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Citrus Fruit
Biology, Technology and Evaluation
This page intentionally left blank
Citrus Fruit
Biology, Technology and Evaluation

Second Edition

Milind Ladaniya
Former Director, ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute,
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Nagpur, India
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our
arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright
Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-99306-7

For Information on all Academic Press publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki P. Levy

Acquisitions Editor: Nancy J. Maragioglio
Editorial Project Manager: Maria Elaine D. Desamero
Production Project Manager: Kumar Anbazhagan
Cover Designer: Christian J. Bilbow
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
 Dedication

Dedicated
to
my mother Sau. Sunder Ladaniya,
my wife Mamta,
my sons Makrand and Mayur,
and
my maternal uncle late Shri. Bhikulal ji Dudhawat.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxiii

1. Introduction 1
I. History and nutritive value 1
II. Area and production 2
III. Consumption 5
IV. International trade 6
V. Varieties 7
VI. Future projections 8
VII. Major threats to production and supply 10
VIII. Postharvest overview 12
IX. Conclusion 18
References 19
Further reading 21

2. Commercial fresh citrus cultivars and producing

countries 23
I. Citrus cultivars for fresh fruit markets 23
A. Sweet orange 23
B. Mandarin 29
C. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen) 36
D. Pummelo or shaddock (C. grandis or C. maxima) 37
E. Hybrids of pummelo and grapefruit 39
F. Lemon (Citrus limon) 39
G. Acid lime 41
H. Sweet lime (Citrus limettioides Tanaka) 41
I. Citron (Citrus medica Lin.) 42
J. Calamondin (Citrus madurensis Loureiro) 42
K. Natsudaidai (Citrus natsudaidai Hayata) 42
L. Hassaku (Citrus hassaku Tanaka) 42
M. Kumquat (Fortunella spp.) 43
N. Bael [Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa.] 43
II. Countries, varieties grown, and harvesting seasons 43
A. Northern Hemisphere 44

vii
viii Contents

B. Southern Hemisphere 76
References 89

3. Postharvest losses 93
I. Introduction 93
II. Mandarin 98
A. Nagpur mandarin 98
B. “Coorg” mandarin 99
C. Khasi mandarin 100
D. “Dhankuta” mandarin 101
III. Impact of transportation on losses 101
IV. Acid lime 104
V. Sweet orange and grapefruit 106
VI. Strategies to reduce losses 108
References 109
Further reading 112

4. Preharvest factors 113

I. Sanitary conditions and tree health 114
A. Diseases 114
B. Insect-pests and mites 118
II. Tree nutrition and cultivation practices 124
III. Preharvest sprays 129
A. Auxins 130
B. Gibberellins 131
C. Other chemicals 134
D. Ethephon and other chemicals for fruit color
improvement 136
E. Fungicides 137
IV. Climate 138
References 138

5. Fruit morphology, anatomy and physiology 145

I. Fruit morphology 145
A. Fruit characteristics 146
II. Fruit anatomy 148
III. Fruit physiology 151
A. Respiratory activity 151
B. Biochemistry of respiration 155
C. Transpiration 156
D. Role of ethylene 157
E. Color development and regreening 161
F. Fruit abscission 161
G. Fruit hormonal balance 162
IV. Citrus greening and amino acid metabolism 165
 Contents ix

References 166
Further reading 170

6. Fruit biochemistry 173

I. Introduction 173
II. Carbohydrates 174
A. Monosaccharides 175
B. Oligosaccharides 175
C. Sugar derivatives 175
D. Changes in sugars during fruit growth and storage 179
E. Polysaccharides 180
F. Changes in polysaccharides during fruit growth and
maturation 182
III. Organic acids 182
A. Changes in organic acids during fruit growth and
maturation 184
B. Physiological role of organic acids 186
IV. Nitrogenous compounds 186
A. Amino acids 186
B. Amines 189
C. Proteins 191
D. Nucleotides and nucleic acids 192
V. Enzymes 192
A. Polysaccharides and pectic enzyme complex 194
B. Sugar metabolizing enzymes 195
C. Other important enzymes 197
VI. Lipids, waxes, and other related compounds 199
A. Cutin 201
B. Waxes 201
C. Terpenoids and steroids 202
VII. Pigments 202
VIII. Phenols, flavonoids and limonoids 207
A. Phenols 207
B. Flavonoids 210
C. Limonoids 213
IX. Vitamins 215
X. Inorganic constituents 218
XI. Citrus oils and volatile flavoring compounds 221
A. Tangerine and mandarin 222
B. Orange 224
C. Grapefruits and pummelo 228
D. Lemon 229
E. Lime 230
F. Other citrus and related fruits 231
XII. Antioxidant capacity 231
References 233
Further reading 246
x Contents

7. Growth, maturity, grade standards, and

physico-mechanical characteristics of fruit 249
I. Citrus fruit and climate 249
II. Growth and development 251
A. Mineral nutrition and fruit growth 254
B. Fruit maturation 255
III. Indices of maturity, fruit grades, and standards 256
A. Indices of maturity (internal standards) 256
B. Fruit grades (external standards) 264
IV. Physical and mechanical characteristics 269
References 273
Further reading 278

8. Harvesting 279
I. Methods of harvesting 279
A. Manual harvesting 280
B. Mechanical harvesting 286
C. Robotic harvesting 289
II. Cost of harvesting 293
A. Manual harvesting 293
B. Mechanical harvesting 294
References 294

9. Preparation for the fresh fruit market 299

I. Degreening 300
A. Degreening conditions 301
B. Ethephon, ethylene, and other compounds enhancing
rind color 303
C. Degreening rooms 309
D. Changes in physico-chemical attributes of degreened fruit 313
E. Respiration 315
F. Fruit color change and mass loss in degreened fruit 315
G. Decay and disorders in degreened fruit 316
H. Color improvement with other methods 319
II. Packinghouse operations 319
A. Mechanized operations 320
B. Commodity-specific operations 336
C. Care during handling of fruit on packing line 339
D. Manual versus mechanical operations 340
E. Packinghouse environment, worker conditions, and
safety rules 340
F. Sanitation 341
G. Wastewater disposal 342
H. Economics and energy needs of packinghouse operations 342
 Contents xi

I. Conventional operations in developing countries and

recent developments 344
J. Some tips for export of citrus fruits 345
III. Postharvest treatments 346
A. Curing 346
B. Disinfection and cleaning 346
C. Surface coatings 347
D. Plant-growth regulators 361
E. Other chemicals 364
References 364
Further reading 376

10. Packaging 379

I. Containers and packaging materials 380
A. Bulk handling containers 380
B. Containers for transport/shipment 381
C. Commodity-specific containers 383
D. Filling and packing of boxes 389
E. Labeling of cartons / boxes 392
F. Transport-worthiness, carton strength and fruit cooling 393
G. Stacking and handling 395
H. Packaging for retail market 395
II. Film-wrapping and seal-packaging 398
A. Seal-packaging 398
B. Commodity-specific response to seal-packaging 399
C. Advantages of seal-packaging 404
III. Modified atmosphere packaging 406
A. Plastic films and their characteristics 408
B. Citrus fruit responses to modified atmosphere packaging 410
IV. Biodegradable packaging and alternatives 413
References 416
Further reading 422

11. Precooling and refrigeration 423

I. Temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit 424
II. Mechanical refrigeration 426
A. Refrigeration equipment and cooling plant 426
B. Construction of cold storage rooms 428
C. Heat load and thermal properties 430
III. Precooling 430
A. Effect of precooling on various citrus fruits 434
B. packaging containers and their alignment during
precooling 434
C. Use of computational model in precooling studies 437
References 441
xii Contents

12. Storage systems and response of citrus fruits 443

I. Storage systems 444
A. Refrigerated storage 445
B. Storage at suboptimal or chilling temperatures 457
C. Controlled atmosphere 462
D. Hypobaric storage 470
E. Evaporative cool storage and other natural systems 471
F. ECS with solar powered refrigeration system 476
G. Storage under ambient conditions 476
II. Removal of ethylene from storage area 478
III. Changes in fruit composition during storage 479
A. Total soluble solids, sugars, and acidity 479
B. Volatiles 481
C. Enzymes 482
D. Ascorbic acid 482
E. Pectic substances 483
F. Lipid fraction 483
G. Pigments 483
References 484
Further reading 493

13. Transportation 495

I. Road and vehicle condition 498
II. Surface transport 498
A. Vehicle-powered refrigerated truck 501
B. Trailers/trucks (refrigerated and non-refrigerated) 501
C. Trailer-on-flat-car 502
D. Rail cars 503
E. Reefer containers (refrigerated containers) 504
F. Cargo holds of ships 507
III. Air distribution system 508
IV. Fruit package and stowage 509
V. Fresh air exchange 510
VI. Commodity specific transport requirement 510
VII. Refrigeration controls, sensors and communication 510
VIII. Conditioning and quarantine treatments during
transportation 514
IX. Air shipments 516
X. Food safety considerations during shipments 517
References 517

14. Marketing and distribution 521

I. Marketing systems and distribution 521
A. Japan 522
B. Taiwan 524
C. China 525
 Contents xiii

D. South Asia 527

E. Europe 532
F. Israel 535
G. South Africa 535
H. United States 535
I. Australia 536
J. Brazil 538
K. Iran 538
L. Tanzania 538
References 539

15. Irradiation 541

I. Ionizing radiation 541
A. Gamma rays 542
B. X-rays 543
C. Electron beam 543
D. UV radiations 543
II. Irradiation process 543
A. Radioactive source for gamma radiation 544
B. Irradiation guidelines 544
III. Possible benefits of irradiation 545
A. Fungicidal action/decay control 545
B. Quarantine treatment for fruit disinfestation 549
IV. Irradiation effects on citrus quality attributes 550
A. Respiratory activity, ethylene evolution, and internal gas
concentration 550
B. Enzymatic activity 551
C. Compositional changes 552
V. Phytotoxic effect of irradiation on peel and flesh 556
References 559
Further reading 561

16. Postharvest disease management with fungicides 563

I. Introduction 563
II. Postharvest diseases 564
A. Decay due to field infection 564
B. Decay due to postharvest infection 567
C. Physiological effects of postharvest infection 569
III. Disinfectants and fungicides 570
A. Disinfectants 570
B. Fungicides 571
IV. Treatments, residues, and tolerances 575
A. Fungicide treatments 575
B. Strategies against decay and resistance development 584
C. Residues and tolerances 585
References 590
Further reading 594
xiv Contents

17. Alternative strategies for postharvest disease

management 595
I. Introduction 595
II. Generally recognized as safe chemicals 597
A. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 10H2O) and sodium
bicarbonate (NaH CO3) 597
B. Borax 598
C. Peroxyacetic acid 598
D. Hydrogen peroxide 598
E. Sorbic acid 598
F. Chlorine 598
G. Other compounds 599
III. Microbial antagonists 600
IV. Commercial microbial antagonists 601
V. Plant extracts and compounds of bio-origin 601
VI. Growth regulating substances 604
VII. Antifungal edible coatings 605
VIII. Physical methods 606
A. Ultraviolet rays 606
B. Ozone treatment and corona discharge 607
C. Non-thermal gas plasma/cold plasma 609
D. Anolyte (electrolysed) water 609
E. Hot-water treatment 611
F. Curing: high-temperature treatment under dry or moist
conditions 612
IX. Integrated treatments 613
X. Organic postharvest management 614
A. Postharvest handling for organic produce 615
XI. Available strategies and regulations 616
References 617
Further reading 623

18. Physiological disorders and their management 625

I. Disorders caused by postharvest factors 626
A. Chilling injury 626
B. Oleocellosis (rind-oil spot) 628
C. Rind staining and pitting 629
D. Kohansho 630
E. Peteca 630
F. Red blotch or red-colored lesions 631
G. Stylar-end breakdown 632
H. Rind breakdown 633
II. Disorders caused by preharvest factors 634
A. Freeze injury 634
B. Granulation 635
C. Fruit splitting or cracking 637
 Contents xv

D. Puffiness 638
E. Superficial rind pitting 639
F. Creasing 639
G. Sunburn/sunscald 640
References 641

19. Postharvest quarantine treatments for

insect-pests, mites and diseases 645
I. Introduction 645
II. Pest and disease-free zone protocol 646
III. Fruit-fly disinfestation 648
A. Chemical control 648
B. Physical treatments 649
IV. Other insect-pests and mites 656
V. Diseases 657
References 657
Further reading 659

20. Fruit quality control, evaluation, and analysis 661

I. Fruit quality 661
A. Physical parameters 662
B. Chemical parameters 662
C. Physiological parameters 663
II. Analysis of quality attributes and instruments 663
A. Physical attributes 663
B. Chemical attributes 671
C. Physiological attributes 674
D. Sensory attributes 677
E. Fruit sampling 679
F. Instruments useful in storage atmosphere management 679
III. Rapid nondestructive quality evaluation and application 682
A. External quality evaluation 682
B. Internal quality evaluation 682
C. External as well as internal quality evaluation 685
IV. Information and communications technology in fruit
quality management 686
V. Quality control and assurance systems 686
References 689

21. Nutritive and medicinal value of citrus fruits 693

I. Nutritive value of citrus fruit in the human diet 694
A. Calorific value 695
B. Minerals 698
C. Dietary fiber and pectin 699
xvi Contents

II. Therapeutic/medicinal value 700

A. Vitamins 700
B. Flavonoids 702
C. Antioxidants 704
D. Role of citrus fruit in reducing risk of human diseases 705
III. Nutritive and medicinal value of Bael (Aegle marmelos) 714
References 714

22. Biotechnological applications in fresh citrus fruit 721

I. Introduction 721
II. Attributes for improvement 725
A. Seedlessness 725
B. Reduction in juice bitterness 726
C. Fruit firmness and chilling injury 727
D. Ethylene action 727
E. Fruit pigments and nutritive value 728
F. Resistance to pathogens 732
G. Resistance to insect-pests 733
References 733
Further reading 736

23. World fresh citrus trade and quarantine issues 737

I. Exports, imports, and world trade 738
A. Fresh citrus consumption trend 738
B. Major exporting countries 740
C. Major importing countries 747
D. Fruit prices 750
E. Fresh citrus trade prospects 751
F. Barriers in citrus trade 754
II. Quarantine issues 754
A. Quarantine regulations 756
III. Blockchain technology in citrus trade 758
References 759
Further reading 761

24. Impact of climate change and COVID-19

pandemic on citrus industry 763
I. Climate change 763
II. Climate change effect on crop physiology 769
III. Fruit production and yield 772
A. Biotic stresses 774
B. Abiotic stresses 775
C. Fruit quality and storage ability 775
IV. Marketing and prices 777
V. Mitigation and adaptation strategy 778
 Contents xvii

VI. COVID pandemic 780

VII. Fruit production and consumption during pandemic 783
VIII. COVID-19 effect on trade 784
References 786
Further reading 789

Appendix 1 791
Appendix 2 793
Glossary 795
Index 801
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

The first edition of Citrus Fruit—Biology, Technology, and Evaluation was

published in December 2007, and since then tremendous advancements have
taken place in citrus fruit research concerning postharvest management. The
second edition covers almost all developments that have taken place in this
subject matter during the past 14 years till 2021. Citrus fruits are grown in
more than 140 countries around the world. Total citrus production is nearing
the mark of 145 million metric tons (present production 143.75 million met-
ric tons in 2019
20 which was 94.79 million metric tons in 2005). Including
sweet oranges, mandarins, lemons, limes, grapefruit, pummelo, many
hybrids, locally grown tart fruits, citrons, and bael (Aegle marmelos), citrus
is the largest fruit industry in the world. The livelihood of millions of people
is dependent on cultivating, harvesting, sorting, packing, transporting, mar-
keting, storing, and exporting trade operations of citrus fruit. Globally, the
estimated value of just raw citrus fruit is more than 50 billion US$. With the
onset of the COVID-19 pandemic across the world, citrus fruit consumption
increased due to the therapeutic value of vitamin C, flavonoids, and many
other bioactive compounds and antioxidants that boost human immunity.
Postharvest biology and technology, a branch of science that combines
biology and engineering, has evolved further in the past 14 years. During
this period, considerable research efforts in various aspects of this field have
been made all over the world. Increased citrus production and export demand
accelerated research and stimulated the development of new technologies.
The application of computer science, robotics, and information and commu-
nication technology in citrus fruit cultivation and postharvest management is
being emphasized to evaluate and preserve natural qualities of fresh produce
in order to cater to the needs of ever-demanding and quality-conscious con-
sumers. Now, state-of-art postharvest handling technologies are routinely
used in packinghouses. Efforts are continuing to develop and integrate tech-
nologies to ensure that all the fruit that leaves the packinghouse meets qual-
ity standards, without any defects. Noninvasive or nondestructive evaluation
techniques are increasingly being used in quality analysis and detection of
internal defects.
This second edition is an updated comprehensive, single source on the
subject that presents all related aspects such as postharvest biology, handling
technology/machinery, organic and inorganic techniques of disease and pest

xix
xx Preface

management, marketing, trade and quarantine, therapeutic value of fruit,

quality evaluation, and biotechnology.
Advances have taken place in the areas of fruit physiology, biochemistry,
harvesting, handling, edible coatings, precooling, packaging, storage systems,
and therapeutic value of fruit; these advances call for an overall review. In
this edition, I have endeavored to update the information in all related
aspects of fresh fruit. The information on biochemical compounds and quali-
tative changes is vital for students of postharvest science. The physical attri-
butes of fruit determine their response to handling machines; therefore
machines have to be developed, keeping in mind physical and chemical attri-
butes of citrus. Postharvest management requires the proper blending of biol-
ogy and engineering/technology knowledge. This edition contains 533
additional references apart from the previous 1400 references, and thus it
becomes a very comprehensive single source on the subject. Most of the
color plates are new with additions of new tables and diagrams, making this
edition a rich source of education to students of horticulture at large and cit-
riculture in particular. The fundamentals covered in the book are the same as
for most horticulture commodities.
The entire subject matter is presented in 24 chapters compared to 22
chapters in the previous edition. The new chapters—“Impact of climate
change and COVID-19 pandemic on citrus industry” and “Alternative strate-
gies for postharvest disease management” have been added. All the chapters
include new information which appeared in various research journals,
reports, and books during the past 14 years. The basic and applied scientific
information is interwoven to make the reading interesting and comprehensi-
ble. Efforts have been made to provide information in totality. All the stake-
holders in citrus fruit industry including students, teachers, nutritionists,
trainers, quality inspectors, fruit handlers, transporters, exporters, growers,
postharvest technologists, managers, and general readers will find it very
useful.
I have tried to present existing scenario of citrus fruit in the developed
world and also developing countries. This subject matter is very vast and
includes basic and applied science; page limitations do not allow me to cover
all the fundamental and applied aspects in each topic. Nevertheless, I have
tried to do justice with the subject and made it easier to understand and inter-
esting to read and comprehend.
The first chapter has been completely revised and presents fresh data and
statistics on production, including the overview of postharvest biology, tech-
nology, and quality evaluation. Many new varieties have been developed and
being grown now in different growing regions. Many new varieties devel-
oped during the past decade have been added in this edition. The harvesting
period of these varieties is important from an international trade point of
view which is covered in the second chapter. The insight about reasons of
fruit losses, the extent and types of losses at various stages of handling in
 Preface xxi

developing and less developed countries is necessary to evolve effective

postharvest practices.
Separate chapters are devoted to preharvest factors, fruit morphology,
anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry because these are prerequisites for a
thorough understanding of postharvest science. Proper fruit growth and phys-
iological maturity determine fruit characteristics and also influence grade
and internal quality. Therefore separate chapters are devoted to these
aspects.
Preparation of fresh fruit for market requires degreening, mechanical han-
dling operations, and various types of coatings to be applied to fruit. With
growing awareness among the consumers and new information on toxicolog-
ical aspects emerging, the synthetic coatings are being replaced with edible
coatings made of cellulose, chitosan, lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, and
also composites. Packaging containers and prepackaging for the retail market
(shrink-film packing and MAP) are discussed in detail. Precooling studies
are being undertaken using computational fluid dynamics and modeling so
that costs and efforts are reduced. Storage systems and transportation are
both vital aspects that are covered in separate chapters. There are develop-
ments in ethylene scrubbing and use of solar systems in low-cost cold
storages.
Different citrus-growing countries have their own domestic systems of
fruit distribution and, hence, domestic market chains and the role of
intermediaries/functionaries are presented separately.
There is voluminous scientific data and information available to replace
hazardous synthetic fungicides. Several products for biological control of
postharvest diseases and many other physical methods and alternative strate-
gies are available. The organically grown citrus fruit needs organic posthar-
vest management, and it is a burning topic today. In a newly added chapter
17 in this edition, the green, nonhazardous, and eco-friendly management
strategies to manage postharvest spoilage are discussed in detail. Newer fun-
gicide molecules which are relatively less toxic are continuously being
developed, and these will be implemented until organic practices are fully
established; hence, chemical methods of postharvest disease management are
discussed in a separate chapter. Fruit flies, false codling moth, citrus black
spot, citrus greening, and citrus canker are important from a quarantine point
of view. Pre- and postharvest integrated strategy is necessary to manage
these pests and diseases. Gamma, ultraviolet, and x-ray and electron beam
radiations are being tried for quarantine of pests; these aspects are also cov-
ered extensively.
For real-time high-speed quality evaluation in packinghouses, there are
great technological advances so that the sorting and grading can be done, uti-
lizing nondestructive techniques. The advances in these areas also have their
due place in the book. The quality assurance and control systems being used
for fresh citrus fruit, as well as food-safety issues, are discussed. Analytical
xxii Preface

methods and instruments required in postharvest management of fresh citrus

are given. With the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
regime, the fresh fruit trade has become more competitive and SPS (sanitary
and phytosanitary) requirements and quarantine treatments have gained
importance. The trade potentials, varietal preferences, and future prospects
are outlined in the separate chapter.
Citrus fruits play an important role in preventing or delaying cardiovascu-
lar diseases, reducing obesity, and also biological activity to delay invasive
cancer growth. Flavonoids have been shown to attenuate hyperglycemia and
dyslipidemia. Health-promoting effects of citrus fruits have also been shown
in improving cognition and preventing urinary disorders. Citrus oils have
antidepressant effects and are used in aromatherapy to reduce anxiety. New
research findings on these aspects are covered in Chapter 21 on nutritive and
medicinal value of citrus.
Biotechnological applications to develop varieties with improved fruit
quality in citrus have gained momentum, and attributes like seedlessness,
pigmentation in fruit peel and flesh, resistance to insects-pest, and diseases
are being incorporated in new varieties. The studies in proteomics and meta-
bolomics may lead to identifying genes and their action so that technologies
like gene silencing or gene editing can be utilized. This information is dealt
in this second edition albeit briefly.
Climate change is a continuous phenomenon impacting citrus production
and fruit quality in different parts of the world, and sometimes its impacts
are disastrous like in freezes, droughts, and hurricanes/cyclones. The
COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted production, postharvest activities, and
international trade. It also has some positive effects on the citrus industry.
The last and newly included chapter in the second edition covers these
aspects.
For postharvest management, commercial products such as coatings and
plastic films, and their sources along with practical tips, are given in respec-
tive chapters. An updated exhaustive Glossary of terms is also given as a
source of relevant information. Thermal properties of citrus fruits, and insu-
lating and construction materials will be an instant source of information for
users. The unit conversion tables are given in appendices.
The constructive comments to improve this book further would be greatly
appreciated.

Milind S. Ladaniya
Acknowledgments

I am thankful to Dr. B.S. Patil, Regents Professor and Leonard Pike

Inaugural University Professor, Interim Head, Department of Food Science
and Technology, Texas A&M University, Texas, USA, for generously send-
ing the reprints of research articles. I also thank Dr. Ron Porat, Head of
Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, ARO, The Volcani Center, Israel,
for providing information on the status of wax coatings and alternative post-
harvest treatments and also sending the reprints of some of his important
research articles. I hereby acknowledge the support of Dr. Zora Singh, Vice-
Chair, Division Tropical and Subtropical Fruit and Nuts of International
Society for Horticultural Science, Edith Cowan University, WA, Australia,
for providing reprints of the latest research work and a photograph of navel
orange creasing disorder. I am grateful to Prof. Paul Cronje (PhD), Portfolio
Manager (Citriculture), Citrus Research International, Department of
Horticultural Science, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, for sharing
some of his research papers and good photographs of physiological disorders
such as Peteca of lemon and splitting in the navel orange. I am thankful to
Dr. Mario Schirra, Professor, C.N.R. Instituto di Scienzedelle Produzioni
Alimentari, Sassari, Italy, for sharing data on storage aspects of Tarocco
sweet orange.
I am grateful to Dr. Manoj Karkee and his research team at Washington
State University, Center for Precision and Automated Agricultural Systems,
Washington, USA, for sharing a photograph of a robotic arm used for apple
harvesting and Dr. Nachiket Kotwaliwale, Director, ICAR-Central Institute
of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana, India, for taking
efforts to receive and send that photograph to me.
I also thank Paula Tarancón (PhD), Postharvest Technology Center,
Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias, Valencia, Spain, for spar-
ing photographs of new fruit varieties and fruit rind disorder. I thank Dr.
Tracy L. Kahn (PhD), Curator, and Givaudan Citrus Variety Collection
Endowed Chair, California, USA, for sharing her views on areas of new vari-
eties and guidance about the availability of photographs of Shahani Red
(red-fleshed navel orange).
I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Sudhakar Rao, Principal Scientist,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, for providing the pho-
tograph on shrink-wrapped sweet orange fruits. I also gratefully acknowledge

xxiii
xxiv Acknowledgments

the help provided by Dr. G.T. Behere, Principal Scientist at ICAR-CCRI and
Dr. Anjitha George, Scientist, ICAR, for sparing photographs of mite dam-
age on orange fruits and a fruit fly.
I am thankful to the technical editors of this book for their valuable and
constructive comments on the text.
I am greatly indebted to my teachers and guide Dr. B.S. Dhillon,
Professor of Horticulture and former Dean, postgraduate studies, PAU,
Ludhiana; Dr. Daryl Richardson, Professor of Horticulture (Postharvest
Technology), OSU, Oregon, USA, and Dr. K.L. Chadha, former DDG,
Horticulture, ICAR, India, who always have been the source of guidance and
inspiration for me in the profession of horticulture.
I could complete the work of this second edition of the book single hand-
edly due to the constant support by my family—my wife Mamta, my sons
Makrand and Mayur, and especially my mother Sau. Sunder Ladaniya who
is also my ideal for perseverance, sacrifice, and high values in life.
I express my gratitude for the editing advice and assistance in publication
given by Nancy Maragioglio, Senior Acquisitions Editor, Academic Press.
She was associated with this project since the beginning and instrumental in
completing initial formalities of the project. I also thank Elaine Desamero,
Editorial Project Manager, Elsevier, who played a major role in the shaping
this book.
I thank Anbazhagan Kumar, Project Manager, Production, for all the sup-
port in proofreading and printing, and Shri. Mohanraj Rajendran for rights
permission. I also thank all those concerned with this project in Elsevier/
Academic Press for producing this book with care and high standards.

Milind S. Ladaniya
ICAR-Central Citrus Research Institute
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Nagpur, India
Chapter 1

Introduction
Chapter outline
I. History and nutritive value 1 VII. Major threats to production and
II. Area and production 2 supply 10
III. Consumption 5 VIII. Postharvest overview 12
IV. International trade 6 IX. Conclusion 18
V. Varieties 7 References 19
VI. Future projections 8 Further reading 21

I. History and nutritive value

Citrus fruit, which belong to genus Citrus of the Rutaceae family, mainly
include sweet orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck), mandarin (C. reticulata
Blanco), grapefruit (C. paradisi Macf.), pummelo (C. maxima Burm.), lime
(C. aurantifolia Christm.) and lemon [C. limon (L) Burm.] and form a signifi-
cant part of total fruit production in the world with a considerable share in the
trade and economy of many countries around the globe. Due to the richness
and variety of color, flavor and fragrance, these fruits are part of human his-
tory, culture and diet in Asia, America, Europe, Africa and Australia. Citrus
fruits originated in the Eastern part of India, China, East Asia and Pacific
region (Australia) and play an important role in the nutrition of human beings
worldwide. Mention of these fruits can be found in ancient literature of China
and India written several millennia ago (Webber, 1967). Tribals and aborigi-
nals have been using citrons, lemons of different species, oranges and pumme-
los to treat complaints like hypertension, cough, cold, depression, stress and
digestive disorders for centuries in India and many other parts of the world.
These fruits have a soothing and cooling effect and refresh the mind.
In the times of COVID
19 pandemic, citrus fruits assumed significant
importance as immunity boosters due to ample amount of vitamin ‘C’ and
many health promoting substances (phytochemicals). Citrus fruits are also
the source of several minerals (potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
copper), vitamin-B complex (thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid/niacin, pan-
tothenic acid, pyridoxine, folic acid, biotin, choline and inositol), dietary fiber
and secondary phytochemicals (carotenoids, phenols, including flavonoids,
coumarins, limonoids, alkaloids and essential oils) which are able to prevent

Citrus Fruit. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99306-7.00011-6

© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Citrus Fruit

inflammation, degenerative diseases, heart disease and even cancer (Lv et al.,
2015). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities have been attributed
particularly to flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Flavonoids such as narin-
gin, naringenin, hesperidin, nobiletin, quercetin; essential oils (limonene);
and coumarins (auraptene, imperatorin) have been reported to have anti-
inflammatory activity. Such activities were determined using in-vitro and
clinical trials. Flavonoids have been shown to decrease blood cholesterol, tri-
glycerides and obesity (Lv et al., 2015). Citrus fruits have relaxant, sedative
and anxiolytic activities. Such soothing and stress-relieving properties are due
particularly to the essential oils whereby they have been used in aromatherapy
also (Favela-Hernandez et al., 2016). The importance of fresh citrus fruit con-
sumption is more so because the nutrients and health promoting factors (espe-
cially antioxidants) from fresh sources are immediately available to the body
(due to higher bio-availability) and losses of nutrients are negligible as com-
pared with processed juices. The world recognized the nutritive and therapeu-
tic value of citrus fruits during the global COVID-19 pandemic during 2020
and 2021. Along with refreshing taste and flavor, oranges, mandarins, lemons
and grapefruits provide several vitamins, flavonoids, minerals and antioxi-
dants to relieve from the stress. What make these fruit so special is that they
are commonly available, not so expensive to buy and grown almost in all
types of agro-climatic conditions except temperate climates. Hence, all people
can afford to buy one of the citrus fruits out of the Rutaceae family: sweet
orange, mandarin, lime / lemon, grapefruit or pummelo. All these attributes
make these fruits of family Rutaceae and genus Citrus so special.

II. Area and production

Citrus is grown in more than 140 countries of the world. Citrus cultivation is
not only remunerative, but it also sustains livelihood of millions of people
across the world. Among fruit crops in the world, citrus stands first with
respect to production. These crops also has tremendous impact on overall
life of the people across the world. Brazil is the largest producer and
exporter of sweet orange juice, the main product of the citrus chain. The
orange production in the country was 17.07 million tons in 2019 occupying
an area of more than 0.7 million hectares. The Brazilian citriculture is based
on an intensive production system. The sector reflects the importance of
citrus related economic and social activity in the country. The GDP of the
citrus sector was US$ 6.5 billion, while the total revenue of the production
chain was US$ 14.6 billion, and it was responsible for more than 200,000
direct and indirect jobs (Turra et al., 2016). Similarly, in the US, California’s
citrus industry has significant economic and social impacts. The value of
California citrus as measured at the point of shipment was $3.39 billion in the
2016
17 marketing year. The total value created by California citrus in the
2016
17 season was $7.1 billion after including the indirect value generated
by supporting industries and the induced value from household spending
 Introduction Chapter | 1 3

income paid by the industry. The industry directly supports more than 21,000
full-time jobs paying $452 million in wages and, in 2016, added $1.695 bil-
lion to the state’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Babcock, 2018). The esti-
mated value of the citrus industry on the economy of Florida, another major
citrus grower in the US, was $8.9 billion (Hodges and Rahmani, 2009).
During the 1990s, the world citrus production, increased with the rate
of 5.5% every year that resulted in output of 97.28 million tons during
2001
02. Production further increased at the rate of 2
3% every year and
touched the 100 million tons mark during 2003
04 followed by 126.25
million tons in 2011, crossed 135 million tons by 2015 and finally touched
record high of 143.75 million tons in 2019 (FAO, 2006, 2021). Almost 80%
of production was in the Northern Hemisphere with major producers China,
India, US, Spain, Mexico, Egypt, and Turkey. In the Southern Hemisphere,
Brazil, Argentina, Australia, South Africa and Peru contributed major shares.
During the past 50 years, China recorded phenomenal growth in the citrus
industry with production of just 0.65 million tons in the 1970s, which
increased to 7.36 million tons in 1990s and to 15.22 million tons in 2004
05.
Presently, China is the top ranking citrus producer in the world with 37.73
million tons (Table 1.1) Unfortunately, during the past 15 years, due to citrus
greening disease (Huanglongbing) and hurricanes/storms, the story of citrus

TABLE 1.1 Citrus production of the major producers and the world
(million tons).

Country Year

2011 2015 2019

China 28.93 38.15 37.73
Brazil 22.01 19.21 19.65
a
India 7.46 11.41 13.71
US 10.67 8.21 7.19
Mexico 7.03 7.76 8.41
Spain 5.72 5.80 6.00
Egypt 3.72 3.97 4.29
Turkey 3.61 3.97 4.29
Argentina 3.61 3.18 3.46
Iran 3.33 2.82 3.45
World 126.25 135.76 143.75
a
Anonymous (2020).
Source: FAO (2021).
4 Citrus Fruit

cultivation in the United States, particularly in Florida state, is not so encour-

aging. The US citrus production which stood at 11.59 million tons during the
1970s has come down to 7.19 million tons in 2019. In Brazil, citrus produc-
tion increased consistently from 7.39 million tons in 1970s to 22.01 million
tons in 2011 and then declined to 19.65 million tons in 2019. In India, areas
under citrus production increased over the same period of time, since 1970s,
recording an increase of 10 times (from 1,05,000 ha in 1968 to 10,09,000 ha
in 2018
19) and growth of production from 1.21 million tons in 1968 to
13.71 million tons in 2020 (Anonymous, 2020). In the Mediterranean basin,
citrus fruits are primarily produced for the fresh fruit market. Spain is the
principal producer in the region with an area of 305,000 ha and a production
of about 6 million tons. The Spanish citrus production is consistent since sev-
eral years with focus on quality and variety.
Production trends indicate that sweet oranges constitute about 53% of the
total citrus output. Other citrus types constitute 47% (Table 1.2) in which
mandarins/tangerines, clementines, satsumas, comprise about 26%, lemons
and limes 14.27% while grapefruit and pummelos constitute roughly 6%.
Sweet orange production increased from 71.35 million tons in 2011 to
76.29 million tons in 2019. Similarly, tangerine production recorded increase

TABLE 1.2 Production of the major countries by citrus types in 2019

(million tons).

Country Sweet Mandarin Lemon/ Grapefruit/ Total

orange lime pummelo
China 10.43 19.70 2.66 4.93 37.73
Brazil 17.07 00.98 1.51 0.08 19.65
India 03.52 06.39 3.69 0.04 13.71
USA 04.83 00.98 0.87 0.51 07.19
Mexico 04.73 00.48 2.70 0.48 08.41
Spain 03.22 01.82 0.88 0.07 06.00
Egypt 03.19 01.09 0.33
04.63
Turkey 01.70 01.40 0.95 0.24 04.29
Argentina 01.02 00.42 1.90 0.11 03.46
Iran 02.30 00.58 0.47 0.08 3.45
World 76.29 37.42 20.52 9.50 143.75

Anonymous (2020).
Source: FAO (2021).
Another random document with
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not go out of here till to-morrow! I shall work the whole night through!
I! I—Ach, thou great God!”
Kostovsky waved his hands in the air, and it seemed that he was
suddenly possessed with a desperate energy. He longed for work as
for expiation.
“But do you understand what there is to be done? Entirely new
scenery must be painted. And painted good! Do you understand?
Painted g-o-o-d!”
“I shall paint it well, no fear of that!” exclaimed Kostovsky
enthusiastically, once more running all his ten fingers through his
coarse locks. After musingly pacing the stage for some moments, he
stopped before the stage-manager.
“Please tell me all about it, what sort of scenery is wanted, and for
what it is needed,” he said in a more calm voice.
“You see, this will be the second act. Two people are lost in the
steppe at night. The place must be a dull, obscure wilderness, a
terrible fear possesses them, and supernatural things take place
there. You must paint for us this steppe; everything must be in it: the
impression of remoteness, the darkness and clouds, and so vividly
that a shiver of dread should run through the public.”
“That is enough!” interrupted Kostovsky. “I shall paint you the steppe.
I will work the whole night on the stage by lamplight and to-morrow
everything will be ready. Have you the necessary material?”
“Everything is ready, all that is necessary is to work!” put in the
business-manager.
But Kostovsky already felt the inspiration of the decorator. He turned
away from his superiors, no longer even aware of their presence,
and, standing in the centre of the stage, he shouted in a powerful,
imperious voice:
“Here, Pavel, hurry there! Vanka, here with you! Lively there, you
sons of the devil, Kostovsky means to work now!”
The stage-workman Pavel and the apprentice Vanka, a nimble,
slouchy fellow, passionately devoted to the stage, came rushing in
and immediately began to bustle about, spreading the enormous
canvas and bringing forward the paints and brushes.
“Well,” said the business-manager to the stage-manager, “thank
God, he has come to his senses at last; we will not be compelled
now to revoke the play! Let us go and have our dinner. He must not
be interfered with now.”
The whole night the stage was brightly illuminated, and in the empty
theatre reigned the quiet of the grave. Only the tread of Kostovsky
could be heard as, with his long brush in his hand, he continually
approached and retreated from his canvas; all around stood pails
and pots of paint.
He made rapid strides in his work. With a blue mark under his eye,
dirty with paint, with bristling hair and mustaches, he accomplished
with his enormous brush a titanic kind of work. His eyes were ablaze
and his face looked inspired. He created.
At eleven o’clock in the morning the whole company, which had
gathered for the rehearsal, stood agape before the creation of
Kostovsky. The actors, chorus-singers, male and female, and the
ballet-dancers gazed at the enormous canvas from the stage and
afterward from the orchestra, and freely expressed their opinions.
The whole background of the stage was occupied by the gigantic
picture. It was the steppe. On the edge it was overgrown with tall,
dense burdocks and other steppe-grass, farther could be seen a
desolate-looking steppe-grave, thickly overgrown with grass, and still
farther unrolled the cheerless, dull steppe with a wonderful,
immeasurable perspective, a steppe out of the fairy-tales, out of the
times of knighthood—pathless and unpeopled. It seemed to the
onlookers that suddenly the famous Knight of the Russian fairy-tale,
Ilia Muromets, would appear from behind the mound and would bawl
out: “Is there a live man in this field?” But the bleak steppe was
silent, terribly, gloomily silent; looming up against the sky were dark
grave-mounds, and sinister, black, bushy clouds were gathering.
There was no end to these clouds and grave-mounds, and the
measureless vista of this steppe. The whole picture breathed gloom
and oppressed the soul. It seemed as if something terrible would
immediately take place, that the grave-mounds and the clouds had a
symbolic meaning, that they were in a way animated. True, when
one stepped up too close to Kostovsky’s scenery he could not make
out anything: he saw before him a mere daub and splash made with
the large brush—hasty, bold strokes, and nothing more. But the
farther the spectator retreated from the canvas the clearer appeared
the picture of the enormous steppe, spiritualized by a powerful
mood, and the more attentively he looked at it, all the more was he
possessed by the feeling of uncanny dread.
“Well, what do you say to this!” hummed the crowd. “Devilish fellow,
Kostovsky! A real talent! Just see what deviltry he has let loose!”
“Well, that is nothing!” he replied naively. “We are simple workmen:
when we work we work, but when once we are bent on having a
good time we take our fill—that is how we are!”
They all laughed at him, but they spoke about him the whole day: he
had never succeeded so well as at this time.
And he continued at his work; it seemed as if his energy had only
just now become aroused. While the rehearsal was going on, he
painted a “Hindu Temple,” shouted at his helpers, and in the heat of
inspiration even railed at the stage-manager, who wanted to draw his
attention to something.
He was untamable, irresponsible, and great. Dirtier and more
unkempt than ever, he strutted through his workroom at the back of
the stage, painted the superbly beautiful, fantastic “Temple,” and
lived through the happiness of inspiration. His whole appearance,
excited by the sleepless night full of inspiration, was the embodiment
of power and passionate energy: the pale face with the blue
discoloration under the eye, the bristling locks, and the flaming eyes
that seemed to emanate blue rays—all this showed that the
inspiration of Kostovsky did not flash up for a moment, but that it
burned long and steadily with an inexhaustible, even light.
He was wholly engrossed by his “Temple,” when he suddenly felt
close to him some one’s light step, and an exquisite perfume was
wafted to where he stood. He turned around—before him stood
Julia.
She wore the costume of a ballet-dancer, that is, almost no costume,
as she had to dance at the rehearsal. She was a pretty little thing in
pink tights, white satin slippers, and short gauze skirts; her high,
strong bosom heaved tranquilly and peacefully, and her creamy face
smiled. Her black, almond-shaped, languid eyes looked tenderly and
promisingly at Kostovsky. In the costume of a ballet-dancer she
looked like a being just out of fairyland, and it was difficult to imagine
a being so totally different from Kostovsky as was this fairy. She was
all exquisite grace and litheness; he, ungainly, dark, and big, stood
before her abashed and confused, and gazed at her with delight and
admiration; the long brush was lowered to the floor to her feet.
Kostovsky forgot his work, and Julia broke into a ringing laugh, and,
sparkling with her sharp little teeth, she came nearer to him with her
light, graceful step, and, stretching out to him her beautiful little hand,
she boldly said: “How do you do, Kostovsky!”

Several months passed. The enormous opera-house was crowded

to the doors. Behind the scenes they were hot at work, crowding one
another, bustling and pushing. Through the curtain came the hum of
the public and the solemn waves of the orchestra music.
The stage-workmen ran about like men possessed, adjusting and
shifting the scenery, and from somewhere in the darkness above
rose and descended enormous canvases, the walls of temples,
steeples, woods, and sea-waves.
All this work was superintended by Kostovsky. He was
unrecognizable, his face looked years younger and brighter, his blue
eyes were alight with joy and happiness, his feet were encased in
shiny patent-leather boots, and he wore a well-fitting, elegant velvet
jacket; his fair locks were no longer bristling.
“Let down the bottom of the sea!” he commanded in a ringing voice.
The enormous canvas on which was depicted the bottom of the sea
was lowered. The decorator retreated a few steps and once more
looked lovingly at the “sea bottom.” This was his latest creation.
“Listen, Pavel!” he shouted, “when the mermaids begin to swim, you
will let Julia come first and lower than all the rest; let her down to the
very bottom!”
“It shall be done!”
At last everything was ready for the mermaids to swim through the
bottom of the sea. Kostovsky was already on the elevation, with the
electric reflector turned on the stage; he himself had to manage the
lighting up of the scenery and the actors. The “Bottom of the Sea”
became suffused with a tender, poetic light. This greenish-silvery
light seemed to penetrate the water as if with the bright sunlit day
above. And here at the bottom everything lived, knowing no light. In
the distance stood a coral-reef, and everywhere half-alive vegetation
greedily stretched its branches over the water, and all around floated
slimy medusæ.
Underneath, the first thing to meet the eye was the yawning mouth of
a submarine cave, from which were thrust out the arms of a hideous,
enormous devil-fish that, without moving, glared out of its two green
eyes.
And from amid this primitive, abnormal world appeared a wonderfully
beautiful woman with flowing hair and bare shoulders, with the form
of a fish below the waist, covered with shining, silvery scales. The
loveliness of her head and the beauty of her shoulders was
enhanced by the ugliness of the submarine world.
She swam like a fish, easily and gracefully, turning and twisting, her
scales sparkling and glittering; she was followed by another
mermaid, a whole school.
Lighted by the rays of the reflector, at the will of Kostovsky, they
became marvelous, fairy-like beauties.
But they were all eclipsed by one. She swam lower than all, and was
distinguished from all by the radiance of her beauty. She was lighted
better and more alluringly than the rest, the tenderest rays of the
reflector warmly and lovingly fell upon her, ran after her, and lovingly
caressed her graceful body, adding a seductive expression to her
face and making her eyes shine like stars. She seemed to be
created of light, and this light changed with every moment, and she
changed with it, garbed in thousands of different tints. A veritable
queen of the deep. She felt that the enchanter decorator had
bestowed on her a marvelous loveliness, that the delighted public
was ready to break forth into a storm of applause in honor of this
beauty, and, swimming close to the decorator, she gratefully waved
her sparkling fish-tail, over which, by the will of the generous,
enamored decorator, suddenly fell a shower of many-colored
diamonds.
She swam behind the scenes, and he, rising on tiptoe and smiling
happily, sent her an airy kiss from behind the reflector.
All in the company knew of this love affair behind the scenes: Julia
always left the theatre in the company of Kostovsky, they stayed at
the same hotel, and his room adjoined hers. Kostovsky was always
with her, enjoying to the full the pleasure that the contemplation of
her beauty afforded him, while she willingly allowed him to pay court
to her. He followed her like a faithful dog, and waited long and
patiently at the door of the women’s dressing-room while she
leisurely removed the make-up from her face, dressed, and chatted
with the other girls.
This time, after the conclusion of the performance, he had to wait
particularly long at the foot of the stairs; one after another the closely
wrapped little figures came down the stairs and went off with the
men who were awaiting them, just as the scene-painter was awaiting
Julia. But “she” was not to be seen.
Sad and troubled, Kostovsky stood at his place, looking about him
indifferently and continually throwing expectant glances at the door
of the dressing-room. And the door opened less and less often, as
almost all the women had already departed.
At last Rosa, a vivacious Jewish chorus girl, came out. “What are
you standing here for?” she drawled, lifting her brows in surprise and
making a sly grimace. “I am the very last one, there is no one else,
and Julia left long ago. It seems you did not notice when she went
out.”
“What, is she gone?” asked Kostovsky, and on his face appeared a
pained expression.
“Ha-ha-ha!” Rosa’s silvery laugh rang out; “very simple, she left
before the end of the performance in the company of her new
admirer, and you, my sweet one, have tired her long ago!”
The scene-painter stepped back and caught himself by the head. “It
is not true!” he said in a dull voice.
“Well, I like that!” Rosa said excitedly, “and it is your own doing, too!
She only wished to be pushed ahead. You always light her up so that
the whole front row is after her! She has made a career for herself,
and does not need you any longer.” And Rosa ran laughingly down
the stairs.
Kostovsky stood long motionless on the same place, and, enveloped
in the quiet and darkness of the empty theatre, he felt that, little by
little, then stronger and stronger, his breast was filled with acute
pain.
When Kostovsky knocked at the door of Julia’s room she received
him very coldly. Her moist eyes looked indifferently and tranquilly
from under her thick, black eyelashes; her black hair, carelessly
pinned, lay like a luxurious crown, and two thick curls fell over her full
cheeks. She wore a wide kimono of some cheap sheer material, and
light slippers.
“Julia,” whispered Kostovsky, breathless with excitement.
“Sit down!” she said carelessly, not noticing anything especial in his
appearance, and added: “And try to occupy yourself with something.
I really haven’t any time to entertain you.”
“Julia!”
She half-leaned upon the bed and became wholly absorbed in her
book.
He was irritated by this woman’s unnecessary artfulness; why use
these artifices, which offended him the more, because she could
easily tell him outright and settle it?
“Julia, you speak to me as to a visitor who has to be entertained?
Why this ceremony?”
“There is no ceremony about it!” she replied in a displeased tone. “It
—simplifies our relations, that is all: every one occupies himself—
with what he pleases. I am—reading. And you occupy yourself with
something else, and if you feel ennui—go away.”
She was driving him out.
Kostovsky was beside himself with rage at this “simplifying of
relations,” and at her sudden leaving off of the familiar “thou” and
adopting the more conventional “you.”
“Listen to me,” he said, in a voice full of irritation, and likewise
availing himself of the term “you.” “I wish to speak to you, and will not
wait till you finish reading.”
She did not reply, and, half-reclining on the bed, she continued
looking at the open book. A painful silence ensued.
Kostovsky sat at the table and quietly gazed at Julia. Leaning on her
elbows on the pillow, she had thrown herself into a graceful, kittenish
pose, her little feet encased in their tiny, light slippers, impishly hid
under the folds of her kimono, and from their hiding-place teased
Kostovsky. The lovely curves of her body showed through the thin
dress, the wide sleeves left visible her chubby arms to the elbow;
and she was, as a whole, so sweet and graceful that Kostovsky,
hating her at this moment, longed to take her in his arms.
He turned his eyes away from her. The room was poorly furnished—
a cheap hotel room, lighted by electricity. Near the door stood the
wardrobe with her costumes, in the centre the table, and near the
window the dresser and a mirror. On a rack close to the entrance
into the room hung her plush jacket, trimmed with tiny cats’ paws. He
looked long and with hatred at this jacket with its cats’ paws, and
recalled how amiably she used to meet him before, forcing him into a
chair and smoothing his bristly locks tenderly, and how pleasant it
was to feel the tender touch of the little hand.
She quickly flung away her book, and angrily rose from the bed. “You
have nothing to speak to me about!” she exclaimed, reddening.
“Everything has been said already! It is time to end this spoony love
affair, this sentimental driveling!”
“Spooniness—sentimental driveling,” he bitterly repeated. “Julia!
What has come between us?”
“There is nothing between us, nothing could be!” she energetically
declared. “We have nothing in common—nothing whatsoever—and
—we must put an end to our acquaintanceship!”
She gave the table a push and sat down in the darkest corner of the
room, looking at him from there with her large, black eyes. Her eyes
had always the same expression; no matter at whom they looked,
they seemed to be inviting and promising something without the
knowledge of their possessor. Spurning him, she at the same time
lured him on.
“I understand!” he spoke sadly, and pushed his chair close to her.
“You wish to part with me; they say you have another—some one
from the first row of the orchestra. Well, let us part. But why all this
subterfuge and why quarrel? I do not wish that all this should end so
badly—with a quarrel. I wish at least to keep the memory. But, Julia,
know that all those—from the first row—despise you—humiliate you
—love in you only the flesh. And I—Why I—l-o-v-e you, the devil
take you, accursed one!”
He grasped her arm above the elbow and shook her with his large
paws.
“Phui! How rude! He abuses me! Let me go! Let me go, I say; you
will dislocate my arm! Ruffian!”
She longed to quarrel with him. And he, on his part, felt an influx of
ferocious wrath, a passionate longing to tear, lacerate, beat, and
throw her out.
He grasped her arms still tighter. His eyes turned a greenish color,
his teeth gave out a grating sound.
“Ai!” she cried. But he fell on his knees before her.
“Sweetest, dearest, my golden one, my sun, my joy! You are my—all;
all my thoughts, all my feelings, everything is for you, from you, and
—about you! Oh, I am rude; I am—a brute, but I love you! Without
you there is no life for me; I will again sink to the bottom from which
you raised me! Well, darling, well, my happiness, forgive me. You
see I kiss your hands, your dress. Forgive!”
And on his bent knees this big, powerful man caught the tiny hands
of the tiny woman and kissed them, kissed her dress, and wept.
When he lifted his head he suddenly caught her glance directed
toward him, a strange, attentive glance. In this glance of her moist,
black eyes there was no love, nor pity for him; nor even contempt,
but something offensive, resembling curiosity, but more heartless
than curiosity. It was the curiosity of a vivisectionist, the curiosity he
exhibits when dissecting a live rabbit, or that of a naturalist when he
sticks his pin through a rare beetle, and looks on at its contortions.
He even now interested her—but only as something primitive,
original: his sharp transitions from rudeness to tenderness, the
strangeness of the declaration, the sudden fits of ferocious rage only
to humble himself before her and to weep a moment later—all this
was very interesting.
But Kostovsky’s mind was suddenly illuminated, as if by lightning: he
understood all at once the real relation of Julia toward him, and felt
that he had received a deadly wound at her hands, that she was only
interested in him, but she had never loved him, could not love him;
that she was a being from a world other than his—that he was a total
stranger to her. The words died away in his heart. He grew silent,
caught his hat, and without another glance at Julia rushed out of the
room and the hotel.
Kostovsky found himself suddenly in a dirty dramshop, where his
steps had almost unconsciously led him. He had not drunk for a long
time, but now he felt a terrible necessity for the dramshop, the noise,
the clinking of the glasses, and the smell of bad vodka.
He sat in a corner of the dramshop, alone, at a small table. Before
him stood a large bottle of vodka and the noxious side-dishes
peculiar to such resorts. The dirty table-cloth was stained with vodka
and beer, and the kerosene hanging-lamp dimly lighted the room,
filled with tipsy people. They were all bawling, drinking, and clinking
their glasses; the pale-faced waiters ran around, serving the drinks,
and in the adjoining room cracked the billiard-balls, and some one of
the players, whenever he hit the ball, sang out in a merry tenor voice
a popular song: “Wherever I go, or stroll, I see only Ju-li-a, only Ju-li-
a.”
“Oh, the devil!” muttered Kostovsky, pouring out the tenth glass, and
gloomily draining it. He was irritated because even here in the
dramshop “she” was persecuting him. He had decided to “forget” her
for evermore: he hated and despised her, and did not wish to
remember her at all.
The dramshop enveloped him in its sounds and smells, and eased
his suffering with its well-known coloring of something intimate, free,
something he had lived through in the past.
But, little by little, his thoughts withdrew from the dramshop, and
“she” appeared once more, and would no longer leave him.
She was now in the costume of a “mermaid,” with the body of a fish
covered with silver scales, radiant under the many colored rays of
the reflector, seductively beautiful. She lured him after her with her
enticing smile, and swam away far, far into the boundless sea. And
the man in love with a mermaid felt that he was perishing, that he
would never more return to his former carelessness, power, and
strength of soul. And he recollected his former life before he knew
the mermaid and her kisses. True, he had caroused then, but that
was not drunkenness, it was dare-deviltry, his power was seeking a
free outlet. His heart was athirst for dash and merriment. So, like the
legendary fisherman, he had found in his net a mermaid. He lifted
her in his arms, kissed and caressed her, and—good-by to carefree
life! The man was ruined by the mermaid!
“Oh, devil!” Kostovsky roared, draining his glass, and thinking
thereby to drive off the troublesome thoughts; but “she” continued to
torture him pitilessly, appearing before him every moment in another
costume, now as a fairy, a shepherdess, and again as a mermaid, or
she swam close to him in a wide house-gown, and her thick, black
curls fell over her forehead and upon her full, pink cheeks. And her
whole figure was as if flooded by radiant, poetic rays.
“And when with friends I drain the heady cup, I see before me all the
while Julia, Julia,” came from the billiard-room the merry, tenor voice.
Gradually the dramshop filled with a mist, through which the lights
burned very low, and the noise of the revelers reached but
indistinctly and seemed far off, resembling far-away sea-breakers.
The dramshop filled with sea-waves, which rose and fell. And from
the waves swam out a mermaid who was laughingly luring
Kostovsky to her.
For a moment he lifted his head, and again saw before him the
bottle, poured out another glass, and drained it; the mist became
denser, rolled before his eyes. But he still saw, rising amidst the
wine-vapors high over the bottle, her poetic, sweet image.

When Kostovsky was at last found again after a search of several

days in the different dramshops of the city, and brought to his
senses, the opera, with its “sea-bottom” and mermaids, was again
produced.
Now Kostovsky once more looked his old self: the unkempt,
carelessly dressed scene-painter was even more gloomy than
before; his locks bristled and his mustaches stood on end worse
than ever.
He stood gloomily on his elevation behind the scenes, lighting up the
mermaids with the rays from his reflector. His soul was filled with
cold and gloom and obduracy. Now he himself kept aloof from
everybody, hated the whole troupe, and lived alone.
And the “mermaids” swam over the “sea-bottom.”
But it was no longer the former radiant, poetic light which shone
upon them; the light which the decorator threw upon them now was a
sad, pale light, and under its rays they seemed inanimate, sickly, and
half-dead.
But when Julia appeared—swimming as formerly lower than the rest
—sinister, dark-blue rays came pouring upon her, and she looked
more like a fury than a mermaid. Her face was blue, horrible, with
black lips and black cavities instead of eyes, and the slippery fish-
body was as if covered with a loathsome slime.
A mutter of disgust ran through the theatre.
And the decorator also lit up with the same light the “sea-bottom”
with all its monsters; and like a symbol of nightmare and sadness the
green-eyed devil-fish came out of the darkness, and the noxious
medusas began to move around.
The blue body of Julia seemed to swim in this loathsome mass, and
at last blended with it into one living, monstrous, deformed creature.
The scene-painter slowly turned the glasses of the reflector, gazed
upon the work of the light he had created, and it seemed to him that
he had destroyed forever the former charm of the woman—that she
whom he had loved had never been beautiful; and it seemed to him
that now only he saw her in her real light, and that she only became
divinely beautiful when lighted by the bright rays of his love.
 VALIA

BY LEONID ANDREIEV

Leonid Andreiev is a talented member of the youngest school of

Russian literature. He was born at Oriol in 1871. He studied law at
the universities of St. Petersburg and Moscow and graduated in
1897. He wrote some stories while still a student, but did not meet
with recognition until 1898, when he wholly abandoned his
unsuccessful career as a lawyer and devoted himself to literature.
Andreiev, like some of the other young Russian writers, Gorki
included, is groping his way—his talent has not yet adopted a
permanent manner. He has two distinctly different styles, one
symbolic and elusive, the other clear and sane, though
melancholy. It may interest some readers to compare his “Valia”
with Frapié’s story in the volume of French short stories in this
series.
 VALIA
BY LEONID ANDREIEV
Translated by Lizzie B. Gorin. Copyright, 1907,
by P. F. Collier & Son.

Valia was reading a huge, very huge book, almost half as large as
himself, with very black letters and pictures occupying the entire
page. To see the top line Valia had to stretch out his neck, lean far
over the table, kneeling in his chair, and putting his short chubby
finger on the letters for fear they would be lost among the other ones
like it, in which case it was a difficult task to find them again. Owing
to these circumstances, unforeseen by the publishers, the reading
advanced very slowly, notwithstanding the breath-catching interest of
the book.
It was a story about a very strong boy whose name was Prince
Bova, and who could, by merely grasping the legs or arms of other
boys, wrench them away from the body.
But Valia was suddenly interrupted in his reading; his mother entered
with some other woman.
“Here he is,” said his mother, her eyes red with weeping. The tears
had evidently been shed very recently as she was still crushing a
white lace handkerchief in her hand.
“Valichka, darling!” exclaimed the other woman, and putting her arms
about his head, she began to kiss his face and eyes, pressing her
thin, hard lips to them. She did not fondle him as did his mother,
whose kisses were soft and melting; this one seemed loath to let go
of him. Valia accepted her pricking caresses with a frown and
silence; he was very much displeased at being interrupted, and he
did not at all like this strange woman, tall, with bony, long fingers
upon which there was not even one ring. And she smelled so bad: a
damp, moldy smell, while his mother always exhaled a fresh,
exquisite perfume.
At last the woman left him in peace, and while he was wiping his lips
she looked him over with that quick sort of glance which seemed to
photograph one. His short nose with its indication of a future little
hump, his thick, unchildish brows over dark eyes, and the general
appearance of stern seriousness, recalled some one to her, and she
began to cry. Even her weeping was unlike mama’s: the face
remained immovable while the tears quickly rolled down one after
the other—before one had time to fall another was already chasing
after it. Her tears ceased as suddenly as they had commenced, and
she asked: “Valichka, do you know me?”—“No.”
“I called to see you. Twice I called to see you.”
Perhaps she had called upon him, perhaps she had called twice, but
how should Valia know of it? With her questions she only hindered
him from reading.
“I am your mama, Valia!” said the woman.
Valia looked around in astonishment to find his mama, but she was
no longer in the room.
“Why, can there be two mamas?” he asked. “What nonsense you are
telling me.”
The woman laughed, but this laugh did not please Valia; it was
evident that the woman did not wish to laugh at all, and did it
purposely to fool him. For some moments they were both silent.
“And what book is it you are reading?”
“About Prince Bova,” Valia informed her with serious self-esteem and
an evident respect for the big book.
“Ach, it must be very interesting! Tell me, please!” the woman asked
with an ingratiating smile.
And once more something unnatural and false sounded in this voice,
which tried to be soft and round like the voice of his mother, but
remained sharp and prickly. The same insincerity appeared also in
all the movements of the woman; she turned on her chair and even
stretched out her neck with a manner as if preparing for a long and
attentive listening; and when Valia reluctantly began the story, she
immediately retired within herself, like a dark-lantern on which the
cover is suddenly thrown. Valia felt the offense toward himself and
Prince Bova, but, wishing to be polite, he quickly finished the story
and added: “That is all.”
“Well, good-by, my dear, my dove!” said the strange woman, and
once more pressed her lips to Valia’s face. “I shall soon call again.
Will you be glad?”
“Yes, come please,” politely replied Valia, and to get rid of her more
quickly he added: “I will be very glad.”
The visitor left him, but hardly had Valia found in the book again the
word at which he had been interrupted, when mama entered, looked
at him, and she also began to weep. He could easily understand why
the other woman should have wept; she must have been sorry that
she was so unpleasant and tiresome—but why should his mama
weep?
“Listen, mama,” he said musingly, “how that woman bored me! She
says that she is my mama. Why, could there be two mamas to one
boy?”
“No, baby, there could not; but she speaks the truth; she is your
mother.”
“And what are you, then?”
“I am your auntie.”
This was a very unexpected discovery, but Valia received it with
unshakable indifference; auntie, well, let it be auntie—was it not just
the same? A word did not, as yet, have the same meaning for him as
it would for a grown person. But his former mother did not
understand it, and began to explain why it had so happened that she
had been a mother and had become an aunt. Once, very long ago,
when Valia was very, very little—
“How little? So?” Valia raised his hand about a quarter of a yard from
the table. “Like Kiska?” Valia exclaimed, joyfully surprised, with
mouth half opened and brow lifted. He spoke of his white kitten that
had been presented to him.
“Yes.”
Valia broke into a happy laugh, but immediately resumed his usual
earnestness, and with the condescension of a grown person
recalling the mistakes of his youth, he remarked: “How funny I must
have been!”
When he was so very little and funny, like Kiska, he had been
brought by that woman and given away forever, also like Kiska. And
now, when he had become so big and clever, the woman wanted
him.
“Do you wish to go to her?” asked his former mother and reddened
with joy when Valia resolutely and sternly said: “No, she does not
please me!” and once more took up his book.
Valia considered the affair closed, but he was mistaken. This strange
woman, with a face as devoid of life as if all the blood had been
drained out of it, who had appeared from no one knew where, and
vanished without leaving a trace, seemed to have set the whole
house in turmoil and filled it with a dull alarm. Mama-auntie often
cried and repeatedly asked Valia if he wished to leave her; uncle-
papa grumbled, patted his bald pate so that the sparse, gray hair on
it stood up, and when auntie-mama was absent from the room he
also asked Valia if he would like to go to that woman. Once, in the
evening, when Valia was already in his little bed but was not yet
sleeping, he heard his uncle and auntie speaking of him and the
woman. The uncle spoke in an angry basso at which the crystal
pendants of the chandelier gently trembled and sparkled with bluish
and reddish lights.
“You speak nonsense, Nastasia Philippovna. We have no right to
give the child away.”
“She loves him, Grisha.”
“And we! Do we not love him? You are arguing very strangely,
Nastasia Philippovna. It seems as if you would be glad to get rid of
the child—”
“Are you not ashamed of yourself?”
“Well, well, how quick you are to take offense. Just consider this
matter cold-bloodedly and reasonably. Some frivolous thing or other
gives birth to children, light-heartedly disposes of them by placing
them on your threshold, and afterward says: ‘Kindly give me my
child, because, on account of my lover having abandoned me, I feel
lonesome. For theatres and concerts I have no money, so give me
the child to serve as a toy to play with.’ No, madam, be easy, we
shall see who wins in this case!”
“You are unjust to her, Grisha. You know well how ill and lonely she
is—”
“You, Nastasia Philippovna, can make even a saint lose patience, by
God! And the child you seem to have forgotten? For you is it wholly
immaterial whether he is brought up an honest man or a scoundrel?
And I could bet my head that he would be brought up by her a
scoundrel, rascal, and—scoundrel.”
“Grisha!”
“I ask you, for God’s sake, not to irritate me! And where did you get
this devilish habit of contradicting? ‘She is so lonely.’ And are we not
lonely? The heartless woman that you are, Nastasia Philippovna!
And why the devil did I marry you!”
The heartless woman broke into tears, and her husband immediately
begged her pardon, declaring that only a born fool could pay any
attention to the words of such an old ass as he was. Gradually she
became calmer and asked: “What does Talonsky say?”
“And what makes you think that he is such a clever fellow?” Gregory
Aristarchovich again flew into a passion. “He says that everything