CHAPTER 5

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
By Prof. Mitrakshi Patil
 INTRODUCTION

• In this chapter, we’ll study sets with additional structure induced by 1 or

more binary operations on elements of set.

• These discrete structures are called Alg. Systems as they obey a set of
rules which are similar to rules of addition, multi in elementary algebra.

• Binary Operations-

N = Set of all natural numbers.

Z = Set of all integers.

Q = Set of all rational numbers.

R = Set of all real numbers.

 INTRODUCTION

• Consider a non-empty set A and α function f: AxA→A is called a binary

operation on A. If * is a binary operation on A, then it may be written as

a*b.

• A binary operation can be denoted by any of the symbols +,-,*,/,∨,∧ etc.

• The value of the binary operation is denoted by placing the operator

between the two operands.

• The binary operator * is said to be a binary operation (closed operation)
on a non empty set A, if a * b ∈ A for all a, b ∈ A (Closure property).

• i. e. if a & b are elts in A, then a*b ∈A, is said like ‘A is closed under the
operation ’*’.

• Ex:

1. The set N is closed with respect to addition and multiplication but not
w.r.t subtraction and division.

2. Let A=Z. Define a*b as a+b. The * is a binary operation on Z.

 TABLES
• If A ={a1,a2,a3,….an} is a finite set, we can define a binary oprn on A by
using a table as-

• Ex- Let A={0,1}

• So, every binary operation * can be described as,

 ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS

• A set together with a number of operations on set is called an algebraic

system.

• A non-empty set G together with at least one binary operation defined on

it is called an algebraic structure. Thus if G is a non-empty set and “∗” is
a binary operation on G, then (G,∗) is an algebraic structure.

• Example- Consider a set of Natural numbers N together with addition &

multi. Of integers, + & ..

• So, (N,+,.) is an Algebraic system with 2 binary operations.

 PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS

1. Commutative Property: Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The

operation * is said to be commutative in A if a * b= b * a for all a, b in A

e.g. 1. a binary operation of addition on Z is commutative.

2. 9-7 ≠7-9

2. Associative Property : Let * be a binary operation on a set A. The

operation * is said to be associative in A if

(a * b) * c = a *( b * c) for all a, b, c in A.
e.g.1. a binary operation of addition on Z is associative.

2. 2-(3-5) ≠ (2-3)-5

3. Idempotent Property: A binary operation * on Set A is said to be

Idempotent if a *a=a.
Example-

Show the relation o given by aob=ab is a binary operation on set of natural

numbers, is it associative? Verify.

Solution-
Given aob=ab where a & b are natural numbers.
Let, boa=ba, where a & b are natural numbers.
Here, aob ≠ boa
ab ≠ ba.
So, given relation o is not an associative operation.
 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES WITH ONE BINARY OPERATION

SEM I GROUP

• Semigroup- An algebraic system (A, *) is said to be a semi group if

1. * is closed operation on A.

2. * is an associative operation, for all a, b, c in A.

• Ex. (N, +) is a semi group.

• Ex. (N, .) is a semi group.

• Ex. (N, – ) is not a semi group

• Ex-If A is a set of +ve even integers {2,4,6,…} & + be an addition
operation. Since, + is a closed as well as associative operation, (A,+) is a
Semigroup.

• Sub-semigroup-

• Let,(A,*) be a semigroup & let B be a non-empty subset of A, such that

B is closed under *.

Then (B,*) is itself a semigroup & B is called a semigroup of (A,*).

 MONOID

• Identity- Let,(A,*) be an alge. System where * is a binary oprn onA.

• An elt in A is said to be a left identity, if for all x in A,

e*x =x.

e.g. for alge. System shown,

both β & δ are left identifiers.

• An elt in A is said to be a right identity, if for all x in A,

x*e =x.

e.g. for alge. System shown, α is left identifier.

• An An elt in A is said to be an identity, if it is both a left identity & a

right identity.
 MONOID

• Definition- Let,(A,*) be an Alge. System, where * is a binary operation on

A. (A,*) is called a Monoid if the following conditions are satisfied.

1. * is a closed operation

2. * is an Associative operation

3. There is an Identity.

Example- Let, A be set of people of different heights. Let ∆ be a binary

oprn such that a ∆b is equal to the taller one of a & b.

We note that (A, ∆) is a monoid where identity is shortest person in A.

 SUBMONOID

• Definition- Let,(A,*) be an Monoid & let B be a non-empty subset of A.

Then,(B,*) is called a submonoid of (A,*) if the following conditions are
satisfied.

1. B is a closed operation *

2. The Identity element e ∈ B.

e.g. E={0,2,4,6}. Then (E,+) is a submonoid of (Z,+).

 GROUP

• Inverse- Let,(A,*) be an alge. System with an Identity e. Let, a be an

element in A.
• An element b is said to be a left inverse of a if b*a=e.
An element b is said to be a right inverse of a if a*b=e.

• For the alge. Sys shown,

α is an Identity.. So, β is Left
Inverse of γ & δ is Right Inverse of γ.
β*γ=α
γ *δ =α
• An element b is said to be an inverse of a, if it is both left inverse & right
inverse of a.Clearly. If b is inverse of a, a is also inverse of b.

• Definition- Let,(A,*) be an Alge. System, where * is a binary operation on A.

(A,*) is called a Group if the following conditions are satisfied.

1. * is a closed operation

2. * is an Associative operation

3. There is an Identity.

4. Every element in A has a left inverse.

Because of associativity, a left inverse of an element is also a right inverse of

element in a group.
 COMMUTATIVE/ABELIAN GROUP

• Definition-

• Let,(A,*) is called a Commutative or Abelian Group if * is a commutative

operation.
 FINITE & INFINITE GROUP

• A group (A,*) is said to be finite Group, if A is a finite set & infinite

group, if A is an infinite group.

• The size of A is called as the Order of the group.

e.g. The group (Z,+) is of infinite order.

• Example-
• Let A={a,b}. Determine whether following table defines a semigroup on A & a
monoid on A.

Solution-

i. First, We will verify that * is a binary operation & A is closed under *.

* Is a bi. Oprn & for any a,b ∈A, a*b also belong to A.

So, A is closed under *.

ii. Associativity-

a*(a*b)=(a*a)*b

a*(b)=a*b

b=b

b*(a*b)=(b*a)*b

b*(b)=a*b

a≠b

Bi. Oprn * is not associative. So, its neither a Semigroup nor a monoid.
 ADDITIVE MODULO M
• Here, we define a new type of addition called Additive Modulo m &
written as
a+mb or (a+b)(mod m)

Where a & b are integers & m is a positive integer.

Means
a+mb =r, 0≤r<m

e.g. 14+68=22%6=4
5+63=8%6=2
-23+63=-20%3=(-3)*7+1=1
Example-
Prove that the set G={0,1,2,3,4,5} is an abelian group of order 6 with
respect to addition modulo 6.

Solution-
i. All entries in composition Table are elements of the set G. So, G is
closed with resp. to addition modulo 6(+6).

ii. The compo. +6 is associative.

if a,b,c are any 3 elts of G, then
a+6 (b+6c)=(a+6b) +6c
So, +6 is asso., since it is satisfying for all a,b,c ∈ G
iii. If a is an elt of G, then from the compo. Table, we see that
0 +6 a=a =a +6 0=0
That is,
0 +6 0= 0 +6 0=0
0 +6 1= 1 +6 0=0
0 +6 2= 2 +6 0=0
0 +6 3= 3 +6 0=0
0 +6 4= 4 +6 0=0
0 +6 5= 5 +6 0=0
So, 0 is an identity element.
iv. From the compo. Table, we see that the left inverses of 0,1,2,3,4,5 are
0,5,4,3,2,1. Since,
0 +6 0= 0 1 +6 5= 0
2 +6 4=0 3 +6 3= 3
4 +6 2=0 5 +6 1=0
e.g. 4 +6 2=0= 2 +6 4 implies 4 is an inverse of 2.

v. The compo. Is commutative as the corresponding rows & cols in the

position are identical.

vi. The no. of elts in set G=6. So, (G, +6) is a finite Abelian group of order
6.
 MULTIPLICATION MODULO P

• A new type of addition called Multiplication Modulo p & written as

axpb
where a & b are integers & p is a positive integer defined as

axpb =r, 0≤r<p

e.g. 8x53=24%5=4
Example-
Prove that the set G={1,2,3,4,5,6} is a finite abelian group of order 6 with
respect to multiplication modulo 7.

Solution-
i. All entries in compo. Table are elements of the set G. So, G is closed
with resp. to multiplication
modulo 7(x7).

i. The compo. x7 is associative.

if a,b,c are any 3 elts of G, then
a x7 (b x7 c)=(a x7 b) x7 c
iii. We have 1 ∈ G. If a is an elt of G, then from the compo. Table, we see
that
0 x7 a=a =a x7 0=0
That is,
1 x7 1= 1 x7 1 = 1
1 x7 2= 2 x7 1 =2
1 x7 3= 3 x7 1 =3
1 x7 4= 4 x7 1 =4
1 x7 5= 5 x7 1 =5
1 x7 6= 6 x7 1 =6

So, 1 is an identity element.

iv. From the compo. Table, we see that the left inverses of 1,2,3,4,5,6 are
1,4,5,2,3,6 resp. Since,
1 +6 5= 0
2 +6 4=0 3 +6 3= 3
4 +6 2=0 5 +6 1=0
e.g. 3 x7 5 = 1= 5 x7 3 implies 5 is an inverse of 3.

v. The compo. of x7 is commutative as the corresponding rows & cols in

the position are identical.

vi. The no. of elts in set G=7. So, (G, x7 ) is a finite Abelian group of order
7.
 CYCLIC GROUP

• A Group (G,*) is said to be a cyclic group if there exists an element a ∈ G

such that every elt of G can be written as some power of a, viz ak, for
some integer k.

• Every element of a cyclic group is a power of some specific element

which is called a generator. A cyclic group can be generated by a
generator ‘g’, such that every other element of the group can be written
as a power of the generator ‘g’.

• A cyclic group is always an abelian group but not every abelian group is
a cyclic group.
 SUBGROUP

• Let (A,*) be a group & B be a subset of A, (B,*) is said to be a subgroup

of A if (B,*) is also a grp by itself.
• To check whether (B,*) is a subgrp for a given subset B of A.
1. We shd chk whether * is a closed oprn on B.
2. Is an Asso. Oprn.
3. Since, there is only 1 elt in A such that e*x=x*e=x for all x in A, we
must chk that e is in B i.e. identity of (A,*) must be in B. as the
identity of (B,*).
4. Since, inverse of every elt in A is unique for every elt b in B, we must
chk that its inverse is also in B.
 PROPER SUBGROUP

• The subgroup A is called a proper subgroup if it is neither the singleton

set {e} nor the entire group G.
 GENERATION OF SUBGROUPS

• Let (G,*) be a grp & let S be a non-empty subset of G. Then subgrp

generated by S, denoted by <S> is defined as,
i. If x is an elt of S, then x is also an elt of <S>
ii. a. If x is in <S>, then x-1 is also in <S> b. If x & y are in <S>, then
x*y is also in <S>
iii. Only elts obtained by a finite no. of iterations of (a) & (b) are in <S>

Step i) guarantees that the set S is contained in <S>.

Step ii) guarantees that <S> is a subgroup of G.
• Example-
Generate subgroup by 2 in (Z,+) for set (Z,+). Identity element is 0.
Solution-
Given set S={2}
Since, 2 ∈S, 2 ∈ <S>
So inverse of 2=-2 ∈<S>

2+2=4 ∈<S> -2+ -2=-4∈<S>

4+4=8 ∈<S> -4+ -4=-8∈<S>
2+4=6 ∈<S> -2+ -4=-6∈<S>
Therefore,
<2>=<…..-8,-6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6,8,…..>
Example-
Find the subgroup generated by [2] in Z5.
Solution-

The inverse of [2] in Z5 is [3].

It must be in <[2]>.
Also, 2+3=0 2+2=4 3+3=1 must be in <2>.
Thus, all the elts in Z5 are in <[2]>.
So, <[2]>= <0,1,2,3,4>
 COSET

• Let (G,*) be a grp & let H be a subgrp of G. Let H be a subgrp of grp

(G,*).
• A left coset of H in G is a subset of G whose elements may be expressed
as aH={a*h|h ∈ H}, then Ha is called a right Coset of H in G, where a is
an elt in H.

• A right coset of H in G is a subset of G whose elements may be

expressed as
Ha={h*a|h ∈ H}, then Ha is called a Right Coset of H in G.

• If the group operation is additive (+) then a left coset is denoted as x +

H={x+h | h ∈H} and a right coset is denoted by H + x = {h+x | h ∈ H}
 NORMAL SUBGROUP

A subgroup of G is said to be normal , if for every a ∈G, aH=Ha.

A subgroup of an Abelian grp is normal.

Example-
Let H={[0]6,[3]6}. Find the Left & Right cosets in Z6. Is H a normal
subgroup of group Z6?
Solution-
The addition modulo 6 grp table of Z6 is,

This is an abelian group, since for all a,b ∈ Z6 ,

a+6b=b+6a
Left coset of H with resp. to a in the set is,

Left coset of H with resp. to a in the set is,

Here, 0H=H0
1H=H1
2H=H2
3H=H3
4H=H4
5H=H5

So, H is normal subgroup of Z6.

Example-

Consider a set A={1,2,3,4,5,6} under multi. Modulo 7.

1. Find the multi. Table.
2. Find inverses of 2,3,5,6.
3. Prove that it is a cyclic group
• Solution-
a.
b.
c.
 ISOMORPHISM

• An Alge. Sys. (B,*) is isomorphic to alge. Sys. (A,*) if we can obtain (B,*)
from (A,*) by renaming the elements and/or the oprn in (A,*).

• Means if there is a one-to-one function f from A to B such that for all a1

& a2 in A,
f(a1*a2)= f(a1)*f(a2)

Here, the function f is called isomorphism from (A,*) to (B,*) &

(B,*) is called an isomorphic image of A.
• Example-

• Here, f(a)=α f(b)= β f(c)=γ f(d)=δ

• So, we can say that the alge. Sys. (A,*) is isomorphic to (B,*)
 RING

• Let, (A, ★,*) be an Alge. System with 2 binary oprns. The oprn * is said to be
distributive over the oprn ★, if for any a,b,c in A,
a*(b ★c)=(a*b) ★(a*c) & (b ★c)*a=(b*a) ★(c*a).

Example-

Here, oprn * is distri over ★, while ★ is not distri over *., as

α *(α ★c)= α & (α * α) ★(α * β)= α and

β ★(α *β)= β (β ★ α) * (β ★ β)= α
• An Alge. System (A,+,.) is called a ring if the foll. Conditions are
satisfied.
1. (A,+) is an abelian grp.
2. (A,.) is a semigroup
3. The oprn . is distributive over oprn +.

Special types of ring-

1. Commutative Ring-A ring (R,+,.) s said to be commutative if a.b=b.a for
all a,b ∈ R.
• Rings with unity element -The ring will be called the ring of unity if a
ring has an element e like this:
e.x = x.e = x for all R
• 3. Rings with zero divisors- A ring (R, +, .) is a said to have divisor of
zero (or zero divisor), if there exist two non-zero elements a, b E R such
that a.b = 0 or b.a = 0 where 0 is the additive identity in R . here a and b
are called the proper divisor of zero.

• 4. Ring without zero divisor- A ring R is said to be without zero divisor,

if the product of no two non zero elements of R is zero i.e. a.b = 0 or b.a
=0

4. Finite & infinite ring- If the no. of elts in ring R is finite- finite ring,
otherwise –infinite ring.
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF RINGS

1. a .0 = 0 . a= 0
2. a .(-b) = (-a) .b = -(a . b)
3. (-a) . (-b) = a . b
4. a . (b-c) = a . b –a . c
5. (b-c) . a = b . a – c . a
6. (-1) . a= -a
7. (-1) . (-1) = 1
• Example-
R={0,2,4,6,8}. Show that R is commutative ring under addition &
multiplication modulo 10.
Solution-Abelian, semigrp, distri.
 CODING THEORY

• Basic problem with transmission of data is that of not receiving the data
as sent & receiving a distorted piece of data.

• Coding theory has developed techniques for introducing redundant info.

in transmitted data that help in detecting & correcting errors.

• Some of these tech. make use of Group theory.

• m- seq. of 0s & 1s called Word.

• Any code which is a grp under the oprn ⊕ is called a grp code.
 Word x ∈Bm Word xt∈ Bm
Transmission channel
transmitted received

Noise is
added

Basic task in trans. of info is to reduce the likelihood of receiving a word

that differs from the word that was sent.
It is done as-

-An int n>m is chosen & one-to –one fn (encoding fn).

If b ∈ Bm, then e(b)-code word representing b.

- The code words r transmitted thr channel. Each code word x=e(b) is recvd
as xt in Bn.
• Weight- If x ∈ Bn, then no. of 1s in x is called weight of x (denoted by, |x|)

• Example-
• Find the wt of each of foll. Words in B5.
•-
a. x=01000 |x|= 1
b. x=00000 |x|=0
c. x=11100 |x|= 3
d. x=11111 |x|=5
• Hamming Distance-
• Let, x & y be words in Bm. The ha. Dist. δ (x,y) between x & y is the
weight, |x ⊕ y| of x⊕y. (⊕ - if same-0, otherwise 1)

• Example-
Find the ha. Dist. Between x & y.
a. x=110110 y=000101
x⊕y=110011 So, |x⊕y|=4

b. x=001100 y=010110
x⊕y=011010 So, |x⊕y|=3
c. x=1100010 y=1010011
x⊕y=0110001 So, |x⊕y|=3

d. x=010010 y=0011010
x⊕y=0111110 So, |x⊕y|=5

• Minimum Distance- It is the min dist of distances between all distinct

pairs of code words.
e.g. Let x=(10001), y=(01000) z=(10101)
Then, d(x,y)=3 d(x,z)=1 d(y,z)=4.
So, min dist between the words x,y,z=1
 With the help of min dist and wt. a combination of errors can be detected
& corrected. Foll. thms give criteria for determining the capability for error
detection & correction in a code.

Theorems-
1. The min weight of nonzero code words in grp code is equal to its min
dist.
2. A code can detect all combinations of k or fewer errors if & only if the
min dist betwn any 2 code words is at least k+1.
3. A code can correct all combinations of k or fewer errors if & only if the
min dist betwn any 2 code words is at least 2k+1.
Example-
Consider (2,4) encoding function. How many errors will e detect?
e(00)=0000
e(10)=0110
e(01)=1011
e(11)=1100
Solution- The Distances betwn pairs of code are-
d(0000, 0110)=2
d(0000, 1011)=3
d(0000, 1100)=2
d(0110, 1011)=3
d(0110, 1100)=2
d(1011, 1100)=3

The code will detect k or fewer errors if & only if the min dist betwn any 2 code words is at
least k+1.Since min dist is 2, 2>=k+1 or k<=1. Code will detect 1 or fewer errors.
 GROUP CODES

• An (m,n) encoding fn is called a group code if

e(Bm)= {e(b)|b ∈ Bm}=Ran(e)

is a subgrp of Bn
Example-
Show that the (2,5) encoding function defined by
e(00)=00000 e(10)=10100
e(01)=01110 e(11)=11011
is a group code.
Solution- Let N ={00000,01110,10101,11011) be set of all code words.
1. For a,b ∈ N,a ⊕ b ∈ N. So, N is closed under ⊕ operation.
2. Identity element of B5 is 00000.
3. ⊕ is asso. Operation.
e.g. 01110 ⊕ (00000 ⊕ 10101)=(01110 ⊕00000) ⊕10101
01110 ⊕10101 = 01110 ⊕10101
11011 =11011

4. Every elt is its own inverse.

So, N is subgrp of B5 & given encoding fn is a grp code.
 MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD DECODING
TECHNIQUE

• Steps for Constructing decoding table are-

1. List the code words of N, starting with 0 as the first elt.
2. Choose any word, a1 ∈ Bn not in the 1st row of min wt. List the coset
a1 ⊕ N as the 2nd row by putting a1 under 0 & a1 ⊕ x under x for each
x ∈ N.
3. From these words of Bn not in 1st & 2nd row, choose a2 of min wt &
list the coset a2 ⊕ N as in step 2 to get third row.
4. Continue in this way until all cosets are listed & every elt of Bn
appears exactly once.
• Example-
Consider (2,5) group encoding function defined by,
e(00)=00000 e(10)=10101
e(01)=01110 e(11)=11011
Decode the foll. Words relative to maximum likelihood decoding function
1. 11110 2. 10011 3.10100
Solution-
Prepare the 00000 01110 10101 11011
00001 01111 10100 11010
decoding table-
00010 01100 10111 11001
00100 01010 10001 11111
01000 00110 11101 10011
10000 11110 00101 01011
• 1. If we recv the word 11110, its in 2nd col(in blue). Word at top is
01110.
Since e(01)=01110, we will decode 11110 as 01.

• 2. If we recv the word 10011, its in 4th col(red). Word at top is 11011.
Since e(11)= 11011, we will decode 10011 as 11.

• 3. 10100 is located in 3rd col(green). Word at top is 10101.

Since e(10)= 10101, we will decode 10101 as 10.
Thank U!!!