total pressure is known as Pitot pressure.
4. Two of the pressure-dependent flight instruments, the altimeter and vertical speed
indicator, operate solely on static pressure
5. whereas the airspeed indicator and machmeter utilise both static and pitot pressures.

PITOT/STATIC HEADS
1. An open-ended tube parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft is used to sense the total
pressure
2. This device is a “pitot tube”
3. The open end of the tube faces into the moving
airstream.
4. The moving airstream is brought to rest in the
tube, so generating the dynamic. pressure,
which together with the static pressure already
in the tube provides the required total (pitot)
pressure.
5. A ‘static head’ consists of a tube with its forward end sealed but with holes or slots cut
in the sides. These slots do not face into the airflow and therefore, in theory, they sense
only the static pressure.
6. The pitot tube must be positioned outside the boundary layer
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7. The opening must be designed to be parallel to the airflow in the normal flight attitude.
8. The ASI is critical to flight safety and so it cannot be allowed to block because of ice. An
electric anti-icing heater coil is usually incorporated. Any errors due to the heating effect
may be reduced by design and calibration. However, if water is drained, ice should not
be able to form. Drain holes are therefore provided.
9. The static source, whether a simple hole or a combined probe, should have its opening
at right angles to the airflow, so that only static pressure is sensed, with no component
of dynamic pressure.

ERRORS
1. At large angles of attack (which are
usually associated with lower airspeeds)
the pressure head is inclined at an angle
POSITION/PRESSURE ERROR to the airstream so that position error is
usually greater
2. Turbulence produced in the airstream
by the pressure head itself affects the
value of static pressure sensed

1. Manoeuvre-induced errors are caused

by short-term fluctuations of pressure at
the static vents and delays in the
associated pipelines transmitting
pressure changes to the instruments.
MANOEUVRE-INDUCED ERROR
2. The errors are usually more significant
during changes of pitch attitude than
during yawing or rolling movements so
that the worst effects are at the start of
the climb or descent and on levelling
out.
INSTRUMENT ERROR

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ADVANTAGES OF THE STATIC VENT
1. The airflow in the region of the vents is less turbulent and the static pressure measured is
more accurate.
2. Errors produced when side-slipping or yawing are reduced.
3. Duplication of static vents either side of the fuselage reduces errors due to side-slip or
yawing (cross balancing of static vents).
4. About 90% of the combined pressure head position error is eliminated by the use of
separate static vent.
ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE
1. For light aircraft, an alternate static source is normally provided in the event of the
static head/ vents becoming blocked. The selector switch will be in the cabin.
2. he alternate static pressure will be less accurate than the primary (blocked) static
vent/head
3. The alternate static pressure sensed is likely to be lower than ambient due to
aerodynamic suction

IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Static pressure is the ambient pressure experienced by an aircraft because it is in the
Earth’s atmosphere.
2. Dynamic pressure is the force the air exerts when brought to rest against a moving body.
3. Pitot pressure is the combined or total pressure of dynamic and static pressure.
4. Static pressure instruments are the altimeter and the VSI.
5. Pitot static instruments are the ASI and the machmeter.
6. Pressure heads form part of separate pitot and static sensing systems. The separate
pressure heads may be combined into a single pitot / static head.
7. Pressure heads have heating elements.
8. Position error occurs as a result of suction and turbulent airflow in the vicinity of the
pressure heads.
9. The magnitude of the error depends on the location of the pressure heads, the aircraft
speed and the altitude.
10. Position error is greatest at high angle of attack and low speed.
11. Operation of the flaps and landing gear can have a significant effect on the turbulence
created.
12. A static vent can reduce the effect of position error.
13. Static vents are fitted flush on both sides of the fuselage.
14. Static vents are interconnected to reduce the effects of yaw and side slip.
15. Duplication reduces the chance of the system becoming blocked.
16. Static vents are not suitable for flight at very high speed because of the shock waves
produced. A high speed probe is used instead.
17. Manoeuvre induced error is caused by temporary fluctuation of air pressure at the static

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 vents during pitch changes.
18. Manoeuvre induced error results in a lag in pressure instrument reading.
19. The higher the altitude the longer the error will last.
20. Static pressure sensed by an alternate static source will usually be low, which will cause
the altimeter and the ASI to overread.

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 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
PRINCIPLE OF OPERSTION
1. The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure.
2. These two pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which measures
their difference (the dynamic pressure).
3. The ASI measures airspeed by measuring dynamic pressure, displaying the result (usually in knots) on a
suitably calibrated scale. (1 knot is 1 nautical mile per hour).
ASI
1. It is therefore necessary to construct a device in which static pressure is subtracted from pitot (total)
pressure in order to isolate dynamic pressure
2. Static pressure is present on both the inside and the outside of the metal walls of the capsule and so
cancels.
3. Therefore the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the capsule is (Dy + S) - S which is
Dynamic.
4. Expansion or contraction on the capsule will therefore be proportional to the changes in dynamic
pressure produced by changes of airspeed.

CALIBRTION
1. Dynamic pressure depends not only on the
speed of the aircraft but also on the air
density.
2. This density varies with temperature and
pressure and therefore with altitude.
3. The ASI is calibrated to read true airspeed for
the air density of 1225 grams per cubic
metre which would be produced by the ISA
MSL pressure of 1013.25 hPa and
temperature + 15°C (dry air conditions).
4. No allowance is made in the calibration for
the change in density which occurs with
change of altitude.
5. No allowance is made in the calibration for
the change in density which occurs with
change of altitude.
6. As the ASI is only calibrated at MSL, and ISA conditions, flight at any other height will cause errors.
AIRSPEEDS

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 IAS (INDICATED AIR SPEED) READING ON INSTRUMENT

CAS (CALIBRATED AIR SPEED) CAS is IAS corrected for Instrument and Position (Pressure) Error.

EAS (EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED) Equivalent Airspeed is CAS corrected for Compressibility Error only

TAS (TRUE AIR SPEED) EAS + Density Error = TAS

GS (GROUND SPEED) TAS corrected for winds

ASI COLOUR CODING

WHITE ARC VSO – VFE

GREEN ARC VS1 - VNO

YELLOW ARC VNO - VNE

RED RADIAL LINE VNE

BLUE RADIAL LINE VYSE

ERRORS
INSTRUMENT POSITION/PRESSURE MANOEUVRE-INDUCED COMPRESSIBILITY
DENSITY ERROR BLOCKAGE LEAK

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POSITION/PRESSURE ERROR
1. As the aircraft develops forward motion, the static pressure sensed will be slightly lower than if the
aircraft is stationary, due to suction. As the speed increases, due to turbulent airflow in the region of the
pitot/static heads, this error becomes greater.
2. Error develops due to incorrect static pressure entering the vents.
3. Error is maximum at high AOA and low airspeed.
4. Maximum position error means more of static pressure entering the vents
MANOEUVRE-INDUCED ERROR
1. Manoeuvre-induced errors are caused by short-term fluctuations of pressure at the static vents and
delays in the associated pipelines transmitting pressure changes to the instruments.
2. The errors are usually more significant during changes of pitch attitude than during yawing or rolling
movements so that the worst effects are at the start of the climb or descent and on levelling out.
COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR
1. Air is compressible and the pressure produced in the pitot tube is higher than it would be for an ideal
incompressible fluid
2. If the TAS is less than 300 knots the error is small enough to be ignored
3. Error causes the ASI to over-read.
4. Error increases with airspeed and altitude (due to low density).
5. Compressibility error is always (-ve)
DENSITY ERROR
1. Unless the air round the aircraft is at the calibration density of 1225 grams per cubic metre, which can
only occur near sea level, the ASI cannot correctly indicate TAS.
2. Dynamic pressure is proportional to density, and so at altitude, where density is less, the dynamic
pressure generated by a given TAS will be less than for the same TAS in flight at sea level.
3. Summarizing, the ASI under-reads the true speed at altitude as density is less than 1225 grams/cu
metre, this discrepancy being called ‘density error’.
BLOCKAGE ERROR
Pitot Head
LEVEL FLIGHT
1. If the pitot head becomes blocked, the ASI reading will, in general, remain unchanged.
2. In level cruise, a blockage (probably ice, but possibly insects) will lock in the previous pitot pressure and
any change in actual airspeed will not be registered.
DESCENT
1. If altitude is changed with a blocked pitot head and clear static source, the IAS will decrease during a
descent because the pressure locked inside the capsule remains constant while the static pressure of the
air surrounding the capsule increases.
With a blocked pitot source, the ASI under-reads in a descent.
CLIMB
1. IAS will increase during climb because the pressure locked inside the capsule remains constant while
static pressure of the air surrounding the capsule decreases.
Static Head
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A static head is more exposed to icing conditions and is therefore more likely to become obstructed than is
a static vent.
DESCENT
1. A blocked static source during descent will mean that the ‘old’ (higher altitude) static pressure
surrounding the capsule will be lower than it should be, so that if the pitot supply is normal the ASI will
over-read.
With a blocked static source, the ASI over-reads in a descent.
CLIMB
Note that a climb with blocked static source and normal pitot air will result in the ASI under- reading
ALTERNATIVE STATIC SOURCE
1. If the alternative static source is selected an error may occur. This error will be due to position error. Any
dynamic, or turbulence, effects would usually result in a higher static pressure and thus produce an under-
reading.
A useful mnemonic for examinations is PUDSOD, which stands for
‘Pitot Blocked: – Under-reads in Descent Static Blocked: – Over-reads in Descent’
LEAKS
Pitot Leaks
A leak in the pitot tube causes the ASI to under-read because of the loss of dynamic pressure.
Static Leaks
1. UNPRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT – ASI OVERREAD
2. PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT – ASI UNDERREADS

OVER-READING OF ASI IS DANGEROUS- THE AIRCRAFT WILL STALL AT HIGHER INDICATED

AIRSPEED

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 PRESSURE ALTIMETER

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
1. The pressure altimeter is a simple, reliable, pressure gauge calibrated to indicate height.
2. The pressure at a point depends on the weight of the column of air which extends vertically upwards
from the point to the outer limit of the atmosphere.
3. The greater the height, the lower the pressure, and by measuring the pressure the altimeter measures
height.
4. The Pressure Altimeter is a sensitive pressure gauge calibrated to indicate height above a selected
datum level.
The pilot should be familiar with the following definitions.
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point,
HEIGHT
measured from a specified datum.
The vertical distance of a fixed (non-moving) point or object measured from
ELEVATION
MSL.
ALTITUDE The vertical distance of a moveable object measured from MSL.
This is the altitude of the aircraft with reference to the pressure level of
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
1013.25 hPa.
True Height means the height of the aircraft vertically above the surface
TRUE ALTITUDE immediately below. Used more often in connection with radio or radar
altimeters than with pressure altimeters.

QNH: Is the AD pressure reduced to MSL pressure taking into account ISA conditions. When QNH set,
altimeter indicates elevation on ground and Altitude in flight.
QFE: Actual AD level pressure at any time. When set on ground will read zero. In flight altimeter will read
height above AD elevation.
QNE: Standard Altitude setting 1013.25 or 29.92”. When set in altimeter, will read FL/PA.
QFF: AD pressure reduced to MSL taking into account prevailing atmospheric condition.

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CALIBRATION
1. The altimeter is calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere (ISA) over its entire operating
range.
SIMPLE ALTIMETER

1. Static pressure is fed into the case

of the instrument from the static
source.
2. As height increases, static pressure
decreases and the capsule expands
under the control of a leaf spring.
3. A mechanical linkage magnifies the
capsule expansion and converts it to a
rotational movement of a single
pointer over the height scale.
4. The linkage incorporates a temperature-compensating device to minimize errors caused by expansion
and contraction of the linkage and changes in spring tension due to fluctuations in the temperature of the
mechanism.
5. The simple altimeter has a setting knob which is geared to the pointer.

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SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

1. The sensitive altimeter employs a minimum of two aneroid capsules. This provides for a more accurate
measurement of pressure and provides more power to drive mechanical linkage
2. Jewelled bearings are fitted, reducing friction and the associated lag in indications.
3. Within the mechanical linkages, a bi-metallic insert is fitted to compensate for temperature changes that
could affect the movement.
4. Some altimeter systems employ “Knocking/Vibrating” devices to help overcome initial inertia/ reduce
friction.
SERVO-ASSISTED ALTIMETER

1. The principle of the servo altimeter is that

the small movements of the capsules are
detected by a very sensitive electromagnetic
pick-off. This produces an electric current
which is amplified and used to drive a motor
which rotates the counters and pointer.
2. LAG ERROR is virtually eliminated in SERVO
ASSISTED ALTIMETER

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TOLERANCES

ERRORS

INSTRUMENT TIME LAG POSITION PRESSURE/BAROMETRIC

TEMPERATURE HYSTERISIS BLOCKAGE LEAKAGE

TIME LAG
With many types of altimeter the response to change of height is not instantaneous. This causes the
altimeter to under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent. The lag is most noticeable when the change
in altitude is rapid and prolonged.
POSITION ERROR
This is largely due to the inability to sense the true static pressure outside the aircraft.
BAROMETRIC ERROR
H-L-H
L-H-L
TEMPERATURE ERROR
Even with no other errors at all, the pressure altimeter will not indicate true altitude (height AMSL) unless
the surface temperature and lapse rate of the column of air are those assumed in the calibration(ISA).
COLD-WARM- UNDER-READ
WARM-COLD- OVER-READ
HYSTERISIS ERROR
The capsules suffer from Hysterisis error, which causes a lag in the instrument reading during a climb or
descent that’s because or inertia (due to time passed in a particular altitude)
BLOCKAGE
1. If the static source becomes blocked, the altimeter will not register any change in height - the height at
which the blockage occurred will still be indicated regardless of any climb or descent
2. Brake glass of VSI or Mach meter to get altitude/height.
LEAKAGES
LEAK IN A STATIC TUBE(PIPE)
WITHIN A PRESSURIZED CABIN allows increased static pressure to enter static lines. This causes the
altimeter to indicate cabin altitude.
WITHIN A NON PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT – Static pressure inside is slightly less than local atmospheric
static pressure. So a leaking static tube allows the lower pressure to enter static lines this causes altimeter
to over indicate slightly.

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DENSITY ALTITUDE
1. Density altitude can be defined as the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing
density would occur.
2. If actual temperature is more than ISA, DA will be more than PA. If actual temperature less than ISA, PA
will be more than DA.
DA= PA + 120 (ISA DEVIATION)

TRANSITION LEVEL

TRANSITION LAYER

TRANSITION ALTITUDE

PRESSURE SETTING ON ALTITUDE READING AT ALTIMETER WHEN FLYING

ALTIMETER AERODROME
QFE
QNH
QNE

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 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
VSI

1. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) displays rate of climb or descent.

2. The VSI can also be known as the Rate of Climb and Descent Indicator (RCDI).

PRINCIPLE
1. The VSI measures the pressure difference
between each side of a restricted
choke/metering unit.
2. During a climb or descent, air fed to the choke
immediately responds to the change of
atmospheric pressure but the choke transmits
this change at a lower rate
3. In level flight the pressures on each side of
the choke are the same
4. The case is fed with static pressure through a
restricted choke, thus if the static pressure is
changed the pressure surrounding the capsule changes at a slower rate than that within the capsule.
5. The restrictor (or choke, or metering unit) is more complicated than a simple hole.
6. There are more feet to a hectopascal at higher altitudes than lower altitudes, and therefore the rate of
pressure change with altitude at different altitudes needs to be compensated for
7. This is achieved by a combination of different types of hole (called ‘capillary’ and ‘orifice’).
ERRORS
INSTRUMENT POSITION
TIME LAG BLOCKAGE

POSITION/PRESSURE ERROR
If the static pressure is subject to position error the VSI will wrongly indicate a climb or descent when
speed is suddenly changed; this is most noticeable during take-off acceleration.
MANOEUVRE-INDUCED ERROR
Any short term fluctuations in pressure at the static vent during attitude changes will cause the instrument
to indicate a false rate of climb or descent.
TIME LAG
1. The pointer takes a few seconds to steady because of the time taken to build up a steady pressure
difference on climb or descent.
2. There will also be a time lag on levelling out because of the time taken for the pressures to equalize.
3. This error is most noticeable after a prolonged climb or descent, especially at a high rate.

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BLOCKAGE
Any blockages of the static line or vent will cause the needle to return to zero.
INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
1. To overcome the problem of lag, the Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI) incorporates an
accelerometer unit (sometimes called a dashpot or dynamic vane) which responds quickly to a change of
altitude.
2. The piston in the vertical acceleration pump immediately rises in the cylinder and causes a temporary
increase of pressure in the capsule. The capsule expands and the pointer will give an instant indication of
descent.
3. As the initial acceleration is turned into a steady rate of descent, the piston will slowly descend to its
original position,
ERROR PECULIAR TO THE VSI
1. Because of the sensitivity of the dashpot assembly, the instrument tends to overreact to turbulent flying
conditions and small fluctuations should be ignored.
2. In a steep, level turn, the piston will tend to sink towards the bottom of the cylinder and there will be a
false indication of a climb.

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PRESENTATION
Two types of presentation are available, a linear scale and a logarithmic scale, this latter
presentation being more easily read at the lower rates of climb/descent.

SERVICEBILITY CHECKS

ON THE GROUND
The instrument should read zero, or the error should be within the permissible limits.
 +/- 200 feet per minute at temperature -20 C to +50 C
 +/- 300 feet per minute outside these temperatures.
There should be no apparent damage to the instrument.

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 THE MACHMETER

1. In high speed aircraft the Machmeter is an essential instrument. As an aircraft

approaches the local speed of sound the airflow over some parts of the fuselage or wings
may be accelerated up to the speed of sound and a shock wave will form.
2. Critical Mach number/MCRIT – The lowest Mach number at which air over any part of the
aircraft becomes sonic.
The speed at which airflow over some part of the aircraft first reaches the speed of sound
and shock waves form.
SPEED OF SOUND
1. The speed of sound is not constant but varies with air temperature. A formula for
calculating the local speed of sound (LSS) is:
LSS = 38.94√𝑻 , T is the absolute temperature
, LSS is given in knots
2. The higher the air temperature, the higher the speed of sound, and vice versa.
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3. Since temperature normally reduces as altitude increases, the speed of sound normally
reduces as altitude increases.
MACHMETER PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.
1. The Machmeter uses two capsules and linkages to indicate the aircrafts True Airspeed
(TAS) as a proportion of the local speed of sound (LSS)
2. The first capsule is an Airspeed Capsule which will expand and contract as a result of
changes in the dynamic pressure.
3. The second capsule is a sealed Altimeter Capsule which will expand and contract as the
static pressure inside the instrument case changes.
𝑇𝐴𝑆 𝐷𝑌𝑁𝐴𝑀𝐼𝐶 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 𝐴𝑆𝐼 𝑃 − 𝑆
𝑀𝐴𝐶𝐻 𝑁𝑈𝑀𝐵𝐸𝑅 = = = =
𝐿𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐼𝐶 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 𝐴𝐿𝑇 𝑆

MACHMETER CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a simple aneroid altitude capsule and an airspeed capsule which are
connected at the ratio arm.
2. A spring-loaded ranging arm transmits the movement of the ratio arm to the pointer
mechanism.
CALIBRATION
Machmeter is the only instrument not calibrated to ISA.
ACCURACY +/- .01 M
IMPORTANT NOTES
1. VMO = Maximum operating indicated speed.
2. MMO = Maximum operating Mach number.
3. At lower altitude aircraft speed is limited by VMO.
4. At higher altitude shockwaves will be formed at lower speed, therefore maximum speed
will be limited by MMO.
5. Barber pole indicates VMO versus altitude and temperature.
6. VMO is expressed as CAS but calculated as EAS.
ERRORS
INSTRUMENT POSITION MANOEUVRE BLOCKAGES
INDUCED

POSITION ERROR
The instrument uses the same sources of pitot and static pressure as the ASI and therefore
suffers from position error caused by disturbed airflow at the pitot head and/or static vent.
MANOEUVRE INDUCED ERROR
The Machmeter will suffer an additional, unpredictable error whenever the aeroplane
manoeuvres.
BLOCKAGES
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It may be noted that the Machmeter blockage error are the same as the ASI blockage.
DENSITY, TEMPERATURE AND COMPRESSIBILITY ERRORS
It does not suffer from temperature or density errors, as these errors cancel out. In
addition since compressibility error depends on dynamic/static pressure, and the
instrument is calibrated to this ratio, compressibility error is calibrated out.

CLIMB AT A CONSTANT CAS IN STANDARD(ISA) ATMOSPHERE

CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN ISOTHERMAL LAYER

CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN INVERSION

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 AIR DATA COMPUTER

1. In many large aircraft currently in service, the conventional pressure instruments

which show altitude, airspeed and Mach Number(MNo) are replaced by indicators
displaying information generated by a central computer, the Air Data Computer (ADC).

2. The standard ADS instruments show altitude, vertical speed, airspeed and MNo.
Additional instruments can display Total Air Temperature (TAT), Static Air Temperature
(SAT) and TAS.

3. The weight on wheels switch decouples the stall warning system when the aircraft is
on the ground.

4. AOA may also be an input to the ADC for use in some aircraft systems.

5. The Air Data Computer in current aircraft is a device that uses analogue or digital
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computing techniques to convert pressure and temperature data into electrical signals
which are transmitted to the display instruments and to other systems.

6. In addition to the indicators powered by thetwo ADCs there is a standby barometric

altimeter and a standby airspeed indicator, fed direct from pitot and static sources
separate from those used for the ADCs.
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS SUPPLIED BY THE ADC ARE:

ALTIMETER AIRSPEED INDICATOR

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR MACHMETER

AEROPLANE SYSTEMS SUPPLED BY THE ADC ARE:

FLIGHT DATA RECORDER(FDR) FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(FMS)

AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM(AFCS) TRANSPONDER
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM(GPWS) POWER MANAGEMENT COMPUTER(PMC)
FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM(FDS)

ADVANTAGES OF AN AIR DATA SYSTEM

IMPORVED DISPLAY
REDUCED INSTRUMENT AND LAG ERROR
POSITION ERROR REDUCED
HYSTERSIS ERROR REMOVED
REDUNDANCY REMOVED

BUILD-IN TEST(BIT) OR BUILD-IN TEST EQUIPMENT(BITE)

BITE WHEN
POWER UP ON START UP AFTER A BREAK
CONTINUOUS EVERY SECOND
MAINTENANCE GROUND TEST

# FDR – FLIGHT DATA RECORDER, records flight data for last 25 hours
# FDR is located at the back of the aircraft
# FDR automatically starts when the aircraft first moves under its own power.
# CVR- COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER, records crew conversation for 2 hours.

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AKSHEY SOOD
 GYROSCOPES
The simplest form of gyroscope (or gyro) consists of a rapidly spinning disc (called a rotor). Any rapidly
spinning symmetrical rotor exhibits gyroscopic properties.
The shaft about which the rotor spins is called the axis.
Gyros are defined in their orientation as either horizontal or vertical by reference to the spin axis

TWO BASIC PROPERTIES

1. Rigidity
2. Precession
RIGIDITY
Rigidity is the gyro’s property of maintaining its axis in a fixed direction in space unless subjected to an
external force.
The rigidity of a gyro depends on two properties:
Moment of Inertia: A gyro with a greater radius will have a larger moment of inertia than a smaller one
with the same mass.
A gyro with a greater mass will have a larger moment of inertia than one of the same radius but less mass.
Rotor rpm
The faster the rotor spins, the greater the gyro’s rigidity
The rigidity of a gyroscope is increased if the mass is increased, the effective radius at which the mass
operates is increased, or if the rotor rpm is increased.

PRECESSION
1. Is defined as an angular change in direction of spin axis, when acted upon by an external force.
2. Greater the applied force greater the rate of precession.
3. Greater the rigidity of the rotor, slower the rate of precession.
4.If a force is applied to a moving rotor, it will not act at the point of application but will act at a point 90 o
ahead in the direction of rotation.
5. The rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied torque but inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia and the rotor rpm rate.
6. Effectively, this means that precession and rigidity are opposite characteristics. If a gyro has a lot of
AKSHEY SOOD
rigidity, it will not precess very much. If it precesses a lot, it cannot be very rigid.
GIMBAL
In order for a gyro to be able to maintain a fixed direction,
it must be attached to the airframe in such a way that the
aircraft has freedom to manoeuvre without disturbing the
orientation of the gyro. This is achieved by using
suspension devices which allow this freedom. These are
called gimbals.
WANDER
1. Any departure of a gyro axis from its original
orientation is called wander.
2. Wander may be either real or apparent or a
combination of both.
3. Wander is subdivided into drift and topple.
4. If the gyro axis wanders in the horizontal plane, it is
called drift, either real or apparent
5. If the gyro axis wanders in the vertical plane, it is called
topple, either real or apparent
6. Horizontal axis gyros can both drift and topple.
However, vertical axis gyros can only topple. They can
topple either forwards, backwards or sideways

REAL WANDER
In real wander, the axis of the gyro moves with respect to inertial space. This departure from the original
orientation is caused by manufacturing imperfections, such as uneven rotor bearing friction, gimbal
friction, imbalance in the mass of the rotor and unbalanced gimbals.
Real wander can also be known as ‘random’ wander.
APPARENT WANDER
the direction indicated by a gyro changes due to earth rotation and is called Earth Rate. The other is
caused by flight east or west at latitudes other than the equator and is called Transport Wander.
AKSHEY SOOD
APPARENT DRIFT
Due to rotation of earth, in northern hemisphere heading will keep decreasing at 15o X Sin lat/hour.
APPARENT TOPPLE
A vertical axis gyro will suffer apparent wander at 15o X COS Lat/hour.

HORIZONTAL AXIS GYRO VERTICAL AXIS GYRO

EQUATOR ZERO MAX (15o/hour)
POLES MAX (15o/hour) ZERO

TYPES OF GYRO
FREE (SPACE) GYRO
TIED GYRO DGI
EARTH GYRO AH
RATE GYRO TSI
RATE INTEGRATING GYRO INS/IRS

AKSHEY SOOD
 GYROSCOPIC THEORY- SUMMARY
1. The gyro provides a stable reference datum which is unaffected by the manoeuvres of the aircraft.
2. The simplest form of gyro consists of a spinning disc called the rotor.
3. The shaft which the rotor spins around is called the axis.
4. Gyros are defined in their orientation as horizontal or vertical by reference to their spin axis.
5. The two basic properties of gyros are rigidity and precession.
6. Factors affecting rigidity are the rotor mass, the effective radius at which the mass acts and the speed of
rotation.
7. Rigidity can be increased by increasing the mass of the rotor, increasing its diameter, concentrating
greater mass around the rotor perimeter and by increasing the speed of rotor rotation.
8. The rule of precession states that a gyro will precess at 90o to the applied force measured around the
circumference of the rotor in the direction of spin.
9. Precession is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass and
rotational speed of the rotor.
10. If a gyro has a lot of rigidity, it will not precess very much. If it precesses a lot, it cannot be very rigid.
11. Aircraft gyros generally have one or two gimbals.
12. A two gimbal system has two degrees of freedom or full freedom.
13. Any departure of the gyro spin axis away from its fixed orientation is known as gyro wander.
14. Gyro wander may be real or apparent or a combination of both.
15. Both real or apparent wander may be sub-divided into drift or topple.
16. Gyro drift occurs when the spin axis moves in the horizontal plane.
17. Gyro topple occurs when the spin axis moves in the vertical plane.
18. Vertical axis gyros can only topple.
19. Horizontal axis gyros can drift and topple.
20. Real wander is actual movement of the spin axis.
21. Apparent wander can be drift or topple due to earth rate or transport wander.
22. Apparent wander can be drift or topple due to earth rate or transport wander.
23. ER = 15 X sin Latitudeo/hour
24. Transport wander occurs when the gyro is transported in an easterly or westerly direction across the
earth at latitude other than the equator.
25. Apparent Topple = 15 X cos latitude o/hour.
𝐸𝐴𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑅𝐿𝑌 𝐶𝑂𝑀𝑃𝑂𝑁𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝐺𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑁𝐷 𝑆𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐷
26.TW = 𝑥 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
60

AKSHEY SOOD
 DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR

1. The directional gyro indicator (DGI), often called the ‘direction indicator’ (DI) provides a stable
directional reference in azimuth for maintaining accurate headings and for executing precise turns.
2. There is no magnetic element in the DI, so it is not north-seeking and must initially be synchronized with
the magnetic compass.

THE PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE DGI

1. The DI employs a tied gyro.
2. It is a 2-Gimbal Gyro with two degree of freedom of precession in three planes though one is tied.
3. Rotor axis is maintained in the yawing plane(Horizontal) of the aircraft.
AKSHEY SOOD
4. The rotor is mounted in the inner gimbal and rotates at about 12000 rpm.
5. The rotor assemply is normally driven by air drawn in through the aircraft vacuum system and directed
by the nozzle into the bucket.
6. The outer gimbal can rotate through 360° about the aircraft’s vertical axis, on bearings in the case.
7. Note that the rotor axis, the inner gimbal axis, and the outer gimbal axis are mutually at right angles.
8. Heading is indicated on the scale by a lubber line painted on a glass window in the instrument case.
Some designs have a circular vertical-card indicating scale geared to the outer gimbal.
9. The jets not only spin the rotor but also serve to maintain or tie the
rotor axis in the yawing plane of the aircraft.
10. The air leaving the case is directed at a wedge plate fixed to the outer
gimbal.
11. Any tendency of the rotor to move from the aircraft horizontal
reference will be corrected by wedge plate device.
12. Caging knob, when pushed in, moves a caging arm which locks the
inner gimbal at right angles to the outer gimbal so locking the rotor
axis in the yawing plane, this can be done in flight as well with wings
level.
13. Caging device uses:
• The DGI can be synchronized with the compass and reset as required. Before start of flight, the heading
is synchronized with aircraft’s compass heading.
• The gyro will not topple during synchronization.
• Toppling and possible damage to the instrument can be prevented by caging before manoeuvres in
which pitch and roll limits may be exceeded.
• DGI is reset every 15 minutes for accurate result or else it gives the error of 4o per 15 minutes.
• The gyro can be instantly re-erected and re-synchronized if it has toppled.
14. Limitation of instrument is 55o for maximum angle of bank, climb or dive. If this is to be exceeded, the
instrument should be caged.
15. The DGI does not suffer from the compass turning and acceleration errors produced by the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field.
Limitations
If the aircraft exceeds the pitch or roll limits of 85° (55° in air driven gyro DIs) the gyro will topple as the
inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the precession causing the outer gimbal and scale to spin rapidly.
ERRORS
GIMBALLING ERROR RANDOM WANDER APPARENT WANDER DUE TO EARTH’S ROTATION
VARYING ROTOR RPM APPARENT WANDER DUE TO CHANGE OF AIRCRAFT POSITION

GIMBALLING ERROR
1. Occurs when gimbals of a gyroscopes are not mutually perpendicular.
2. Occurs on cardinal headings when aircraft is pitched and rolled simultaneously.
3. Instruments will give a false heading indications. Indications will be corrected once the aircraft returns to
straight and level flight.
4. Errors are small if the attitude deviation from level flight is only moderate and they disappear as soon as
level flight is resumed.
AKSHEY SOOD
5. Sometimes this error is referred as “applying pitch in a turn”.
RANDOM/REAL WANDER
1. Occurs as a result of imbalance, uneven wear and friction in the instrument itself.
2. Mainly due to manufacturing imperfection.
APPARENT WANDER DUE TO EARTH’S ROTATION
1. An azimuth gyro (with the axis of the spinning
rotor horizontal) is set up in gimbals and frame at
the North (or South) Pole.
2. The rotor axis will stay rigid in space (assuming
zero real wander) while the earth rotates under it
through 360° in one day or 360/24 = 15° in one
hour.
3. If the gyro is the DGI, its reading will be
decreasing (at the North Pole) at a rate of
15°/hour. This is the maximum rate of apparent
wander due to the earth’s rotation.
4. At the South Pole the reading would increase
at the same rate.
5. at the equator with the axis horizontal and
aligned north/south. In 24 hours, the observer
and gyro will move with the earth once round the
earth’s axis of rotation. There is no change in the
direction of the rotor axis relative to the
meridian, so there is zero apparent drift.
6. The apparent drift rate due to the earth’s
rotation is therefore a function of latitude, being
maximum at the pole and zero at the equator.
Apparent drift rate = 15 × sin lat (degrees per
hour)
Positive in Northern Hemisphere
Negative in Southern Hemisphere
7. This is the reason to synchronize DGI with
magnetic compass every 15 minutes.

HEMISPHERE DGI READING DGI READING

(EAST) (WEST)
Northern Decrease Increase
Hemisphere
Southern Increase Decrease
Hemisphere

AKSHEY SOOD
LATITUDE NUT CORRECTION
1. Compensation for apparent wander (drift).
2. Apparent drift due to the rotation of the earth can therefore be cancelled for a given latitude by using
the latitude nut to produce an equal and opposite real drift
3. The ability to screw the nut in or out enables compensation to be made for increasing readings
(southern hemisphere) or decreasing readings (northern hemisphere).
4. The setting can only be changed under workshop conditions (not in the aircraft) so that compensation
will only be correct for the chosen latitude.
5. Latitude nut is screwed outward to compensate for apparent drift in northern hemisphere and inwards
in southern hemisphere.

Flight north from the ‘corrected latitude’ gives a decreasing reading (a minus drift rate).
Flight south from the ‘corrected latitude’ gives an increasing reading (a plus drift rate).
Flight away from the ‘corrected latitude’ results in the drift rate increasing.
Flight towards the ‘corrected latitude’ results in the drift rate decreasing.

ERRORS DUE TO UNSTABLE ROTOR RPM

1. Since the rate of precession of a gyro depends on rotor rpm, over which no precise control is
maintained in a suction-driven DGI, the latitude nut compensation is only approximate.
2. For instance, at high altitude with inadequate suction, the rotor rpm will be lower than the design
value. This results in reduced gyroscopic rigidity and the latitude nut produces too high a precession rate,
so over-correcting the apparent drift.
3. Should rpm exceed the design figure, the rigidity would increase and the latitude nut would produce a
lower rate of precession so under-correcting the apparent drift.
TRANSPORT WANDER
At any latitude other than the equator, meridians (which define local north) are not parallel. If the gyro is
aligned to one meridian, then flown east to west, the new meridian will be inclined to the old by transport
wander.
1. Occurs at the same time as earth rate.
2. Occurs when the gyro is transported in an easterly or westerly direction across the earth at latitudes
other than the equator.
3. No error for north-south direction.
4. No error at the equator.
5. In the Northern hemisphere transport wander is designated minus in an easterly direction and positive
in a westerly direction.
𝑮𝑺 × 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 =
𝟔𝟎
𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑫𝑹𝑰𝑭𝑻 = 𝑹𝑬𝑨𝑳 + 𝑨𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑵𝑻 + 𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑷𝑶𝑹𝑻 𝑫𝑹𝑰𝑭𝑻
𝑮𝑺 × 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑫𝑹𝑰𝑭𝑻 = 𝑹𝑬𝑨𝑳 ± 𝟏𝟓° 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 ±
𝟔𝟎

AKSHEY SOOD
 NH SH
1 DRIFT DUE TO EARTH RATE(ER) - +
2. DRIFT DUE TO LATITUDE NUT(LN) + -
3. DRIFT DUE TO TW EASTWARDS - +
4. DRIFT TO TO TW WESTARDS + -

1. A Perfect DGI has its latitude nut set for 55 oN. The aircraft flies for 1HR 45MINS on a track of 270 o at
latitude 50oN, at a groundspeed of 350kts. What will be the total DGI error on completion of the flight?
2.What would be Gyro Drift of a stationary aircraft at 30oN latitude?
3. If an aircraft gyro has compensated for 30 oN latitude, what drift will a stationary aircraft face at 45oN
latitude?
4. If a gyro reading decreases 8o after 1HR at 60oN latitude what is the real drift?
5. A gyro is ground tested at 60oN and is found to have a drift of 18o/hr increasing, Find real drift?
6. DI is balanced so that drift is zero when stationary at 45oS. what drift will be experienced when
stationary at 60oN assuming that there is no real drift apart from that due to latitude nut.
7. A perfectly balanced gyro at 23.5oN is taken to 23.5oS, Drift experienced will be?
a. zero
b. Half
c. Double
d. Triple
8. A DGI is ground tested at 60oN and is found to have a drift of -8o/hr.
It is taken to 45oN latitude, find
A. Total drift when stationary?
B. At 45oN if it is flown on track of 090 o at GS 300kts. Find total drift?
C.. At 45oN it is flown on track of 270o at GS 300kts. Find total drift?
D. At what latitude gyro will have zero drift when it is stationary?

SUMMARY
DGI
1. The DGI provides a stable directional reference in
azimuth. • Provides heading reference.
• Gyro spin axis is maintained horizontal and it can
2. The DGI does not suffer from the acceleration and
be referenced to either True or Magnetic North
turning errors of the magnetic compass
• Employs Horizontal axis tied gyro.
3. The DGI needs to be regularly synchronized with
• Utilizes property of Rigidity to indicate heading.
the magnetic compass.
The DGI uses a tied gyro with two degrees of freedom.•TheUtilizes property of PRECESSION in latitude
4. spin axis is maintained in the yawing planenut.
of the aircraft.
5. The gyro rotor is mounted on the inner gimbal on bearings in the outer gimbal
6. In an air driven DGI, air jets maintain or tie the rotor axis in the yawing plane.
7. In an air driven DGI, the nozzle and wedge plate are mounted on the outer gimbal.
8. Earth rate = 15 ✕ sin latitude°/hour
9. At the equator, there will be no apparent wander.
10. Transport wander occurs when the gyro is transported in an easterly or westerly direction at latitudes
other than the equator.
11. Transport wander does not occur on flights along a north-south meridian
12. The formula for transport wander is
Transport wander = (easterly component of groundspeed/60) ✕ tan latitude°/hour
13. The caging device is used to synchronize the DGI with the magentic compass and to prevent topple.
AKSHEY SOOD
14. The DGI manoeuvre limits in roll or pitch are +/- 55° (air driven) and +/- 85° (electrically driven)
15. DGI errors are:
Gimballing errors
Real wander
Earth Rate
Incorrect Rotor speed
Transport wander
16. The latitude nut produces real wander which is equal to and opposite to apparent wander caused by
earth rate.
17. The latitude nut is set for a specific latitude only.

AKSHEY SOOD
ARTIFICAL HORIZON/ATTITUDE INDICATOR

AKSHEY SOOD
1. The artificial horizon (AH) provides the pilot with information in terms of the
aircraft’s attitude both in pitch and roll.
2. The attitude display consists of a miniature aircraft shape or ‘gull-wing’ (tail
view) painted or engraved centrally on the inside of the glass face of the
instrument, and therefore fixed to the instrument case and the actual
aircraft.
3. Behind this representation of the aircraft is the horizon bar, linked to the
gyro in such a way that the bar is gyro-stabilized parallel to the true horizon.
4. The artificial horizon may be suction or electrically driven.
5. Pneumatic driven attitude indicators have an speed of 8o/min and
takes normally 5 minutes to erect from start-up.
6. The rotor assembly is made slightly bottom heavy to reduce the
time taken for initial erection.
7. Air drawn in by the suction via a filter, enter the rotor case as a jet
which spins the rotor at up to 15000 rpm.
8. The artificial horizon uses an earth gyro in which the spin axis is
maintained in, or tied to, the vertical by earth’s gravity.
9. Freedom of movement about 3 planes.
10. When in straight and level flight, horizon bar & aircraft will appear in the mid position.
CONTROL SYSTEM
The control system of the air driven artificial horizon consists of four slots and four pendulous (hanging)
vanes at the base of the rotor housing.
four equal jets of air emerge from the slots, fore an aft and left and right.
The four jets are of equal strength but in opposite directions no force is exerted on the gyro and
therefore no precession occurs - the gyro rotor remaining vertical.

AKSHEY SOOD
LIMITATION
1. The amount the case can move relative to the gyro is controlled by fixed stops.
2. With older designs, typical limits are ± 60° in pitch and 110° each way in roll.
3. In modern instruments, there is complete freedom in roll and up to 85° (plus or minus) in pitch.
4. If the limits are exceeded, the gyro ‘topples’, giving violent and erratic movements of the horizon bar.
ACCELERATION ERROR IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
1. The control system of the air driven artificial horizon depends on the pendulous vanes being affected
by the earth’s gravity. However, the vanes will be affected by any acceleration, not just that due to
gravity.
2. When an aircraft accelerates in a level attitude (such as during the take-off run) a false nose- up, right
wing down, or climbing right hand turn indication will result.
3. These errors assume that the rotor is rotating anticlockwise when viewed from the top.
PITCH ERROR
1. The pitch error is due to the effect of acceleration on the lateral pendulous vanes.
2. During acceleration, the lateral vanes lag, swinging back towards the pilot, opening the starboard slot
and closing the port slot.
3. Deceleration will cause a nose-down, left wing low error, the opposite of the acceleration error
indication.
ROLL ERROR
1. The roll error is due to the inertia of the bottom-heavy rotor housing.
2. Due to inertia, the weighted base of the rotor housing tries to lag during acceleration.
TURNING ERROR IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICAL HORIZON
1. Whenever an aircraft turns there must be an acceleration towards the centre of the turn (centripetal
force).
2. Since the pendulous vanes are now affected by a horizontal acceleration as well as acceleration due to
gravity, errors in pitch and roll indications will occur.
TURNING BANG ANGLE PITCH ERROR
TURNING THROUGH 90o UNDER-READ PTICH UP
O
TURNING THROUGH 180 CORRECT PITCH UP
TURNING THROUGH 270O OVER-READ PITCH UP
O
TURNING THROUGH 360 CORRECT CORRECT
RIGIDITY
1. High rotor speeds in suction horizons of up to 15000 rpm result in high gyroscopic inertia.
2. With electric horizons, speeds of 22500 rpm are typical giving even greater rigidity.
THE ELECTRICAL ARTIFICAL HORIZON
1. The main advantage of an electrical artificial horizon over the air driven horizon is its greater rigidity due
to its faster spin rate.
2. This greater rigidity results in increased accuracy due to reduced errors.
3. The basic principle of the instrument is the same as the air driven horizon.
4. The vertical gyro is still tied by earth’s gravity, but by mercury / levelling switches( fixed to the base of
rotor) and torque motors are used rather than the pendulous vanes of the air driven horizon.

AKSHEY SOOD
5. There are two levelling switches, one to sense pitch and one to sense roll.
6. If a levelling switch is not level, the mercury liquid ball moves from its central position and closes the
circuit to drive its torque motor. The torque motor provides the force which is precessed to return the gyro
axis to the vertical.
7. They activate the pitch and roll torque motors respectively which precess the gyro back to the vertical as
soon as it starts to wander.
8. A pitch cut-out switch is included in the circuit which activates when an acceleration is detected.
9. In many electric horizons a fast erect system is included to give rapid initial erection and quick re-
erection should the instrument topple due to exceeding the operating limits.
10.the normal erection rate of 4° per minute is increased to 120° per minute by pushing the fast erection
knob on the face of the instrument.

SUMMARY
1. The artificial horizon, or AH, is also known as the attitude indicator or, AI.
2. The AH is the primary attitude instrument. It provides information on the aircraft’s attitude in both
pitch and roll.
3. The display consists of a gull wing or similar motif which will move with the aircraft in pitch and roll.
4. An earth gyro stabilizes the horizon image in the earth horizontal.
5. The earth gyro may be air driven or electrically driven.
6. In the air driven AH, the spin axis of the earth gyro is tied to the earth vertical by a system of pendulous
vanes and air jets.
7. A classic air-driven gyro rotates in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from above.
8. The pendulous vanes and the mass of the rotor base will be affected by acceleration, resulting in a
pitch up and right wing down indication.
9. A pitch up/right wing down indication due to acceleration gives an erroneous indication of a climbing
right turn.
10. The pitch up indication results from the effect of inertia on the lateral pendulous vanes.
11. The false right wing down indication results from the effect of inertia on the mass of the rotor housing.
12. The effect of turning errors will depend on the magnitude of the turn, and the magnitude of the error
will depend on the speed and rate of turn.
13. The turning error will apply equally to a turn in either direction.
14. The basic principle of the electrically driven artificial horizon is the same as for the air driven horizon.
15. In the electrical instrument, the earth gyro is controlled by mercury levelling switches and torque
motors.
16. The mercury switch which senses wander of the spin axis in the fore and aft plane has its associated
torque motor on the outer gimbal.
17. The mercury switch which senses wander of the spin axis in the lateral plane has its associated torque
motor on the inner gimbal.

AKSHEY SOOD
 TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

1. This instrument incorporates two measuring devices, both indicating on the same instrument face.
2. One of these, the rate of turn indicator, (commonly shortened to ‘turn’ indicator), uses a rate gyro
3. The other, the slip indicator, is a very simple pendulous device which is used mainly to show whether or
not a turn is balanced, and if not, to indicate the extent of slip or skid.
4. The turn indicator is based on a horizontal-axis rate gyro, which has only one gimbal and therefore only
one degree of freedom.
5. A spring system prevents the gyro from turning all the way to the vertical, and the amount of spring
stretch is a measure of the rate of turn.
6. Gyroscopic property of precession is used to measure rate to turn.
7. The rotor rpm (4500) are low compared with those of the DGI and artificial horizon.
8. If RPM reduces, instrument will under-read the turn rate.
9. If RPM increases, instrument will over-read the turn rate. RATE OF TURN
10. TSI measures:- RATE 1 TURN = 3o/Sec
RATE 2 TURN = 6o/Sec
a. Rate of turn.
RATE 3 TURN = 9o/Sec
b. Change of aircraft heading about aircraft vertical axis. RATE 4 TURN = 12o/Sec
c. Angular velocity about the aircraft vertical axis. Faster the aircraft more
the radius of turn
d. Yaw rate of aircraft.
THE SLIP INDICATOR
1. It is desirable that turns should be properly balanced, with no side slip or skid.
2. This implies that the angle of bank should be correct for the TAS and rate of turn.
3. The correct bank angle could be accurately calculated, or rules of thumb may be used.
𝑇𝐴𝑆
𝐵𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = +7
100
4. The modern version is usually a ‘ball-in-tube inclinometer’. This comprises a solid ball in a curved tube
containing liquid with damps out the unwanted oscillations.

AKSHEY SOOD
AKSHEY SOOD
5. The ball is subject to a centrifugal force depending on TAS and rate of turn
5. When aircraft is in level flight gravity ensures ball in centre.
6. In co-ordinated bank turn resultant of centrifugal and gravitational force will keep ball in centre.
7. If aircraft is turning and bank angle is more or aircraft overbanks, centrifugal force will be less than
gravitational force, therefore aircraft slips into a turn.
8. If the aircraft under banks, centrifugal force will be greater than gravitational force, therefore aircraft
will skid in a turn.

9. Ball to the left apply left rudder, ball to the right apply right rudder (Step the ball)
10. During taxing turn skid will indicated because there is no bank- underbank

THE TURN CO-ORDINATOR

1. The main difference between Turn co-ordinator and TSI is that longitudinal axis of the gyro gimbal is
inclined at 30o to the horizontal.
2. The gyro will respond to banking and as well as turning input force.
3. It is fitted in light aircrafts.

SUMMARY
1. The turn indicator uses a rate gyro to measure the rate of turn around the vertical axis
2. The turn indicator uses a horizontal axis rate gyro
3. The turn indicator has only one gimbal and is classed as having one degree of freedom
4. The slip indicator gives a direct indication of the state of balance of the turn
5. A partially blocked air filter or a leak will cause an underspeed, under-read, and under-time turn.
6. An overspeed will cause an over-read, and over-time turn
7. Lower rotor spin speed means less gyroscopic rigidity, giving greater precission
8. In an electrically powered of a balanced, skidding and slipping turn should be noted
9. A skidding turn results from insufficient bank, and the ball will appear to move in the opposite direction
to the turn

AKSHEY SOOD
10. A slipping turn results from too much bank and the ball will appear to move in the same direction as
the turn
11. In the turn co-ordinator, the rate gyro axis is inclined to the aircraft’s fore and aft axis by 30°
12. In the turn co-ordinator, the inclination of the gyro axis makes the makes the gyro sensitive to roll/bank
as well as to yaw/turn
13. A Rate 1 turn is 360° in 2 minutes.
14. Rule of thumb formula Diameter of turn = TAS/100
15. Rule of thumb formula AOB= (TAS/10) +7

AKSHEY SOOD
 MAGNETISM

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD
The field of a magnet is the space around
it in which its magnetic influence is felt.
POLES OF A MAGNET
1. Magnets are made in various shapes but
each magnet always has two poles (where
the properties of magnetism are most
strongly displayed).
2. A unit pole cannot exist. If a magnet is cut into two pieces, each piece will have two
poles.
RED AND BLUE POLES
1. A freely suspended bar magnet (or compass needle) in the earth’s magnetic field will
align itself roughly North-South.
2. The end which points North is known as a North-seeking or red pole. The other end is a
South- seeking or blue pole.
3. By convention, magnetic lines of force are directed out from the red pole and back in to
the blue pole.

MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Magnetic materials are ‘ferrous’ metals iron and steel, steel being iron alloyed with
substances such as carbon, cobalt, nickel, chromium, and tungsten. These metals are called
‘ferromagnetic’.
2. Non-ferrous substances are aluminium, duralumin, brass, copper, plastic, and paint.

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HARD IRON AND SOFT IRON
1. Ferromagnetic material can be broadly divided into two classes, hard iron and soft iron.
2. Hard iron magnetism is said to be ‘permanent’, meaning that the material, typically steel
containing cobalt or chromium, remains magnetised for an indefinite period after it has
been removed from the magnetising field.
3. Soft iron magnetism is called ‘temporary’ (or ‘transient’ or ‘induced’) the substance
being easy to saturate magnetically with only a weak magnetising field but retaining little or
no magnetism when the field is removed.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

The earth behaves as though a huge permanent magnet were situated near the centre
producing a magnetic field over the surface.

The earth’s blue pole lies at present beneath Northern Canada in the area around 70°N 95°
W, the red pole being below Antarctica at about 72° S

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THE MAGNETIC COMPASS
A compass is an instrument designed to indicate direction on the surface of the earth,
relative to some known datum. The magnetic compass uses the horizontal component of
the earth’s field as its directional datum.
DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS
There are two basic types of direct reading magnetic compasses used in aircraft, the
vertical card and, less commonly, the grid ring compass.

THE VERTICAL CARD COMPASS

1. The vertical card compass - which is

also known as the B-type or E-type - is
the direct reading compass in general
use.
2. It is usually the main magnetic
heading reference in light aircraft and
the standby compass in larger
aircraft.
3. It consists of a circular compass card
attached directly to the magnet
assembly.
4. This combined unit is suspended in liquid within the compass bowl.
5. A vertical lubber line on the glass window of the bowl, enables the
heading to be read off the compass card.

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COMPASS REQUIREMENTS
The direct reading magnetic compass contains a pivoted magnet which must be able to
align itself, and remain aligned, with the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
field.
There are certain requirements to be fulfilled to achieve the desired results:
1. Horizontal
2. Sensitive
3. Aperiodic
HORIZONTALITY
To achieve horizontality, the magnet assembly is ‘pendulously suspended’, the centre of
gravity of this assembly being lower than its supporting pivot.

In this way, the tilting effect caused by the vertical component Z of the earth’s field is
opposed by the weight of the magnet assembly, this equilibrium being achieved at the cost
of only a very slight residual tilt of the magnets
SENSITIVITY
1. The ability of a pivoted magnet to align itself with an external field - its sensitivity -
depends on the strength of the external field and on the magnetic moment of the magnet.
2. The weak external field (H) at a place cannot be changed, but the magnetic moment of
the magnet can be increased - by increasing the magnet’s length and/or pole strength.
3. It is however undesirable to increase the magnet length, so the pole strength is increased
by using two, four or six short magnets or a circular magnet, made of an alloy which will
accept and retain the high degree of magnetism required.
4. Sensitivity is further increased by reducing friction. This is achieved in three ways:
a. By using an iridium-tipped pivot in a jewelled cup
b. By lubricating the pivot with the liquid which fills the compass bowl.
c. By reducing the effective weight of the magnet assembly acting down through the pivot,
because the liquid that the magnet assembly is displacing is denser than air .
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APERIODICITY
1. The magnetic assembly is required to be aperiodic or ‘dead beat’, which means that it
should settle down quickly on a steady indication after being displaced by turbulence or
manoeuvres.
2. Any tendency to oscillate must be quickly ‘damped out’. The desired aperiodicity is
achieved as follows:
a. Several short magnets are used instead of one longer one. This keeps the mass of the
assembly near the centre, so reducing the moment of inertia and consequently making any
oscillations easier to damp out. Light alloy is utilised wherever possible in order to minimise
the weight of the assembly framework.
b. The primary purpose of the liquid in the compass bowl is to act as a damping liquid on
the compass assembly.
THE COMPASS LIQUID
Two difficulties may arise as a result of compass liquid.
Firstly, the liquid is likely to expand or contract with change of temperature; this is
overcome by incorporating an expansion chamber or ‘Sylphon tube’
Secondly, errors occur in sustained turns as a result of ‘liquid swirl’. Liquid swirl occurs due
to the viscosity of the liquid, because of this the liquid chosen should have a low viscosity
to minimise liquid swirl.
Various liquids, including alcohol have been used. The main properties required of a
compass liquid are:
Low coefficient of expansion Low viscosity
Transparency Low freezing point
High boiling point Non-corrosiveness

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS
Compass body
Check that there is no obvious damage such as dents or cracks. Any lighting system should
be checked, as should the efficacy of the luminous paint.
Compass Liquid.
The compass liquid should be checked and be free from:
Sediment and discolouration - either of which would indicate corrosion which would result
in increased pivot friction.
Bubbles - which would probably indicate a leaking seal. Turbulence and manoeuvres would
cause any bubbles to move about, creating eddies which could disturb the magnet system.

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ACCELERATION AND TURNING ERRORS
1. Direct reading compasses are subject to large errors during linear acceleration or
deceleration, or during a turn.
2. Most manoeuvres which cause the centre
of gravity of the magnet assembly to move
away from its normal position, almost
directly below the pivot, will produce an
error.
3. Note, also that turning and acceleration
errors only occur where there is a significant
vertical component (Z) in the earth’s field,
therefore, errors are non-existent near the
magnetic equator.
4. Acceleration and turning errors occur
however when the north seeking end of the magnet is displaced from Magnetic north and
therefore an incorrect heading will be shown on the compass

ACCELERATION ERROR
Acceleration / deceleration errors are maximum on East and West (M) headings and zero
on North and South (M) headings.
The error is caused by inertia acting on a magnet which has residual dip due to the effect of
the vertical component Z on the magnet.

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Acceleration on 090°M (NH)

Since the magnet assembly is pendulously suspended, its inertia will cause it to swing back
behind the pivot point. This displacement enables a turning couple to rotate the magnet
assembly clockwise round the pivot.
The compass reading will therefore decrease,
So indicating an apparent turn towards North.
the compass is under-reading.

Deceleration on 090°M (NH)

Since the magnet assembly is pendulously suspended, its inertia will cause it to swing
forwards ahead of the pivot point.
This displacement enables a turning couple to rotate the magnet assembly anti-clockwise
round the pivot.
The compass reading will therefore increase,
So indicating an apparent turn towards South.
the compass is over-reading

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Acceleration on 270°M (NH)

Acceleration on 270°M (SH)

Acceleration on a northerly heading (NH)

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 SUMMARY OF ACCELERATION ERRORS

1. Acceleration errors are zero on N/S magnetic headings (in both hemispheres), increasing
to maximum on headings 090°M and 270 ° M
2. Acceleration causes an apparent turn towards the nearer pole
3. Deceleration causes an apparent turn towards the further pole
4. Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced clockwise, the readings will decrease and
the compass will under read.
5. Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced anti-clockwise, the readings will increase
and the compass will over read.
6. The errors are maximum near the magnetic poles, decreasing to zero at the magnetic
equator.
7. The size of a linear acceleration error depends on the:
a. Heading
b. Magnitude of the acceleration
c. Design of the magnet system
d. Magnetic latitude (which affects the relative strengths of H and Z).
TURNING ERRORS
1. Turning errors are maximum when turning through north and south.
2. In a turn, the aircraft accelerates towards the centre of the turn, and therefore an
acceleration force acts through the pivot towards the centre of the turn, while the
opposing centrifugal force due to inertia acts outward through the cg.
3. Turning errors are usually more significant than acceleration errors for the following
reasons:
a. They are inherently of greater magnitude because greater displacement of the magnet
assembly is likely in turns.
b. Turns occur more often and are likely to be more prolonged than linear accelerations.

Turning from 045° to 315° (NH).

Aircraft turns

Magnet turns

Compass will

Liquid swirl

Stop turn

Compass

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 Liquid swirl is more = Stop turn early

Liquid swirl is less = stop turn late

Turning from 315° to 045° (NH)

Aircraft turns

Magnet turns

Compass will

Liquid swirl

Stop turn

Compass

Turning from 135° to 225° (NH).

Aircraft turns

Magnet turns

Compass will

Liquid swirl

Stop turn

Compass

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Turning from 135° to 225° (SH).

Aircraft turns

Magnet turns

Compass will

Liquid swirl

Stop turn

Compass

Turning from 045° to 315° (SH). Turning from 315° to 045° (SH)

Turning error- Liquid swirl

1. When turning through north in the Northern hemisphere it will increase the magnitude
of the turning error.
2. Decreases error when turning through south.
SUMMARY OF TURNING ERRORS
1. These are maximum when passing through magnetic North or South, decreasing to zero
when passing through East or West.

2. Magnitude of Turning Errors variables with rate of turn, duration of turn, speed of the
aircraft, the headings involved, and the design of the compass.

3. At the magnetic equator where there is no vertical component Z in the earth’s field,
liquid swirl is the sole source of turning error; with most compasses the effect is only slight.

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